Maintaining A Balance - Biology HSC

Belinda
Zhang HSC Biology
Maintaining a Balance

Outline:
1. Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range.
A. Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to
describe their specificity on substrates.
B. Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance.
C. Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to test the
effect of:
a. Increased temperature
b. Change in pH
c. Change in substrate concentrations on the activity of a named enzyme.
D. Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic
efficiency.
E. Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment.
F. Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:
a. Detecting changes from the stable stage
b. Counteracting changes from the stable state.
G. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to develop a
model of a feedback mechanism.
H. Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes.
I. Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for
individual species.
J. Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation
K. Identify some responses of plants to temperature change.
L. Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses of Australian organisms
that assist temperature regulation.

2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium.
A. Identify the forms in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood.
• Carbon dioxide
• Oxygen
• Water
• Salts
• Lipids
• Nitrogenous waste
• Other products of digestion
B. Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
C. Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to
estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each.
D. Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin.
E. Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function.
F. Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and
identify tissues in which these changes occur.
G. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of
oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions which
these technologies are used.
H. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from donated blood and
discuss the uses of these products.
I. Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial
blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed.
J. Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential.
Belinda Zhang HSC Biology
K. Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in
xylem and phloem tissue.
L. Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather first-hand data to draw
transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue.

3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and waste products of metabolism in cells
and in interstitial fluid.
A. Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or
visual resources and identify the regions involved in the excretion of waste products.
B. Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for optimal
function.
C. Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity.
D. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis
with the function of the kidney.
E. Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals.
F. Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine concentration
of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish.
G. Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous
wastes in some organisms.
H. Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian
kidney.
I. Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid
composition.
J. Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production
and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals.
K. Outline the role of hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), in the regulation of water and
salt levels in blood.
L. Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot
secrete aldosterone.
M. Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations
in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt
concentrations.
N. Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss processes
used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments.
O. Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plans that assist in minimising water loss.
P. Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in plants that assist in the
conservation of water.

Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to
describe their specificity on substrates.
Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance.

Enzymes

Metabolism: The total of all physical and chemical reactions which occur in an organism.
Enzymes are required to speed up the rate of reaction, otherwise they would occur very slowly or not at all. Enzymes
are just specialised proteins.

What are enzymes?
• Biological catalysts that change the speed of chemical reactions by offering an alternate pathway with a lower
activation energy.
• Remain unchanged at the end of a reaction, can be reused.
• Are specific, and can only catalyse one type of reaction.
• Made inside cells. Some work outside cells e.g. digestive enzymes (extracellular). Some work inside cells e.g.
catalase (intracellular)
• Examples: amylase, lactase, lipases, proteases

Chemical composition of enzymes:
• Made of proteins: amino acids.
• The amino acid sequence determines the way the protein is folded, and therefore determines its shape.
• The active site: The place on the enzyme that the substrate binds to. The substrate is the substance the
enzyme acts upon.
• Enzyme-substrate complex: The complex formed when the substrate binds to the enzyme.

Models of specificity:
Lock and Key: Rigid enzyme, fits the shape of the substrate exactly.

Induced fit: Enzyme isn't depicted as rigid, changes shape to fit the substrate in the enzyme/substrate complex.

pH: Potential Hydrogen, describes the concentration of H+ ions (acidity) of a substance. Most substances have a pH
of 0-14, so that is 'range' of the conventional scale. The scale is logarithmic, so a pH of 2 has 10x as much acid as a pH
of 3.
pH 0-7: acidic
pH 7: neutral
pH 8-14: basic

pH and enzymes: Extreme pH will denature enzymes (change the shape permanently).
Temperature and enzymes: High temperatures will denature enzymes, but low temperatures do not.

Coenzymes: Organic molecules that work alongside enzymes e.g. the B vitamins.
Cofactors: Inorganic molecules that work alongside enzymes e.g. metal ions.

First Hand Investigations with Enzymes

Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to test the
effect of:
a. Increased temperature
b. Change in pH
c. Change in substrate concentrations on the activity of a named enzyme.

Background:
• Hydrogen peroxide is a toxic by-product of aerobic metabolism (which eventually breaks down into water
and oxygen)
• Catalase is an enzyme present in plants and animals that catalyses hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen.
• 2H2O2 ----> 2H2O + O2
• Enzyme activity is estimated according to amount of oxygen gas produced, measured by the height of the
bubbles. The higher the height of the bubbles in a certain time, the faster the rate of action by the
enzyme.
• Average body temperature of a chicken is 39C

Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity

Aim: To investigate the effect of a change in temperature on the activity of catalase.
Hypothesis: Catalase will work best at 39C. Any temperature below or above would produce less bubbles.

