GREEN MANURING

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Effect of Mung bean,aircraft grass,Pasture green manuring on the yield and quality of mango

HUANG Jin-fu,JI Jia-le,HUANG Zhong-xing,LIU Shao-mou,HU Hou-xiang,CHEN Dao-qin,LI Jia-

fang(Guangzhou Institute of Cane Sugar Cane Breeding Farms in Hainan,Sanya 572025,China)

Sanya,pollution-free high yield and quality of mango cultivars to provide reference.Design aircraft
grass,mung bean,Pasture three green manure handling pressure to leisure as control of green manure
green manuring on yield and quality of mango.Odoratum processing mango fruit weight per
plant,number of results and the highest yield per plant,yield per plant,respectively,of which more than
mung bean,grass and the control increased by 4.1%,5.7% and 17.3%.Mung bean mango processing the
highest soluble solids content,17.4%.Pressure treated green manure green mango Vc content than the
control.Odoratum total sugar content of mango treated the highest,18.11%.Control of the mango total
acidity,crude fiber content were the highest,0.38%,0.52%.Pressure treated green manure green mango
leaf of N,K content than the control.Mango green manure green manuring can improve yield,increase
the mango Vc content and total sugar content,improve the quality of mango.

Green manures increased root lengths of maize, and the most significant impact was in Tithonia soils
(Table 1), a species capable of stimulating Phosphorus availability in soil (Phiri et al, 2003). The
stimulating effect of all green manures was most prominent in seminal roots of maize. Crotolaria had no
impact on nodal root development. Fertilizers increased total root lengths of maize by 13% in soil, 21%
in Crotolaria amended soils and by 15% in Tithonia amended soil. Fertilizers reduced the lengths of
primary roots, while stimulating elongation of seminal and nodal roots in maize in all soils. This implies
that increasing fertility of soil through green manures and fertilizers induced the elongation of
secondary roots. In mungbean, green manures reduced the length of the tap root to similar extents
(Table 1). Tithonia increased lengths of lateral roots to a greater extent, which again can be attributed to
phosphorus dynamics in the rhizosphere due to this green manure. Fertilizers reduced the lengths of tap
roots further and enhanced lengths of lateral roots significantly, irrespective of green manures. Hence,
increasing fertility of soil enhanced lateral root development for better exploitation of the rhizosphere.
Fertilizer application increased total root lengths of mungbean by 98% in green manure untreated soil,
45% in Crotolaria amended soil and 17% in Tithonia amended soil. Unlike for maize crop, the benefits of
applying fertilizer in terms of total root length were highest in the soil without green manures. In
mungbean, the benefits of fertilizer application are reduced by green manures, which is different to that
observed in maize.
Green manures increased dry weights of seminal and nodal roots of maize (Table 2), while that of
primary roots were reduced. The most significant impact is with Tithonia manuring. This implies a
greater partitioning of dry matter to the newly developed seminal and nodal roots in the green manures
amended soil, which develop more conducive conditions (reducing soil water evaporation loss) in the
rhizosphere (Mandal et al, 2003). Fertilizer increased dry weights of all maize roots grown in green
manured soils. In contrast, fertilizers reduced dry weights of primary roots grown in untreated soil,
which implies that in such soils, plants tend to partition dry matter to the new roots. In green manured
soils, roots accumulated dry matter, with a greater increment in seminal and nodal roots. The overall
increments in total root dry weights due to fertilizer were 33% in Tithonia amended soils, and 26% and
18% in Crotolaria amended and untreated soils respectively. This supported the data on root lengths,
and the impact of fertilizer on root dry matter is stimulated by green manures. In mungbean, tap and
lateral root weights were increased by the green manures, and the greatest increment was in Tithonia
amended soil. This indicated that dry matter accumulation in the tap root system of mungbean
responded differently to that of the fibrous roots of maize, where the new seminal and nodal roots
increased dry matter and not the primary roots. Fertilizers, as expected, increased the total dry weights
of all roots and the greatest impact was observed in the untreated soil (92%), followed by the Tithonia
amended soils (75%) and the Crotolaria amended soils (62%). Again, the stimulating effect of fertilizer on
mungbean root weights was different to that of maize and the presence of green manures reduced the
benefits of the applied fertilizers on root dry matter accumulation in this legume

The rates of increase in root lengths (Table 3) present the benefits of green manures and fertilizers.
Green manures increased rates of elongation of all roots and the highest impact was in maize roots
growing in Tithonia amended soil, confirming the data on lengths and dry weights at the V4 growth
stage. Fertilizers reduced the rates of elongation of primary roots in maize, while enhancing that of
seminal and nodal roots. The most significant increase in rates of elongation was in seminal roots. This
implied that with increasing fertility of the soil either through green manures, fertilizers or both, maize
plants tend to develop an extensive root system by stimulating the growth of seminal and nodal roots,
which emerge later than primary roots. This enables greater exploitation of the rhizosphere. A similar
phenomenon is also seen in rates of elongation in mungbean roots (Table 4). Green manures reduce the
rate of elongation of the tap root while promoting the development of lateral roots. The most significant
impact was in the Tithonia amended soil. Fertilizer application also reduced the elongation rates of the
tap roots of plants in untreated and Tithonia amended soils, but has a marginal stimulating effect on tap
roots of plants grown with Crotolaria green manure. However the most significant impact of fertilizer
was in enhancing the elongation rates of lateral roots, again implying the development of a more
extensive root system in mungbean.

http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2004/poster/2/5/2/377_sangakkara.htm
DIFFERENT HILL SPACINS

the experiments were conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Agricultural University,
Mymensingh in Bangladesh during December 2015 to April 2016 to investigate the effect of variety and
plant spacing on yield attributes and yield of maize. The experiment comprised of ve varieties viz.,
Khoi bhutta, BARI hybrid maize 7, BARI hybrid maize 9, C-1921, P-3396 and ve plants spacing viz., 75
cm × 20 cm, 75 cm × 25 cm, 75 cm × 30 cm, 75 cm × 35 cm and 75 cm × 40 cm. The experiment was laid
out in a randomized complete block design with three repli-cations. Results revealed that variety and
plant spacing had signicant effect on the studied crop characters and yield. The highest plant
height, highest number of leaves plant-1, longest cob, maximum diameter of cob, highest number of
kernel cob-1, the highest 1000-grain weight, maximum grain yield and stover yield were observed in
BARI hybrid maize 7. On the other hand, the shortest plant, lowest number of cob, diameter of cob,
lowest number of grains cob -1, 1000-grain weight, grain yield and stover yield were observed in
Khoi bhutta. The longest plant, highest cob, maximum diameter of cob, highest number of kernel cob-1
the highest 1000-grain weight, maximum grain yield and stover yield was observed in the spacing of 75
cm × 25 cm. In contrast, the spacing of 75 cm × 30 cm produced the lowest values of the above men-
tioned plant parameters and also showed the lowest grain yield. In regard to interaction effect of variety
and spacing, the highest plant height (232.67 cm), maximum number of cob plant -1 (1.73), maximum
diameter of cob (4.60 cm), highest number of kernel cob-1 (34), maximum stover yield (12.38 t ha-
1) were observed at the spacing of 75 cm × 25 cm with BARI hybrid maize 7 and resulting in the
highest grain yield (9.04 t ha-1). The lowest values of the above parameters were recorded in the
narrowest plant spacing of 75 cm × 35 cm with Khoi bhutta. Based on the experimental results, it may
be concluded that maize (cv. BARI hybrid maize 7) can be cultivated with a spacing of 75 cm × 25 cm for
appreciable grain yield. ©2018 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