Equipment:
• 5 large beakers for water baths
• 3 hot plates
• 10 test tubes
• Scalpel
• 25ml Hydrogen Peroxide
• Detergent in dropper bottle
• Ruler
• Marking pen
• Ice
• Tap water
• Chicken liver
• Forceps
• Stopwatch
• Pipette
• 5 thermometers
• 10mL measuring cylinder

Risk assessment:
Risk Reason Prevention
Chicken livers Are a biological hazard, may cause disease Dispose of safely, wash hands after use
Scalpel Can cause cuts and scrapes Use with caution
Hydrogen peroxide Eye irritant Use safety goggles
Boiling water Can cause scalds and steam burns Use with care

Method:
a. Prepare 5 water baths at the following temperatures (by using ice or boiling water in a beaker): 5, 25, 39, 80 and
100 degrees Celsius.
b. Place 5mL Hydrogen Peroxide in each of the 5 test tubes and place a test tube in each water bath. Add 1 drop of
detergent to stabilise foam.
c. Place a pea sized piece of liver into each of the 5 dry new test tubes. Mark these A, B, C, D and E.
d. Place one liver test tube in each of the 5 water baths, and allow the liver to reach the same temperature
(approximately 2 minutes). (At this point, you should have 2 test tubes in each water bath.)
e. When the temperatures of both test tubes have stabilised, pour the hydrogen peroxide solution into the liver,
place the test tube back in the bath and start the stop watch.
f. Mark and measure the height of the foam using a ruler after a minute. Record.
g. Repeat steps 1-6 using results of other groups, calculate average.

Results:

The Height of Oxygen Bubbles Formed Using Catalase at Different Temperatures
Temperature (˚C) 1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) Average height (mm)
5 36 45 22 34.3
25 32 43 38 37.7
39 119 120 125 121.3
80 12 46 25 27.7
100 4 10 5 6.3

Conclusion:
The experiment was able to investigate the change in temperature's effect on catalase. The hypothesis was
correct in predicting that the enzyme works best at 39˚C as it is the optimum temperature for catalyse to work
on.

Discussion:
Reliability of the 5˚C and 80˚C bath isn't good due to the inconsistencies in water temperatures after heating and
cooling.
The 39˚C bath worked best because it is chicken catalase's optimum temperature, and higher temperatures
started to denature the enzyme while lower temperatures didn't have enough activation energy.
To make the experiment more reliable and accurate, we would ensure that water temperatures in the bath is
consistent throughout the beaker.
The experiment was valid because we had a control measurement of 39˚C as it is the usual temperature of
catalase in a chicken, and controlled variables in order to reach a conclusion.

Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity

Aim: to investigate the effect of changing pH on the activity of the enzyme catalase
Hypothesis: The enzyme will work best at around a neutral or slightly basic pH.

Equipment:
• 5 micro test tubes
• 5mL potato solution
• Acid solutions of known pH
• Distilled water
• 5mL Hydrogen peroxide solution
• Stopwatch
• Marking pen
• Measuring cylinder
• Alkaline solutions of known pH
• Universal indicator
• Pipette
• Ruler

Risk assessment:
Universal Flammable liquid and vapour, skin, eyes and Keep away from ignition sources, well
indicator respiratory irritant ventilated room, wear goggles
Hydrogen Eye irritant, toxic Wear goggles, wash hands after use
peroxide
pH buffer Acid and base irritants Wear goggles, wash hands after use
solutions

Method:
a. Label 5 test tubes A, B, C, D and E.
b. Add a drop of detergent.
c. Carefully place 1mL of acid or alkali solution into each tube using a pipette, testing pH 4, 6, 7, 8 and 10.
d. Add 1mL of potato solution using pipette to each test tube and shake to mix gently. Let sit for 1 minute.
e. Add 1mL hydrogen peroxide solution to test tube A and start the stopwatch.
f. After 30 seconds, measure the height of the bubbles above the mixture in test tube A and record.
g. Repeat steps 6-7 with each test tube (B-E)
h. Repeat steps 1-8 and average results.

Results
Test Tube pH Bubble height (mm) 2 3 4 Average
A 4 5 4 8 3 5
B 6 4 6 7 8 6.25
C 7 3 7 15 4 7.25
D 8 3 8 22 5 9.5
E 10 6 11 16 5 9.5

Conclusion
The pH change affects the reaction rate of catalase. The hypothesis was correct in stating that the catalase
would work best at a neutral pH, and would denature at higher and lower pHs.

Discussion
The results were both unreliable and inaccurate. This was due to the mixing of solutions not being done well,
and to the slight difference between prac technique between groups and the uncertainty of using a mm ruler to
take measurements.
The optimum pH for catalase was pH 8.