INTRODUCTION Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important cereal crops of the world and hence
it may be acceptable as third cereal crop in Bangladesh for its higher productivity (FAO, 2012). In
Bangla-desh, it covers about 0.35 million hectares of land producing 2.3 million metric tons grains
(BBS, 2016; Zamir et al., 2011). Its demand is increasing day by day as various food items, fodder
for livestock, and feed for poultry, fuel and raw materials for industry (Tajul et al., 2013). Maize
can be consumed directly as green cob, roasted cob or popped grain. Its grain can be used for human
consumption in various ways, such as corn meal, fried

271 Md. Rezwanul Hasan et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 3(3): 270-274 (2018) grain and our. Its
grain has high nutritive value containing 66.2% starch, 11.1% protein, 7.12% oil and 1.5%
minerals. Moreover, it contains 90 mg carotene, 1.8 mg niacin, 0.8 mg thiamin and 0.1 mg
riboavin per 100 g grains (Chowdhury and Islam, 1999). Maize oil is used as the best quality
edible oil. Green parts of the plant and grain are used as livestock and poultry feed, respectively.
Stover and dry leaves are used as good fuel (Ahmed, 1994). Maize has a great utility in agro-
industry for the production of corn syrup, soft drink, juice, beer, chewing gum, candy, chips, corn
akes and starch. So, maize can contribute in food and nutritional security program in Bangladesh
because of its higher productivity and nutritional value. The average yield of maize in the country is
not satisfacto-ry. It is rather very low compared with leading maize growing countries of the world.
The national average yield is only 6.45 t ha-1, whereas, the newly released varieties have the potential
to produce more than 8.0 t ha-1 (AIS, 2015). Plant variety and planting spacing usually affect crop
environ-ment, which inuence crop growth and yield. Maize varieties have great impact on yield.
Hybrid varieties produce more than double than local varieties. Cultivation of hybrid varieties along
with various planting spacing can increase production of maize. Adjustment of proper plant spacing
in the maize eld is important to ensure maximum utilization of solar energy by the crop and
reduce evaporation of soil moisture (FAO, 2012). Radiation intercepted by the leaf surface and
the efciency or its use in developing biomass govern the total dry matter production.
Population levels should be sustained to exploit maximum natural resources, such as nutrients,
sunlight, soil moisture etc. and to ensure satisfactory yield. Very closest planting is undesirable
because it encourages inter-plant competition for resources. Biomass production of a crop largely
depends on the function of leaf area development and conse-quential photosynthetic activity
(Natr, 1992). Thus different varieties and appropriate plant spacing have to be ensured with a view to
maximizing maize yield. With the above view, an experiment was carried out to study the effect
of variety and spacing on the yield performance of maize in old Brahmaputra oodplain area.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Description of experimental site The experiments were performed at the
Agronomy Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh in the December 2015
to April 2016. The experimental site is located at 24° 75´ N latitude and 90° 50´ E longitude in the
south-west part of Brahmaputra at an elevation of 18 m above the sea level. This site belongs to non-
calcareous dark grey oodplain soil under the agro-ecological zone Old Brahmaputra Floodplain “AEZ-
9” (UNDP and FAO, 1988). Experimental design The experiment was done in a randomized
complete block design with three replications having ve varieties viz., Khoi bhutta, BARI hybrid
maize 7, BARI hybrid maize 9, C-1921, P-3396 and ve plant spacing viz., 75 cm × 20 cm, 75 cm
× 25 cm, 75 cm × 30 cm, 75 cm × 35 cm and 75 cm × 40 cm. the whole area was divided into 3 blocks
and then each block was subdivide into 25 plots. The size of the unit plot was 9 m2 (3m × 3m) and
thus the total number of plots were 75. The distance between plots were one meter. Raising of
experimental crops The land was prepared with power tiller ploughed for several times until it got
the desirable tilth condition. Then the plots were prepared according to the design of the
treatments. The plots were fertilized with Urea, TSP (Triple super phosphate), MoP (Muriate of
potash), Gypsum and Zn SO4 at the rate of 500, 240, 180, 240 and 10 kg/ha, respectively. The total
amount of TSP, MP, Gypsum and ZnSO4 were broadcasted and incorpo-rated to the soil at nal
land preparation. First 1/3rd of urea was applied at nal land preparation. The rest of the urea were
top dressed in 2 installments: 1/3rd at 25 DAS and the other 1/3rd at 45 DAS. Seeds were sown on 12
December, 2015 as per experi-mental spacing apart by opening 3-4 cm deep furrows with tine. Two
seeds were sown in each hill-1. Weeding was done at 25 DAS and 55 DAS. Only one healthy
seedling hill -1 was kept and the rest were thinned out at 14 DAS. The crop was irrigated two times at
40 and 80 DAS. Observation and data collection Five plants were randomly selected from each plot for
collecting data on yield attributes and yield. At full maturity, the crop was harvested plot-wise on 16
April, 2016. Cobs were dried in bright sunshine, shelled and the grains were cleaned properly. Grains
and stalk were thoroughly dried plot by plot individually before their weights were recorded. Grains
obtained from each unit plot were sun-dried to 14% moisture and weighed carefully and the plot yield
was recorded in metric tons per hectare (t ha-1). Stalks obtained from each unit plot were dried in
sun and nal stalk yield per plot was recorded in t ha-1. Harvest index (%) was calculated using the
following formula: Statistical analysis of data Data were compiled and tabulated in proper form for
statistical analysis. The recorded data were statistically analyzed to nd out the signi cance of
variation resulting from the experimental treatments. All the collected data were analyzed and
adjudged by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Crop characteristics and yield
attributes The number of leaves plant-1, rows cob-1, kernel cob-1, and thousand grain weights
were signicantly inuenced by various varieties (Table 1). The highest number of leaves plant-1
was

272 Md. Rezwanul Hasan et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 3(3): 270-274 (2018) observed in BARI hybrid
maize 9 (15.6) and the lowest number of leaves was observed in Khoi Bhutta (12.0) (Table 1). Highest
number of rows cob-1 (16.00) was found in BARI hybrid maize 7 and the lowest number of rows cob-
1 (12.00) was obtained in P-3396 (Table 1). The highest number of kernel cob-1 (35.49) was
found in khoi bhutta and the lowest number of kernel cob-1 (28.00) was obtained with P-3396 (Table
1). The highest thou-sand-grain weight (351.33 g) was obtained from BARI hybrid maize 9 and the
lowest thousand-grain weight (155.00 g) achieved with khoi bhutta (Table 1). A similar result was
also reported Zamir et al. (2011). They have used two hybrids maize varieties H 1 (30 Y 87) and H 2 (31
R 88) having density levels S 1 (15 cm), S 2 (20 cm), S 3 (25 cm) and S 4 (30 cm) were sown at row
spacing of 60 cm. The hybrid 30 Y 87 was early in maturity, produced more number of cobs per plant,
more number of grain rows per cob, less number of grains per row and less cob length than the hybrid
31 R 88. Similarly 1000-grain weight, grain yield and straw yield of hybrid H 1 (30 Y 87) was signi cantly
greater than the hybrid H 2 (31 R 88 Although narrow plant spacing (15, 20 cm) caused substantial
reduction in yield components such as grains/cob, number of cobs/plant and 1000-grain weight
compared to the wide plant spacing (30 cm) yet it gave the maximum yield (7.69 t ha -1) against
the minimum of (5.01 t ha -1) in the latter. Spacing had a signi cant effect on leaves plant-1, cobs
plant-1, rows cob-1, kernel cob-1, thousand-grain weight. The highest leaves plant-1 (15.67) was
obtained from 75 cm × 20 cm spacing the lowest number of leaves (12.00) was found with 75 cm × 35
cm. (Table 2). The highest number of cobs plant-1 (1.73) was obtained from 75 cm × 20 cm
spacing and the less number of cobs plant-1 (1.33) was recorded at a spacing of 75 cm × 40 cm (Table
2). The highest rows cob-1 (16.00) was obtained from 75 cm × 20 cm spacing and 75 cm × 35 cm
spacing produced lowest (Table 2). The plants grown in 75 cm × 25 cm spacing produced the highest
number of kernel cob-1 (34.00) and the lowest num-ber of kernel cob-1 (29.33) was produced when
the crop was sowing at 75 cm × 40 cm (Table 2). Thousand-grain weight differs with plant
spacing. Maximum thousand-grain weight (351.33 g) was observed in 75 cm × 30 cm spacing which
was similar with 75 cm × 20 cm spacing and 75 cm × 40 cm spacing produced lowest (Table 2). The
lowest values for yield attributes in closer spacing were due to high competition for the resources such
as sun light, moisture, nutrient and air. Similar trend was reported elsewhere (Dawadi and Sah,
2012). They have con-ducted an experiment National Maize Research Program Farm, Rampur, Nepal
and found that plant density of 66,666 plants/ha produced the higher grain yield (11.19 t/ha) compared
to that of 55,555 plants/ha (9.52 t/ha). However, grain yield at 66,666 plants/ha did not show a
signicant difference with that of 83,333 plants/ha (10.54 t/ha). Increasing plant density from
55,555 plants/ha to 83,333 plants/ha had increased the stover yield, whereas, the Harvest Index (HI)
and grain stover ratio were not signi cantly in uenced by plant densities. Similarly, 200 kg/ha N
application produced a higher grain yield (10.9 t/ha) than 120 kg/ha N application (9.76 t/ha), but was
in par with 160 kg/ha N application (10.59 t/ha). There was signi cant interaction effect between
variety and plant spacing on plant height, leaves plant-1, cob diameter, kernel cob-1, thousand-
grain weight. BARI hybrid maize 9 with 75 cm × 30 cm spacing showed the tallest plant height
(232.6 cm) and the lowest plant height (133.7 cm) was recorded from BARI hybrid maize 7 with 75
cm × 40 cm (Table 3). Maximum numbers of leaves (15.6) were found in BARI hybrid maize 9 with
75 cm × 20 cm spacing and the lowest number of leaves plant-1 (10.0) was obtained from Khoi
bhutta with 75 cm × 20 cm spacing (Table 3). Maximum numbers of cob diameter were found in BARI
hybrid maize 7 with 75 cm × 20 cm spacing (4.60) followed by BARI hybrid maize 9 with 75 cm × 25
cm spacing while the lowest was in khoi bhutta with 75 cm × 30 cm (3.76) (Table 3). The highest
number of rows cob-1 (16.00) was BARI hybrid maize 7 with 75 cm × 20 cm spacing while the
lowest (3.76) was in Khoi bhutta with 75 cm × 30 cm spacing (Table 3). The highest number of kernel
cob-1 (34.00) was found from BARI hybrid maize 7 with 75 cm × 25 cm spacing and the lowest
number of kernel cob-1 (28.33) was obtained from C-1921 with 75 cm × 25 cm (Table 3). BARI hybrid
maize 9 with 75 cm × 20 cm spacing produced the highest thousand-grain weight (351.33 g)
followed by BARI hybrid maize 9 with 75 cm × 30 cm spacing (351.33 g) while the lowest was in Khoi
bhutta with 75 cm × 25 cm spacing (146.33 g)

Grain yield and stover yield Grain yield and stover yield were significantly influenced by variety.
The highest grain yield was observed in BARI hybrid maize 7 (9.04 t ha-1) and the lowest grain yield
was observed in khoi bhutta (4.08 t ha-1) (Figure 1). The highest stover yield (12.38 t ha-1) was
obtained from C-1921 variety and the lowest stover yield (6.30t ha-1) was produced by khoi bhutta.
Considering spacing, the maximum grain yield (8.90 t ha-1) was recorded at the spacing of 75 cm × 25
cm and the lowest one (7.03 t ha-1) was recorded at 75 cm × 35 cm spacing (Figure 2). The maximum
stover yield (12.38 t ha-1) was recorded at the spacing of 75 cm × 40 cm and the lowest one (9.07 t ha-1)
was recorded at 75 cm × 20 cm spacing. Considering interaction effect of both variety and spacing,
the highest grain yield (9.04 t ha-1) was found from BARI hybrid maize 7 with 75 cm × 35 cm
spacing followed by BARI hybrid maize 7 with 75 cm × 25 cm spacing (Table 3) and the lowest one (3.36
t ha-1) was obtained from khoi bhutta with 75 cm × 30 cm spacing (Figure 3). The highest stover
yield (12.38 t ha-1) was obtained from BARI hybrid maize 7 with 75 cm × 25 cm spacing and the lowest
stover yield (4.92 t ha-1) were obtained from khoi bhutta with 75 cm × 30 cm

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 3(3): 270-274 (2018)
https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2018.0303010 This content is available online at AESA Archives of
Agriculture and Environmental Science Journal homepage: www.aesacademy.org

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327574545_Effect_of_variety_and_spacing_on_the_yield
_performance_of_maize_Zea_mays_L_in_old_Brahmaputra_fl_oodplain_area_of_Bangladesh
Abstract

This study was carried out in Teaching and Research Farm of Delta State University, Asaba

Campus from March, 2008 to June, 2010 to evaluate the effects of variety and spacing on growth

characters of hybrid maize. It was a factorial experiment carried out in a Randomized Complete

Block Design (RCBD) with three replicates. Three hybrid maize varieties were evaluated under

three different plant spacing for such growth characters as plant height, number of leaves, leaf area

and stem girth. The results obtained during the 8th week after sowing indicated that hybrid variety

9022-13 which had mean plant height of 170.0cm number of leaves of 13.2, leaf area of 673.2cm2

and stem girth of 99.4mm was superior to other varieties investigated. With respect to spacing,

plants sown on 75 cm x 15 cm had higher mean height and number of leaves of 176.7 cm and 13.8,

respectively while plants sown on spacing of 75 cm x 35 cm had higher mean leaf area of 713.7

cm2

and stem girth of 99.4mm, respectively. Results of interaction showed that variety and spacing

were significantly (P<0.05) different in 2008 and 2009. Based on the findings of this study, it is

recommended that (i) hybrid variety 9022-13 be grown in the study area of enhanced growth

characters which interplay to improve grain yield of maize (ii) spacing of 75 cm x 35 cm be used to

enhance increased stem girth and leaf area whose photosynthetic activities could positively

influence maize yield.