Substrate Concentration and Enzyme Activity

Aim: To test the effect of change in substrate concentration on the activity of the enzyme catalase.

Hypothesis: The substrate concentration is directly proportional to the rate of reaction, until the enzymes active
sites are constantly occupied. Then, the increase in substrate concentration wouldn't increase the rate of
reaction.

Equipment
• 15mL hydrogen peroxide solution
• 5mL potato solution (catalase)
• Pipettes
• Distilled water
• Marker pen and ruler
• 6 test tubes
• Test tube rack

Risk Assessment
Non-hazardous hydrogen Toxicity, eye Wash hands, wear safety goggles, wash body parts if
peroxide irritant contacted

Method
a. Set up 6 test tubes in a rack and label A-F. Into each test tube, add hydrogen peroxide and distilled water
according to the table below.
Test tube A B C D E F
Volume of H2O2 (mL) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Volume of distilled water (mL) 5 4 3 2 1 0
Concentration of H2O2 solution (%) 0 20 40 60 80 100

b. Shake each test tube
c. Add 1mL of the potato solution to test tube A and start the stopwatch.
d. Mark the top of the mixture in the test tube.
e. After 1 minute, mark the top of the bubbles in the test tube.
f. Measure the height of the bubbles to the nearest millimetre.
g. Repeat steps 3-6 for each test tube, record results.
h. Repeat steps 1-6 and average results.

Results
Height of Bubbles (mm)
Volume of H2O2 (mL) 1 2 3 4 5 Average
A 0 0 0 0 0 11 2.2
B 1 3 2 4 7 16 6.4
C 2 4 5 7 10 10 10.6
D 3 2 12 10 15 14 11.4
E 4 5 15 10 9 14 10.6
F 5 6 14 6 8 14 9.6

Conclusion
The hypothesis was correct in predicting the highest rate of reaction at saturation point, and the rate plateauing
after the concentration of substrate increased. We were able to reach this conclusion, thus answering our aim.

Discussion
Amount of detergent in each group's test tubes varied, which lead to an unreliable experiment. There were
certain groups that counted 'detergent bubbles' as produced by the reaction, so results were skewed upwards.
Test tube A was the control, and we controlled the amount of enzyme and detergent used, surface area of the
meniscus in the test tube (test tube size) and temp and pressure were also controlled.

Homeostasis

Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency.
Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment.
Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:
a. Detecting changes from the stable stage
b. Counteracting changes from the stable state.

Importance of homeostasis:
• In multicellular organisms, cells need to maintain their internal balance, and it must remain stable and
relatively unchanging.
• Enzymes control rate of metabolism, and only work efficiently where optimum conditions are met. If the
environment (temperature, pH, water, salt concentration and absence of toxins) do not remain stable, then
the rate of reaction decreases.
• A slowed down reaction could stop an entire chemical pathway.
• Therefore homeostasis is critical to the survival of an organism.
• Homeostasis: the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment.

2 Stages:
• Detecting changes from stable state (receptor)
• Counteract/respond to changes from stable state (effector)

Stimulus: anything that provokes a response due to a change in the environment.
Receptor: An organ or other part of the body that receives and detects a stimulus e.g. skin, eye, ear, nose, taste
buds, brain
Effector: muscle or gland which responds to a stimulus.

Stimulus --> receptor --> brain (CNS) --> Effector --> Response
E.g. cold temperature --> skin --> brain (CNS) --> muscles --> shivering

Homeostasis ensures these variables stay constant:
• Body temperature (37˚C)
• pH of blood and interstitial fluid at approx pH 7.4
• Concentration of sugar in our blood at approximately 0.1%
• Blood water content at about 80%

Organs involved in homeostasis
Skin: Removing excess heat
Kidneys: removing excess water, minerals and waste such as urea
Liver: Removing excess heat, glucose, toxins and amino acids
Lungs: excreting carbon dioxide, taking in oxygen

Negative Feedback Mechanism Model

Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to develop a model of
a feedback mechanism.

Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback mechanisms in mammals.
This system detects a change and then does as much as possible to counteract the change to return the body to its
original state. This is similar to Lenz's law and Le Chatelier's principle.
E.g. Increase in blood glucose detected by nervous system, and the pancreas then releases insulin to lock away the
glucose into the liver, and out of the blood, returning the body to its previous state.

The Thermostat Model of Temperature Control
• The thermostat controls the temperature of rooms, buildings etc. by detecting changes in temperature and
turning on or off heating/cooling processes as needed.