Keywords: Variety and spacing, growth characters, hybrid maize, Asaba, Nigeria

Corresponding author email: enujeke@yahoo.com

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development

journal homepage: http://aessweb.com/journal-detail.php?id=5005

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 3(5) 2013: 296-310

297
Introduction

Maize (Zea mays L) is one of the major

cereal crops grown in the humid tropics and

Sub-Saharan Africa. It is a versatile crop and

ranks third following wheat and rice in world

production as reported by Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2002).

Maize crop is a key source of food and

livelihood for millions of people in many

countries of the world. It is produced

extensively in Nigeria, where it is consumed

roasted, baked, fried, pounded or fermented

(Agbato, 2003). In advanced countries, it is

an important source of many industrial

products such as corn sugar, corn oil, corn

flour, starch, syrup, brewer’s grit and alcohol

(Dutt, 2005). Corn oil is used for salad, soapmaking and lubrication. Maize is a major

component of livestock feed and it is

palatable to poultry, cattle and pigs as it

supplies them energy (Iken et al., 2001). The

stalk, leaves, grain and immature ears are

cherished by different species of livestock

(Dutt, 2005).

In spite of the increasing relevance and high

demand for maize in Nigeria, yield across

the country continues to decrease with an

average of about 1 t/ha which is the lowest

African yield recorded (Fayenisin, 1993).

The steady decline in maize yield can be

attributed to:

1. Rapid reduction in soil fertility

caused by intensive use of land and

reduction of fallow period as

reported by Directorate of

Information and Publications of

Agriculture (DIPA, 2006).

2. Failure to identify and plant high

yielding varieties most suited or

adapted to each agro-ecological

zone (Kim, 1997).

3. Use of inappropriate plant spacing

which determines plant population

and final yield (Zeidan et al., 2006).

Tolera et al., (1999) suggested that breeders

should select maize varieties that combine

high grain yield and desirable stover

characteristics because of large differences

that exist between cultivars. Odeleye and

Odeleye (2001) reported that maize varieties

differ in their growth characters, yield and its

components, and therefore suggested that

breeders must select most promising

combiners in their breeding programmes.

Iken and Anusa (2004) recommended an

optimum plant population of 53,333

plants/ha for maximum yield of maize.

Their report indicated that this is obtainable

using a spacing of 75cm x 25cm at 1 plant

per stand or 75cm x 50cm at 2 plants per

stand. Azam et al., (2007) reported that

spacing of 75cm x 35cm resulted in

increased grain yield of maize while 75cm x

15cm gave maximum cob weight. Similar

report by Allessi and Power (2004) revealed

that maize cob weight decreased with

increased plant population.

At present, some farmers in Asaba area sow

any maize variety of their choice at such

spacings as 90 cm x 30 cm, 90 x 20 cm or 75

cm x 50 cm which do not translate into

expected high yield in the study area. Hence,

there are no recommended standards taking

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 3(5) 2013: 296-310

298

into consideration the different combinations

of such cultural practices as varietal selection

and appropriate plant spacing which

interplay to influence yield and optimal

performance of maize in Asaba area of Delta

State. Against this background, the broad

objective of this study, therefore, was to:

identify variety of maize most suited or

adapted to Asaba area and the appropriate

spacing for the variety.

The specific objectives were to:

(i) identify the best hybrid maize

variety for Asaba area, and spacing

for the crop.

(ii) determine the responses of growth

characters of hybrid maize to

variety and spacing.

Materials and Methods

Site description

The study was carried out in the Teaching

and Research Farm of Delta State

University, Asaba Campus from March to

December 2008 and repeated between March

and December, 2009. Asaba is located at

latitude 06o

14’N and longitude 06o

49’N of

the equator. It lies in the tropical rainforest

zone dominated by mangrove, fresh water,

swamps, humid forests and secondary

vegetation (NEST, 1991). Its climate is

influenced by the movement of the InterTropical Discontinuity (ITD). The IDT is

made up of two wind systems namely the

moisture-laden South-West monsoon from

the Atlantic Ocean and the dry cold NorthEast trade wind from the Sahara desert. The

South-West Trade wind most significantly

determines the climate condition of Asaba

area of Delta State. Asaba is characterized

by raining season between April and

October, with annual mean-rainfall of

1500mm and 2000mm maximum. The

distribution is bimodal with peak in July and

September, coupled with a period of low

precipitation in August. Mean temperature is

23.8oC with 37.3oC as maximum. Relative

humidity is 77.2%, the mean monthly soil

temperature at 100m depth is 20.3 oC, while

sunshine stands at 4.8 bars (Meteorological

Office, Asaba, 2003).

Pre-planting Soil Analysis

Representative surface soils (0-20cm) were

sampled with a tubular sampling auger.

These soil samples were air-dried at room

temperature for 5 days and crushed to pass

through a 2mm mesh sieve. Sub-samples

from the bulked soil sample were further

grounded to pieces to pass through 100mmmesh sieve for the determination of organic

matter. The rest samples were then analyzed

to determine the physical and chemical

properties of the soil. The analysis was done

at Delta State University, Asaba campus.

Analytical Procedure

Physical properties

Particle size distribution: Particle size

distribution was analyzed using the

Bouyoucos hydrometer method in which 0.5

N Sodium hexameta-phosphate was used as

dispersant (Landor, 1991).

Bulk density: The bulk density (Bd) was

determined by Core-method.

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 3(5) 2013: 296-310

299

Particle density: This was determined by

pycometer or specific gravity bottle method

as described by Bowles (1992).

Chemical Properties
Soil pH: This was determined in soil: water

suspension (1:1) using glass electrode pHmeter as described by Mclean (1982).

Organic carbon: This was determined using

the wet oxidation method of Walkley and

Black (Walkley and Black, 1945).

Total nitrogen: This was determined using

the modified K. Jeldah distillation method as

described by Landor (1991).

Exchangeable cations (EC) and Effective

cation exchange capacity (ECEC):

Exchangeable cations were determined by

extracting the cations with IN ammonium

acetate (IN, NHOAC) as displacing solution,

buffered at pH7 as described by Brady and

Weils (1999). The extract was then

determined electrochemically using atomic

absorption spectrophometry. The effective

cation exchange capacity (ECEC) was

calculated as the sum of exchangeable bases

(Ca, Mg, K and Na) and exchangeable A1

and H expressed in cmo1/kg-1

of soil.

Exchangeable acidity: This was determined

by titration method as described by Juo

(1981). The exchangeable H+

and A1++ were

then expressed in cmo/kg-1

of soil

Available phosphorus: This was

determined by Bray No.1 method as

described by Landor (1991).

Cation exchangeable capacity: This was

determined by neutral NH4- Acetate

placement method using the procedure of

Anderson and Ingram (1996).

Land Preparation and Plot Layout

The land was plouged and harrowed using

tractor. Three blocks (replicates) consisting

of 9 plots each were layed out. Each plot

measured 2.6 m x 2.25 m, and was separated

from one another with a space of 0.5 m.

Allay pathways of 1 m separated one block

from the other. The total number of plots

layed out in the entire experiment was 27.

Experimental Design

The experiment was a factorial experiment

carried out in a Randomized Complete Block

Design (RCBD) with three replicates.