Temperature regulation in mammals:
• Hypothalamus is the control centre. It receives messages from sensory neurons and coordinates messages to
send to motor neurons to an effector to counter the change.
• Anterior hypothalamus: Has a heat loss centre that sends messages to effectors to cool the body. Also has a
heat gain centre which initiates responses to warm the body.
• Temperature increases: Heat-loss centre of hypothalamus stimulates effector organs: skin, sweat glands, blood
capillaries. Thyroid gland is stimulated to lower metabolism to generate less heat.
• Temperature decreases: Heat-gain centre of hypothalamus stimulates effectors of: skin, arterioles, muscles
and thyroid to raise hairs, vasoconstrict, shiver and increase metabolism to heat up the body.

Accuracy of the Thermostat Model
• Accurate way to model the negative feedback loop, showing how the ideal temperature is maintained.
• Is simplified, making it easy to understand.
• May be too simple; the body is more complicated and has more responses.
• Human body also responds to both internal and external influences, the thermostat only responds to external
influences.

Endocrine and Nerve Response in a Negative Feedback System

Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes.

Role of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems

Nervous System
• Brain (CNS)
• Spinal cord (CNS)
• Nerves (PNS)
Nerve messages travel very quickly along neurons, are electrical impulses.
Stimulus --> receptor --> control centre --> effectors --> response
E.g. cold temperature detected by receptors in skin and hypothalamus --> message sent along sensory nerves to
brain --> brain (coordinating centre) interprets message and decides how to respond --> message sent to muscle
along motor nerves --> muscle effector responds by shivering

Endocrine System
• Endocrine glands produce hormones into the bloodstream.
• Chemical messages that travel through blood, take longer to act than nerves, but effects last for longer.
Gland Function Location
Pituitary Responds to signals from hypothalamus, releases hormones (some control Underneath the
Gland other glands) hypothalamus in the
brain
Hypothalamus Makes hormones to control pituitary gland, makes ADH and oxytocin, In the middle of brain
stored in pituitary gland
Pineal Secretes melatonin, controls body functions in response to daylight and Brain
seasonal changes
Parathyroid 4 patches of tissue on thyroid gland; releases parathyroid hormone which Front of throat
gland regulates blood calcium
Thyroid Secretes thyroxine which speeds up metabolism and helps manage growth Front of throat
and development
Thymus Secretes thymosin which stimulates development of T cells Front of chest
Pancreas Islets of langerhans: secret insulin and glucagon which control blood sugar Pancreas
levels
Adrenal Make adrenalin (epinephrine and norepinephrine), and aldosterone which Tops of kidneys
glands affects osmotic balance. Also secretes cortisol which promotes glucose
synthesis.
Ovaries Estrogen and progesterone, maintaining the female reproductive system Ovaries
and the uterus during pregnancy
Testes Makes testosterone which maintains the male reproductive system Testes

Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for individual
species.
Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation
Identify some responses of plants to temperature change.
Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses of Australian organisms that
assist temperature regulation.

Temperature and Life
• Temperatures on earth range from -80˚C to 60˚C (350˚C is the max that life can live at, in hot vents)
• Temperatures on land vary more than temperatures in water:
o Land: -89˚C to 60˚C
o Water: -2˚C to 30˚C
• Each species has a narrow temperature range tolerance because an individual species can only produce
enzymes which work efficiently in a narrow temperature range.
• Endothermic: Source of body heat is internal and produced by metabolic reactions. Maintain fairly constant
core temperatures regardless of external temperatures. Mammals and birds are endothermic.
o Homeothermic: Maintains a constant core temperature
• Ectothermic: Rely on external sources of heat from environment to generate body warmth. Relies on
behavioural adaptaions to regulate temperature e.g. sunbaking. Fish, amphibians, insects and reptiles are
ectothermic.
o Poikilothermic: Can't maintain constant body temperature.

Endotherms Ectotherms
Volume of Eat many times their own body weight per Eat only a few times their own bodyweight per year;
food year e.g. lions eat 20x to generate body absorb heat from environment. E.g. crocodiles eat 2-3
heat times their own body weight per year
Metabolic Tied to body temperature: within a narrow Affected lots by environmental temperatures
rate range, metabolism increases with Restricted in the habitats they can occupy because they
temperature increases. rely on nice temperatures.
Core temperature is higher than outside as
metabolic activity is maintained
Less dependence on environmental
temperatures.

Australian Endotherms

Animal Response to Cold temperatures Response to hot temperatures
Fairy Penguin Feathers raised to trap heat close to body Feathers lie flat against skin
Huddle close together to reduce surface area exposed to Move into water to cool down
the cold, and to share body heat Vasodilation
Retreats to burrow
Vasoconstriction
Common Has a lot of brown fat to produce heat and to be Evaporative cooling, sweating,
bentwing bat metabolised in cold conditions panting, licking of saliva

Australian Ectotherms

Animal Response to Cold Response to Hot
Central Netted Dragon Lies in sun; alters body position so Moves into shade or burrow
(Australian desert) maximum surface area is exposed Reduces activity
Is nocturnal
Eastern brown snake Diurnal, but may become nocturnal if Basks in sunlight
daytime temperature is too hot Slows metabolism and becomes
Seeks shelter in shade at daytime inactive
If cold period is prolonged, it will
hibernate in a state of torpor.

Australian Fur Seal - Endotherm

Habitat: Coastal waters and oceans, preferred habitat (especially for breeding) is rocky islands with boulder/pebble
beaches and gradually sloping rock edges.

Optimum temperature range: ~16˚C and colder water.

Adaptations:
Blubber: fat acts as insulation to reduce heat loss
Dark colour helps to absorb heat
Dense coat made of long coarse outer hairs, and a wooly inner layer, trapping air insulating the seal's body, and also
making them water resistant.
If the temperature increases, they go into the water to cool off.
If the temperature drops, the blubber and coat prevent the body temperature from dropping too much.
Can't really cope with too much of a temperature change, as it relies on water to be roughly the same temperature.

Red-bellied black snake - Ectotherm

Habitat: Urban forests, woodland, plains, bushland, commonly seen close to bodies of water.
Temperature range: 18-31˚C body temperature range

Adaptations:
Moving between sunny and shady areas
When basking in sunlight, it is able to flatten its body to increase surface area for maximum heat energy intake.
When only a small patch of light is available, it will bask its head.
Are diurnal
Reduce their activity in the evenings, coiling up to reduce surface area and therefore heat loss.
Are oviparous, offspring produced in separate sacks. The young emerge out of their sacks shortly after birth,
allowing females to have greater control over the temperature in which the young are raised.

Plant Responses to Temperature Changes

Responses to very hot environments:
• Evaporative cooling (transpiration): Exposure to heat & light causes stomata to open, leading to transpiration.
This decreases the internal temperature, but runs the risk of dehydration. Excessive heat in plants will cause
the stomata to close, which can then cause overheating.
• Turgor response (wilting): Some plants change turgor pressure, letting them reduce surface exposed to the
sun (heat and light) e.g. wilting. In extreme heat, transpiration causes palisade leaf cells to lose turgor so
leaves wilt. If water is available, it will be temporary. However, if there is no water, permanent wilting + death
will occur. Lots of introduced plants to Australia wilt easily e.g. hydrangeas, peace lilies and roses.
• Leaf orientation: To overcome problems of overheating and water loss, some plants e.g. eucalypts are able to
change leaf orientation so they hang downwards in hot weather (it reduces surface area exposed). Leaves are
exposed to less intense rays in the morning and afternoon, but the hot midday overhead sun doesn't strike
each leaf. Stomate opening and closing is regulated too.
• Leaf fall: Many trees lose leaves in winter, but eucalypts are evergreen trees that drop some leaves in summer
to reduce surface area exposed to heat and therefore heat and water loss is reduced.
• Reseeding and resprouting: Response to high temperatures in bushfires. Plants that can survive them either
resprout or release seeds. Resprouters have epicormic buds underneath the bark that are protected, that
resprout, or use lignotubers that are underground to resprout. E.g. Bottlebrushes, tea tree, eucalyptus.
Seeders release seeds after the plant is exposed to heat extremes e.g. banksias that open after fires while
others release their seeds from the canopy top in response to heat.
• Thermogenic plants: Flowers that heat up by altering metabolic rates e.g. sacred lotus which maintains a
temperature of 34˚C.

Responses to cold environments:
• Organic anti-freeze: Some plants produce organic anti-freeze substances which lower the temperature at
which the water in the cells freeze. Antarctic hairgrass plant has a gene which prevents ice crystal growth,
which could be possibly used in future GMOs.
• Dormancy: In response to cold temperatures, deciduous trees lose leaves in winter, letting them survive lower
temperatures, water shortages and lower sunlight. E.g. Deciduous beech which is the only native Australian
deciduous tree. It loses leaves in late April/May after they change colour. Abscission of leaves is a response to
the shortening autumn days, started by a waterproof layer forming at the base stem of the leaf.
Photosynthesis can't occur without this water, and anthocyanin becomes visible as chlorophyll declines, which
gives the leaves colour. To survive long periods of low temperatures, some plants may produce seeds/spores
or plant parts above the ground may die off, while parts below the ground remain dormant. E.g. Alpine ash
uses seed dormancy to withstand the colder temperatures.
• Vernalisation: Some plants flower at response to lower temperatures. E.g. tulip bulbs need to be exposed to 6
weeks- 3 months intense cold before flowering. In Australia, we would put them in the fridge before
replanting.