Selection of Maize Varieties, Planting and

Cultural Practices
Three hybrid varieties of maize were

obtained from International Institute of

Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan.

Maize seeds were sown at depth of 2-3cm in

plots measuring 2.6m x 2.25m at the rate of

one seed per stand using three different

spacings:

1. 75cm x 35cm which gave a

population density of 38000 plants/ha.

2. 75cm x 25cm which gave a

population density of 53, 333 plants/ha.

3. 75cm x 15cm which gave a

population density of 88,888 plants/ha.

Weeding: Weeding was done three times

using hoe.

Experimental Design

The study was conducted in a factorial

layout using a Randomized Complete Block

Design (RCBD), and replicated three times.

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 3(5) 2013: 296-310

300

Data Collection and Statistical

Analysis

Fourteen (14) middle maize stands were used

as sample in plots evaluated under 75cm x

15cm, 75cm x 25cm and 75cm x 35cm,

respectively. Data collected at fortnight

intervals starting from the 4th week after

sowing included plant height, number of

leaves, stem girth, leaf area. Plant height was

measured with tape from the base of the

plant to the first tassel, leaf area was

measured also with tape using nondestructive analysis method (length x breath

by correction factor 0.75, Duke and Duleliar

(1993); number of leaves, was obtained by

direct counting; stem girth was measured

using tape; data collected was subjected to

analysis of variance (ANOVA) and

treatment means were separated by Duncan

Multiple Range Test (DMRT), using SAS

(1996).

Results

Soil Physico-chemical Properties of the

Experimental Site:

The pre-physico-chemical properties of the

experimental site is shown in Table 1. The

result showed predominantly sand at the

surface and this tends to decrease with depth

of profile. Texturally, the soil of the

experimental site is classified as sandy loam.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4efb/2fad2abdfb5b5bc0c97aeceb3da9930e1032.pdf

]Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Developmentjournal homepage: http://aessweb.com/journal-

detail.php?id=5005

The MUNGBEAN Plant

Description of Plant

Mungbean (Vignaradiata(L.) Wilczek) is one of the

most important legume crops in South and Southeast Asia. It

is in the Legume family of plants and is closely related to

adzuki and cowpea (in the same genus but different species).

It is a warm season annual, highly branched having trifoliate

leaves like the other legumes. The plant is upright and vine

types of growth habit occur in it, with plants varying from

one to five feet in length. Root system consisting of a welldeveloped taproot with deeply placed lateral
roots; stem

much branched, with a tendency to twine at the tips, angular,

covered with long spreading hairs. Leaves alternate, 3-

foliolate (sometimes 5-foliolate), dark green; stipules 5–18

mm × 3–10 mm, peltate, ovate, rhomboid or obovate-oblong;

petiole 5–21 cm long, rachis 1.5–4.5 cm long; stipels conspicuous, 5–10 mm long; petiolules 3–6

mm long; leaflets entire or 2–3-lobed, 5–18 cm × 3–15 cm, elliptical, rhomboid or ovate, base

broadly cuneate or rounded, apex acuminate, glabrous or hairy on both surfaces, distinctly 3-veined

from the base, the lateral leaflets unequal-sided.

The pale yellow flowers are borne in clusters of 12–15 near the top of the plant. Mature

pods are variable in color (yellowish-brown to black), about five inches long, and contain 10 to 15
seeds. Self-pollination occurs so insect and wind are not required. Seeds are 2.5–4 mm × 2.5–3 mm

× 2.5–3 mm, globose to ellipsoid or cube-like. Mature seed colors can be yellow, brown, mottled

black or green, depending upon variety. These round to oblong seeds vary in size from 6,000 to

over 12,000 per pound, depending upon variety. Germination is epigeal with the cotyledons and

stem emerging from the seedbed.

Mungbean resembles black gram (Vignamungo (L.)) with two main differences: the corolla

of Vignamungo is bright yellow while that of Vignaradiata is pale yellow; mungbean pods are

pendulous whereas they are erect in black gram. It is also slightly less hairy than black gram.

The more common vernacular names include: mungbean, green gram, golden gram

(English), balatung (Tagalog), dau-xanh (Vietnamese), Nongtaao or puasha (Hmong), moyashimame

(Japanese), Iutou (Mandarin Chinese), look dou (Cantonese Chinese), Haricot mungo,

mungo, ambérique, haricot doré (Fr.), Feijãomungoverde (Po.), Mchooko, mchoroko (Sw).

Origin and major types

The plant has been grown in India since ancient times. It is still widely grown in Southeast

Asia, Africa, South America and Australia. It was apparently grown in the United States as early as

1835 as the Chickasaw pea. There are 3 subgroups of Vignaradiata: one is cultivated (Vignaradiata

subsp. radiata) and two are wild (Vignaradiata subsp. sublobata and Vignaradiata subsp. glabra).

Production Trends

Mungbean is native to the Indo-Burma region with India, Burma, Thailand and Indonesia

producing almost 90 per cent of the world's production.

In the Philippines, data from the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics show that the highest

volume of production for the past five years in the Philippines was achieved in 2011, with 45,283

metric tons from the total production area of 32, 960 hectares. In 2012, area planted to mungbean

was 44, 324 hectares and total volume of production was 32,364 metric tons with the province

ofIsabela as the top mungbean producer contributing 26% to the country’s production. However,

national average yield per hectare remains quite low at 0.73 metric ton.
The Philippines imported 30,736 mt of dried mungbean worth US$5.4M in 2006; up by

0.13% in tonnage and by 11.7% in value than in 2005. In 2006, the country exported 20 mt of dried

mungbean worth US$27,553; down by 86% in tonnage and by 45% in export earnings compared to

2005.

San Mateo, Isabela is the biggest producer of mungbeans in the Philippines with a

production of 800 to 1,000 kilos/ha at the prevailing price of P32 per kilo. This translates to

incomes ranging from P25, 600 to P32, 000 per hectare. This means a P224-million additional

income for local farmers during summer. The town has more than 7,000 hectares of farms planted

to mungbeans during the dry season and it is now declared as the “Mungbean Capital of the

Philippines.”

Nutritional Values

As a food source mungbeans have some valuable properties. Products which need high

consistency under high temperature benefit from the heat stable viscosity of mungbean starch.

Mungbean is rich in easily digestible protein (24%). It adds much-needed diversity to the

cereal-based diets of the poor. The protein is easily digested and is of a high quality, making it based

food preparations especially good for children, elderly people and invalids.

It also contains vitamin A (94 mg), iron (7.3 mg), calcium (124 mg), zinc (3 mg) and folate

(549 mg) per 100 grams dry seeds.Mungbeans are also high in vitamins B1, B2 and C and niacin.

In the diet it should be noted that mungbeans are not a perfect protein source and should be

consumed with other sources of protein which have high percentages of sulphur-containing amino

acids, such as cereals, rice and sesame.

Uses (Culinary)

It is used as a raw material in mungbean sprout production, sotanghon manufacturing,

hopia making, and in dishes such as soups, porridge, bread, noodles and ice cream. Its agronomic

characteristics permit it to fit in various cropping systems as an intercrop, rotation, and relay crop.
In addition, its crop residues can be used as fodder.