Many temperature change responses in plants are due to factors changing the concentration of chemical growth
regulators in plants. Responding to temperature change and internal regulation is therefore important for species
continuation.

Identify the forms in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood.
• Carbon dioxide
• Oxygen
• Water
• Salts
• Lipids
• Nitrogenous waste
• Other products of digestion

Blood in Mammals
• Closed circulatory system consisting of a pump (heart) which sends fluid (blood) through a series of tubes
(blood vessels).
• Circulatory system transports water, gases, nutrients, hormones and wastes around the body.
• Responsible for blood clotting to seal wounds and repair damage to vessels.
• Fights disease: white blood cells fight infection directly and produces antibodies to provide immunity
• Controls body temperature; flow of blood distributes heat around the body.

Components of Blood
• Plasma: 55% of total blood volume
o 91% water
o 7% blood proteins (fibrinogen, albumin, globulin)
o 2% nutrients (amino acids, sugars, lipids), hormones (inslin, glucagon etc.) and electrolytes (Na, K etc.)
• Cellular components: 45% of total blood volume
o Buffy Coat: White blood cells (7000-9000 per mm3 of blood) and platelets (250,000 per mm3 of blood)
o Red blood cells: 5,000,000 per mm3 of blood

Temperature, pH and Blood Volume
• Blood has an average temperature of 38˚C.
• The pH of blood is 7.4.
• The average human has 5L of blood.
• For the normal functioning of the body and enzymes, these levels must be maintained.

Function of Blood Components
Component Description and Function
Plasma Sticky straw coloured liquid of 90% water.
Carries salts in solution to maintain pH of blood at 7.4
Carries large proteins (antibodies, clotting factors, lipid transporters), glucose, amino acids,
urea and hormones.
Blood cells and platelets are suspended in plasma; it transports things around.
Red Blood Cells Disc shaped and biconcave, thinner at the centre than at the edges.
(erythrocytes) 7-8µm in diameter
No nucleus when mature, only live for 3 months before being destroyed in liver or spleen.
Made in bone marrow.
Transports respiratory gases especially oxygen around the body.
Each cell contains the protein Haemoglobin (Hb) to which oxygen binds.
White Blood Cells Several types; all contain a nucleus.
(leucocytes) Less numerous than red blood cells, are much larger in size (50%)
Two types: Phagocytes and lymphocytes
Phagocytes: move from blood into tissue fluid, can surround and ingest bacteria, foreign
bodies and dead cells. They collect at the site of infection and are made in the bone marrow.
Lymphocytes: act against specific foreign material. Make specific antibodies to fight disease.
Are made in bone marrow.
Platelets Fragments of cells which are made in the bone marrow.
(thrombocytes) Very small (~µm in diameter)
Help the blood to clot by releasing an enzyme called thromboplastin.

Forms of Substances Carried in Blood
Substance Form in Blood Carrier
Carbon dioxide Hydrogen carbonate/bicarbonate ions. 70% of CO2 in the blood Plasma or red blood cell
is carried like this. haemoglobin
30% forms a carbonate ion which binds to haemoglobin to
form carbaminoglobin.
Oxygen 98.5% combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin in red blood
A little bit in plasma cells; adapted for carrying
oxygen
Water 90% of blood plasma is water Is its own carrier (plasma)
Salts Carried in blood as ions Plasma: dissolved in water
Lipids Insoluble in plasma (most), travel in lymphatic system. Chylomicron micelles in
Small amounts of fats in blood travel as chylomicrons (lipid plasma
surrounded by protein)
Nitrogenous Transported in dilute form to excretory organs e.g. ammonia, Dissolved in plasma
wastes urea, uric acid, creatinine
Other products of Glucose and amino acids are water soluble to are absorbed into Dissolved in plasma
digestion the blood plasma from the digestive tract. Whole molecules are
dissolved
Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.

Carbon Dioxide and the pH of Water

When carbon dioxide is added to water, it can react to form carbonic acid. This can then break down into
bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions.

CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3 --> HCO3 - + H+

Aim: To demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water

Hypothesis: The more carbon dioxide dissolved in the water, the lower the pH.