Varieties

Recommended local mungbean varieties can be sourced from the Bureau of Plant Industry

(BPI) and its National Crop Research and Development Centers particularly at La Granja in Bacolod

and Los Banos in Laguna; Institute of Plant Breeding-University of the Philippines at Los Banos

(IPB-UPLB); Department of Agriculture-Regional Integrated Agricultural Research Centers (DARIARCs);

and from accredited private seed growers.

For your guide, please refer to the list of National Seed Industry Council (NSIC) approved

mungbean varieties.

List of NSIC Approved Varieties

Varieties Yield (t/ha) Maturity Remarks

Pag-asa 1 1.04-1.31 57-59

days after

emergence

(DAE)

Released by the Phil. Seed Board (PSB) in

1977. Has shiny green seeds; fairly

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot and

Powdery Mildew; pods are ex-posed

above the leaf canopy allowing more

effective pest control measures and faster

harvesting; second flush of flowers after

priming is completed and contributes to

about 25% of the total harvest.

Pag-asa 3 1.10-1.57 63-73 DAE Released in 1983; has shiny yellow seeds.

Pag-asa 5 1.10-1.46 60–76 DAE Released in 1986; has shiny green seeds
and is tolerant to water logging.

Pag-asa 7 1.00-1.70 62–74 DAE Released in 1989; has shiny green seeds;

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot;

performs well in partially shaded areas

(under coconut); tolerant to drought;

suitable for sprout production as well as

starch source for the manufacture of

noodles (“sotanghon”)

Pag-asa 11

(PSB Mg 5)

1.12-1.20 60-61 DAE Released in 1999; has glossy green seeds,

slender pods which are almost parallel to

the ground; moderately resistant to

Cercospora Leaf Spot. Thrives in acid soil;

drought tolerant and a good N-fixer.

Pag-asa 13

(NSIC Mg 8)

0.88-2.66 66 DAE Has yield advantage of 13% over Pagasa

3; yield comparable to Pagasa 7; has

glossy green seeds and is recommended

for post-rice crop-ping in Region 1 and

pre- & post-rice croppings in Region 2.

Pag-asa 15

(NSIC Mg 9)

1.07-1.18 57–58 DAE Recommended for both wet and dry

season planting; out-yields PSB Mg2 by

6% and PSB Mg4 by 23% in wet season

and 10% in dry season; moderately resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot; has

comparable yield with drought tolerant

Pagasa 7. Under limited water conditions,

fixes 69.9% kg/ha N under post-rice

conditions; has glossy green & mediumsized seeds; and weighs 5.1 g/100 seeds.

Pag-asa 17

(NSIC Mg 10)

1.07-1.15 57-88 DAE Has glossy green & medium-sized seeds;

weighs 5.3 g/100 seeds and moderately

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot; yield

advantage over PSB Mg2 and PSB Mg4 at

20% in wet season and 9% in dry season;

and has the ability to fix 88.14 kg/ha N.

MG 50-10A

(“Wonder”)

1.00-1.30 60–65 DAE Released in 1969; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 6.7 g/100 seeds; susceptible to

Cercos-pora Leaf Spot and Powdery

Mildew; responsive to high plant density;

seeds contain 46.7% carbohydrates,

22.2% protein, and 1.4% fat.

MD 15-2

(“Super”)
1.00-1.30 60-65 DAE Released in 1969; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 6.8 g/100 seeds; susceptible to

Cercos-pora Leaf Spot and Powdery

Mildew but non-shattering.

BPI Glab #3

(“Miracle”)

1.00-1.30 60-65 DAE Released in 1971; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 6.8 g/100 seeds; susceptible to

Cercos-poraLeaf Spot and Powdery

Mildew; has hairless pods and seeds

contain 58-63% carbo-hydrates and 24-

26% protein.

BPI Mg 2

(“VC 1163”)

1.10-1.40 56-57 DAE Released in 1984; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 6.1 g/100 seeds; moderately

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot and

Powdery Mildew. It is non-lodging; seeds

contain 21.4% protein and 63% carbohydrates.

BPI Mg 5 (“VC2764”) 1.10-1.4 62 DAE Released in 1986; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 6.1 g/100 seeds; moderately

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot and

Powdery Mildew; non-lodging; seeds

contain 23.3% protein and 61.1%

carbohydrates.
BPI Mg 7

(“VC 1973”)

1.20-1.50 62 DAE Released in 1988; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 6.6 g/100 seeds; moderately

resistant to Powdery Mildew; resistant to

Cercospora Leaf Spot and rust. It is nonshattering; and seeds contain 22.7%

protein and 61.5% carbohydrates.

BPI Mg 9

(“VC 2768” or Taiwan

Green”)

1.03-1.14 62 DAE Released in 1989; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 5.8 to 6.1 g/100-seeds;

moderately resistant to Powdery Mildew;

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot, and

rust; is non-lodging and non-shattering;

seeds contain 23.6% protein and 62.6%

carbohydrates.

BPI Mg 1

(“VC 3890” or Ellen C”)

0.98-1.50 61 DAE Released in 1995 and has glossy green

seeds; weighs 6.2-6.3 g/100 seeds;

moderately resistant to Cercospora Leaf

Spot, rust, and virus; seeds contain

24.87% protein and 59.12 carbohydrates.

PSB Mg 2
(“VC 3876” or

Mabunga”)

1.15-1.30 61 DAE Released in 1996; has dull green seeds;

weighs 6.3-6.5 g/100 seeds; moderately

resis-tant to Cercospora Leaf Spot, rust,

virus & Powdery Mildew; seeds contain

23.08% protein and 68.02%

carbohydrates.

PSB Mg 3

(“VC 2764 Y” or

“Ginintuan”)

1.1-1.35 61 DAE Released in 1996; has glossy yellow

seeds; weighs 5.4 g/100 seeds;

moderately resistant to Cercospora Leaf

Spot, rust, virus & Powdery Mildew; seeds

contain 24.44% protein and 66.11%

carbohydrates.

PSB Mg 6

(“VC 3995” or

“Centennial Mungo”)

1.0-1.16 60 DAE Released in 1999; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 5.6-6.3 g/ 100 seeds; moderately

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot, rust and

virus; seeds contain 24.57% protein and

60.51% carbohydrates.
PSB Mg 7

(“VC 3737A” or

“Mabunga 2”)

1.08-1.11 58 DAE Released in 2000; has dull green seeds;

weighs 5..3-6.2 g/100 seeds; moderately

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot, rust,

and virus; seeds contain 24.54% protein

and 62.61% carbohydrates.

NSIC Mg 11 (“Kintab”)

3.63 58 DAE Released in 2001; has glossy green seeds;

weighs 6.4 g/100 seeds; moderately

resistant to Cercospora Leaf Spot, and

rust; seeds contain 24.03% protein and

62.79% carbohydrates.

NSIC Mg 14 1.09-1.65 58 DAE This variety has dull green seeds;

moderately resistant to Cercospora Leaf

Spot; seeds contain 23.76% crude protein,

65.98% carbohydrates, 43.5% starch,

4.2% ash, and 0.64% crude fat.

NSIC Mg 17 1.28-1.54 56-58 DAE This variety has glossy green seeds; has

24.12% crude protein, 63.4%,

carbohydrates and 3.78% ash.

Cultivation

Soil and Climatic Requirements

Mungbean is a dry season crop and can be grown best in rotation with rice or corn in an
optimum temperature ranging from 20 to30oC. It needs plenty of sunlight and a daylength of 11.5

to 13.0 hours.

In the Philippines, mungbean can be grown during the wet season (May-June); dry season

(September-October); and late dry season (February-March). High humidity brought about by

continuous rains could severely reduce the quality of harvested seeds. It can be profitably grown in

different types of soil with pH ranging from 5.8 to 6.5.

It is fairly well adapted to sandy loam soils and a dry condition, which gives it a competitive

advantage and permits it to fit in various cropping systems as an intercrop, rotation, and relay crop.

If grown during the wet season, the soil should be well-drained. Heavy soils are suitable

only for dry season planting because mungbean is sensitive to extended periods of water-logging.

Just like other crops, mungbean production can be affected by several constraints such as

erratic weather, insect pests and diseases, poor management practices, and the use of inferior or

low yielding varieties or cultivars.

Cultural Management Practices

Land Preparation

Prepare the land thoroughly so that mungbean seeds can germinate uniformly, establish

rapidly, and compete well with weeds. For the uplands, prepare the soil thoroughly by plowing

alternated with harrowing at weekly interval. For post-rice culture, zero or minimum tillage can be

practiced.

Planting

Drill the seeds along shallow furrows spaced 60 centimeters apart. Twenty (20) kgs of seeds

is enough to plant a hectare. If seed inoculant is available, moisten the seeds with water, then mix

the inoculant until all seeds are coated. Keep the newly inoculated seeds under shade until they are

planted.

At planting, sufficient soil moisture is necessary so that the seeds can germinate uniformly.
For post-rice culture, flood the paddy 1-2 days before planting. Then, drain the water before

broadcasting the seeds.

Water Management

Mungbean is relatively tolerant to drought. However, it needs sufficientamount of water

during its critical stages of growth and development (germination, vegetative, flowering and podfilling
stages).

The daily water requirement of mungbean differs, depending on intensity of solar radiation

and rate of evaporation. In general, the crop requires 3.5 millimeters of water per day or about 410

millimeters per cropping season.

If there is residual rain and sufficient soil moisture, during the early dry season planting

(September-October), supplemental irrigation is not needed. On the other hand, late dry season

planting (January-March) requires irrigation at its various critical stages of development. Overhead

sprinkler or furrow irrigation may be used to irrigate the field.

Nutrient Management

Mungbean obtains nitrogen through its symbiosis with the N-fixing bacteria in the roots.

Excessive nitrates from applied fertilizer will restrict N fixation.

The amount of phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) removed by the crop (when it yields 2

tons per hectare) is the basis for deciding the amount of fertilizer to be applied to avoid depletion of

these major elements. In P- and K-deficient soils, about 30-45 kgs per hectare each of these

elements should be applied before planting.

In commercial production of mungbean, fertilization rate and type of application depends

on the results of soil analysis. However, in the absence of such analysis and during dry season

cropping, basal application of three bags (150 kgs of complete fertilizer (14-14-14) per hectare is

recommended for heavy soils (loam to clay loam), and four bags (200 kgs) for light soils (sandy to

sandy loam). You can also apply organic fertilizer if you want to produce mungbean organically as

well as to improve the soil conditions.

It is recommended to inoculate the seeds with appropriate Rhizobia strain inoculant right

before planting. Then apply only 20 kgs per hectare of nitrogen which can be supplied by 150 kgs

of Triple14. Do not expose the newly inoculated mungbean seeds to direct sunlight. For upland

planting, apply fertilizer evenly in furrows and evenly cover with a thin layer of fine soils before

planting the seeds. With a machine applicator, the fertilizer is drilled 5 centimeters slightly below

the side of the seeds at planting. This makes the fertilizer readily available to the roots of the

growing young seedlings.

Crop Protection

A. Insect Pests

1. Bean fly (MelanagromyzasojaeZehntner) – the most destructive insect

pest in early vegetative stage. It inserts its eggs into the cotyledonary

leaves. The emerging larva tunnels from the leaves towards the stem

and pupate within the stem just slightly above the soil surface,

eventually causing wilting and stunting of the plants.

Control Measures:

a. Spray appropriate insecticide following the recommended dosage,

1-2 days after seedling emergence.

b. Biological control is recommended such as the application of

Trichogrammachilonis at the rate of 200 strips per hectare divided

into weekly application starting seven days after emergence up to

40 days.

c. Weekly spraying of naturally fermented solutions (NFS) is also recommended.

2. Aphids (Aphis glycinesMatsumura) – can damage

the young plants. It can also transmit deadly viruses.

Control Measures:
a. Spray appropriate insecticide directly to the

aphid colonies.

b. Biological control is also recommended such

as spraying of naturally-fermented solution,

and Effective Microorganisms 5 (EM5).

3. Pod borer (EtiellazinckenellaTreitschke) – lays its eggs on the

petals or sepals. The larva feeds on the flower buds or

immature seeds within the pods.

Control Measures:

a. Timely spraying of appropriate insecticide following the

recommended dosage indicated on the label.

b. Biological control such as

Trichogrammachilonisapplication, and weekly spraying of

naturally fermented solution and vermitea for preventive measure. Likewise, application of

assassin bug is also recommended at 1,000 bugs per hectare at the onset of flowering.

4. Green Soldier Bug or stinkbugs (Nezaraviridula L.)- observed

unusually high populations of this pest (3-4 insects/meter row)

uniformly over an entire field when pods are still green.

Control Measures:

a. Spray infested crop with appropriate insecticides following the

recommended dosage.

b. Biological measures such as EM5, vermitea, and naturally

fermented solutions (NFS) sprayed at weekly interval are

recommended as preventive practice.

5. Bruchids (Callosobruchusmaculatus) - commonly called pulse

beetles or cowpea weevils. It attacks mungbean both in field and

storage but greater losses occur in the latter. The nutritional quality

of the grains deteriorates because of the infestation rendering

making them unmarketable.

Control Measures:

a. Maintain sanitation in the storage area by cleaning storage area

properly,

b. Dry the seeds well, and apply non-toxic chemicals such as vegetable oils.

c. Dried leaves of lagundi (Vitexnegundo L.) can be also used.

d. For seed purposes, treat the seeds with insecticide following recommended dosage.

e. Phosphine fumigation is the only chemical treatment approved for cowpea bruchid control.

General Insect Pest Control Strategies

The following are some strategies to control insect pests of mungbean:

1. Insect Pest Identification – to be able to determine what control measure you are going to

employ, know what particular pest to control, its life cycle and nature of damage.

2. Cultural Control - this includes the different field operations that promote favorable growth of

the crop while at the same time could effectively control insect pests by directly destroying

them, or interfere with their normal biological processes and make the environment unpleasant

for the insect pests such as sanitation and crop rotation.

3. Mechanical Control - involves the use of special equipment or operations. Generally, this gives

immediate and tangible results. Examples: handpicking and light trapping.

4. Biological Control - use of parasites, predators and pathogens to minimize or control the pest.

Every pest species has one or more natural enemies which prevent their population from

increasing to a disastrous level. Example: application of Trichogrammachilonis at the rate of 200

strips per hectare at weekly interval starting 20 days after germination up to flowering stage.