Equipment List:
• 2 conical flasks
• 100mL measuring cylinder
• Stopwatch
• Safety goggles
• Distilled water
• Dater loggers with pH probes
• Straws
• pH meters

Risk Assessment
Universal Hazardous to eyes, flammable Wear safety glasses, wash out eyes immediately if contacted,
indicator vapour well ventilated room,
Glassware When broken is sharp and can Keep glassware away from edge of bench, report breakages to
cut. the teacher.
Carbonic acid Corrode eyes and skin if it Wear safety goggles, do not suck up liquid through the straw.
splashes

Method 1: Data logger demonstration
1. Pour 100mL of fresh distilled water into 2 conical flasks. Label A and B.
2. Connect pH probes to data loggers, place one probe into water of each flask.
3. Read initial pH reading and record.
4. Place 2 straws into flask A. Start timer and have 2 group members take it in turns to blow into the straws
gently for 2 minutes. Do not blow into flask B.
5. Data logger will record pH of the water continuously in both flasks.
6. Print out a graph of results.
7. Repeat steps 1-6 twice.

Method 2: pH meter
1. Pour 100mL of fresh distilled water into two conical flasks. Label A and B.
2. Place one pH probe into the water of each flask.
3. Read initial pH reading of the water and record this in the results table.
gently for 2 minutes. Do not blow into flask B.
5. Record the pH in both flasks every 20 seconds for 2 minutes.
6. Repeat steps 1-5 twice, record and average.

Method 3: Universal Indicator
1. Pour 100mL of fresh distilled water into two conical flasks. Label A and B.
2. Add 3 drops of universal indicator to each flask and measure pH using the pH chart.
gently for 2 minutes. Do not blow into flask B. Use stopwatch to time accurately.
4. Record pH of water in each conical flask every 20 seconds.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 twice, record and average results.

Results
pH meter in beaker A
Time (s) pH reading Average pH
0 7.13
20 6.83
40 6.04
60 6.01
80 6.00
100 6.05
120 6.06

pH meter in beaker B: pH was constantly at 7.13 the entire time.

Universal indicator in beaker A
Time (s) pH reading Average pH
0 7 7
20 6 6
40 6 6
60 6 6
80 6 6
100 6 6
120 6 6
Universal indicator in beaker B: pH was 7 the entire time, it stayed green.

Conclusion: The more carbon dioxide added, the lower the pH of the water. The hypothesis was correct in predicting
this, we were able to find the effect of carbon dioxide dissolved in water.

Discussion:
Initial pH was 7 and final pH was 6. Flask B was the control group set up under normal conditions to which other set
ups are compared. It did not have a changed independent variable, so we are able to make sure it is the independent
variable that produced the results. Dependent variable: pH. Independent variable: carbon dioxide amount. Carbon
dioxide from exhaled air (4%) dissolved into the water to lower pH. This is made through respiration.
A change in pH would be dangerous in our body because enzymes are denatured at too low a pH, and the oxygen
saturation abilities of haemoglobin decrease when pH decreases.
Data logger was most accurate; it gave pH to 2 decimal places (3 significant figures) and gave a continuous pH
reading and wasn't subjective. Universal indicator only measured pH to whole numbers, and was subjective (and
qualitative).
Results were reliable because the experiment was repeated and results were consistent.
Experiment was valid because variables were controlled and a control group was used in order to reach a conclusion
about the aim. Controlled variables: volume of water, size and surface area of flasks, time taken to blow, designated
blower
More efficient to work as a team; roles can be assigned.
Working in a team uses less resources (so individuals don't get a flask each, and all use up a heap of universal
indicator etc.)
Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to
estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each.

Measurement of the size of blood cells

Aim: To estimate the size of red and white blood cells.

Equipment:
• Light microscope
• Prepared blood cell slide
• Grid slide
• Clear plastic ruler (mm graduations)

Risk Assessment:
Blood cells Potential biological hazard due to pathogens Use with care, use a prepared sealed sterilised slide,
that can cause disease wash hands, use gloves
Glass slides May shatter and cause cuts and injuries Don't break it. If this happens, ask a teacher to
clean it up immediately.

Method 1: Estimate the diameter of the low and high power field of view.
1. Set up the grid slide on the microscope. Focus under low power, estimate how many 1mm squares fit across
the diameter. This is the field of view under low power. E.g. if 1.6 squares fit across it, the field of view is
1.6mm or 1600µm.
2. Low power magnification is 100x. Higher power magnification is 4 times this (400x). Field of view under higher
power = field of view under low power divided by 4.