Moreover, assassin bug at the rate of 1,000 nymphs or adults per hectare starting from the

onset of flowering up to pod development can control lepidopterous insect pests.

Chemical Control – most commonly employed to control or kill pests (also known as pesticides).

Effective against large pest populations; act within a short period of time, and are readily

available in the market. However, despite their advantages in pest control, the frequent use of

pesticides often results in problems such as resistance, adverse effects to non-target organisms,

hazardous to users and can lead to environmental contamination. Hence, pesticides should only

be used when necessary. It should be integrated with other forms of pest control.

B. Diseases

1. Cercospora Leaf Spot (CLS) – caused by fungus Cercospora sp.,

which is prevalent during wet season. The first visible symptom

of infection is the appearance of water-soaked spots on the

leaves. The spots then turn tan to reddish brown necrotic areas

with a small gray center. The individual spots may coalesce

causing large dead areas on the leaves.

2. Powdery Mildew – caused by Erysiphepolygoni; develops under

high relative humidity and cool nights. Its first visible symptom

is the appearance of small, white, powdery spots on the upper

surface of the leaf. The whitish fungal growth occupies part or

the entire leaf surface. Infected leaves become yellow, then brown

and finally fall off.

Disease Management

d. Plant high quality, preferably certified seeds. High quality,

certified seeds reduce the possibility of introducing pathogens into

the field. It also produces vigorous seedlings that sustain less seed

decay and seedling disease.

e. Practice fungicide seed treatment (for fungal diseases).

Fungicide seed treatment protects seeds and seedlings from seed-borne and soil-borne

pathogens. It is inexpensive and effective.

f. Use recommended seed bed preparation, planting depth, and seeding rates. This will

promote rapid seedling emergence and vigorous seedling growth; and prevent disease infection

and seedling decay.

g. Practice crop rotation with non-legume crops. Many pathogens survive between cropping

seasons on crop debris. Continuous monoculture of crops allows the pathogens to perpetuate

and multiply. Crop rotation will reduce the survival of pathogens in the field.

h. Practice deep plowing to bury plant debris. Pathogens survive between planting seasons on

plant debris. Deep plowing will physically remove plant debris and likewise hasten

decomposition. As the debris decays, the pathogens will also die out.

i. Plant disease resistant cultivars and varieties. Plant resistance is the most efficient and

least expensive disease management practice. However, resistance to all known diseases is not

available; thus resistance may not last forever. Pathogens sometimes develop new strains

which overcome plant resistance.

j. Use fungicides only when necessary. When disease pressure is high, fungicides are effective

and profitable. Apply at proper time and rate following label instructions.

k. Employ appropriate crop management practices. This includes good drainage, fertilization,

irrigation, weed control, and insect management. It promotes healthy, vigorous crop growth

that enables the plant to be more tolerant to pathogens.

l. Disease management is best accomplished using an integrated approach. This involves

incorporating as many of the principles listed above.

C. Weed Control

Weed control is critical when mungbean grows slowly 2-3 weeks after emergence. To minimize

weed growth, prepare the land thoroughly before planting. Fifteen days after planting, off-barring

should be done to loosen the soil and eradicate weeds. This will be followed by hand weeding to

totally eradicate remaining weeds. Right after weeding, immediately do the hilling-up by passing a

carabao-drawn plow in between the rows of mungbean crop not only to eradicate remaining weeds

but also to improve plant anchorage. Moreover, option of spot weeding should also be done when

weed population is high during the growth and development of the crop.

Harvesting

Mungbean is harvested by priming. Harvesting is done 60-70 days after planting. Mature pods

turn brown and then black. Begin harvesting as soon as 75% of the pods have dried up. Pick the

harvestable pods by hand. Repeat harvesting every 3 to 5 days. The number of primings (number

of harvesting) depends on the available soil moisture and fertility, and on the condition of the crop.

Right after harvesting, sun-dry mungbean pods. When pods are sufficiently dry enough, thresh

by placing the dried pods in sack and beating it until all seeds severed from the pods. A mechanical

rice thresher may be used for large scale production. Take precaution not to damage the mungbean

seeds. Clean the seeds and sundry until 12% moisture content is reached.

Post-Harvest

Storage

Store mungbean seeds in tight containers or in nylon/jute

sack. Store them in a cool, dry place protected from rodents.

Practice good sanitation to prevent storage pest infestation like

weevils. You can also mix dried neem seeds or leaves, or dried hot

pepper (silinglabuyo) with the mungbean seeds.

Cost of Production and Return on Investment (ROI) for a One-Hectare Land

ITEMS/ACTIVITY

Unit of

QUANTITY

UNIT

PRICE

Cost/ha

(PhP)

Cost/ha

(PhP)

Measure (Php) Conventional Organic

A. Farm Inputs

1 Mungbean seeds kg 20 80.00 1,600.00 1,600.00

2 Inoculant pack 4 10.00 40.00 40.00

4 Tripple 14 bag 4 1,200.00 4,800.00 -

5 Organic Fertilizer bag 20 300 6,000.00

6 Insecticide kg 1 900 900 -

7 Fungicide kg 0.5 900 450 -

8 Botanical Pesticides (EMS-Plus) liter 4 300 1,200.00

10 Sacks piece 50 10 500.00 500.00

SUB TOTAL 8,290.00 9,340.00

B. Labor

1 Land Preparation Tractor rental 6,500.00 6,500.00 6500.00

2 Fertilization MD (2)(4) 220 440.00 880.00

3 Planting MD 5 220 1100.00 1100.00

4 Off barring MD 2 220 440.00 440.00

5 Weeding MD 15 220

3,300.00

3,300.00

7 Spraying fungicide/insecticide MD 4 220 880.00

8 Spraying FPJ/EM5-Plus MD 6 220 - 1,320.00

9 Hilling-up MD 2 220 450.00 450.00

10 Spot weeding MD 5 220 1125 1,125.00

11 Harvesting (3 primings;

processing, and drying) MD 30 220 6,600.00 6,600.00

12 Seed cleaning MD 2 220 440.00 440.00

SUB TOTAL 21,275.00 22,155.00

CONTINGENCY (10%) 3,537.00 2,867.00

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST 38,907.00 31,532.00

Gross Production 700 kg clean & dry seeds at P80/kg

56,000.00

56,000.00

NET INCOME 17,093.00 24,468.00

References

Chadha, M. L. 2010. Short Duration Mungbean: A Success in South Asia. Asia-Pacific Association of

Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI). 55 p.

PCARRD Handbook, 2002. Mungbean Varieties.11 pp.

Website:

Alternative Field Crops Manual. https://www.hort.purdue.edu/ newcrop/ afcm/index.html

www.bas.gov.ph

www.bpre.gov.ph/phindustry/mungbean.htm

http://www.avrdc.org/LC/mungbean/production/field.html

http://www.avrdc.org/LC/mungbean/production/harvest.html

http://database.prota.org/ PROTAhtml/Vigna%20radiata_En.htm

http://tropicalfruitandveg.com/showdetail.php?srcname=Mung&img=seed

Mungbean, (Vignaradiata - Green), (Vignamungo - Black). http://

www.pulseaus.com.au/Mungbean.aspx

Vignaradiata (L.) R.Wilczek. Prota 1: Cereals and pulses/Céréaleset legumes secs Record

display.