Results 1:
Magnification low power = 100x
Field of view (diameter) low power = 1.75mm (1.8mm)

Magnification high power: 400x
Field of view (diameter) high power = 450µm

Method 2: Estimate the size of a red blood cell
1. Set up the prepared slide of human blood under high power. Then line up red blood cells across the diameter
of the field of view; estimate how many of them fit end to end along it.
2. Repeat step one 3 times with a different part of the specimen, obtain an average.
3. Calculate average diameter of red blood cells. Record results in table. Diameter = Field of view/number of cells

Results 2:
Trial Number of red blood Field of view Calculation of average Average size of red blood
cells (µm) diameter cell (µm)
1 52 450 450/52 = 8.6538 8.65
2 66 450 450/66=6.8182 6.82
3 56 450 450/56=8.0357 8.04
Average 58 450 450/58=7.7586 7.76

Method 3: Estimating the size of a white blood cell
Not enough white blood cells to line up, so we estimate size by comparing to nearby red blood cells.
1. Find a white blood cell and compare its size to a nearby red blood cell.
2. Estimate the size of the white blood cell relative to the red blood cell.
3. Repeat 1-2 three times and average results.

Results 3:
Trial Estimated size of white blood cell (µm)
1 15.52
2 19.4
3 15.52
Average 16.81

Method 4: Drawing Scaled Diagrams
1. Draw a scaled, labeled diagram of a red and white blood cell
2. Use the scale 1cm:2µm

Results 4:
Red Blood Cell (8µm) White blood cell (15µm)
Scale = 1cm: 2µm Scale = 1cm: 2µm

Almost a perfect circle, with cell membrane and A big blob with an alien shape in the middle: that is the
cytoplasm labelled; nothing else! nucleus. Also label cell membrane and cytoplasm.

Conclusion:
We were able to reach a conclusion about the estimated size of red and white blood cells. Red blood cells are around
7.5µm, and white blood cells are around 13µm.

Discussion:
Difficulties included miscounting because red blood cells are very small and there were many gaps in between each
cell that had to be accounted for.
White blood cells were larger, less common and stained a bluey purple colour compared to the red blood cells. The
nuclei of the white blood cells were also visible, unlike the red blood cells without a nucleus.
Red blood cells are much smaller than white blood cells, but are more abundant. They are around 7.5µm.
White blood cells are larger than red blood cells, but less abundant. They are around 15µm.
Experiment was reliable because trials were repeated and the results were consistent, using different sections of the
slide.
Accuracy was compared to a known figure taken from a secondary source measured with very accurate equipment.

Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin.

Haemoglobin
Often abbreviated to Hb, it is a protein compound that transports oxygen in red blood cells, and is responsible for
the red colour of bloody.
A molecule consists of:
• 4 polypeptide chains called Globins. Two types: alpha and beta chains.
• 4 Haem molecules. Each haem molecule contains an iron atom that can combine and bind to the oxygen
molecule.
• Each haemoglobin molecule can carry 4 molecules of oxygen.

Each red blood cell contains 200-300 million molecules of haemoglobin.

Oxygen entering blood:
• Haemoglobin combined with oxygen is called oxy-haemoglobin and is bright red in colour.
• 98% of the oxygen that diffuses through alveoli and capillary walls and enters the blood is carried as oxy-
haemoglobin.
• 2% of the oxygen remains dissolved in plasma and is transported in that form.
• Hb + 4O2 --> Hb(O2)4

When blood reaches tissues:
• Oxy-haemoglobin dissociates and oxygen is free to diffuse into plasma through capillary walls to enter
interstitial fluid and cells.
• After releasing oxygen, the haemoglobin becomes deoxyhaemoglobin and is a duller red.
• Hb(O2)4 --> Hb + 4O2

Adaptive advantage of haemoglobin:
• Oxygen isn't very soluble in water/plasma. Haemoglobin greatly increases oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.
(By 100 times)
• Ability to transport large quantities of oxygen to tissues gives mammals an adaptive advantage over other
organisms because they can maintain a high metabolic rate.
• Ability of oxygen to bind to haemoglobin increases once the first molecule of oxygen binds. This increases rate
and efficiency of oxygen uptake; advantage during exercise.
• Haemoglobin is able to release oxygen. As carbon dioxide concentration increases, oxygen carrying capacity of
haemoglobin decreases in blood.

Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function.

Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
Vessel Diagram Structure and Function
Artery • Transport oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary artery) away
from the heart.
• Thick wall and elastic smooth muscle layer in walls to withstand high
pressure that heart is pumping blood with
• Elastic fibres allow arteries to expand and recoil. These pulses
maintain heart rate.
• Smooth muscle fibres control lumen diameter of the artery and thus
pressure and flow of blood
• Small lumen than that of veins.
• Branch into smaller arterioles and then capillaries.
• Expansion and recoil of arteries close to surface of skin can be felt as
a pulse.
Vein • Carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein) towards the

heart.
• Flows at much lower pressure in veins:
• Thin muscle and elastic layers in walls
• Larger lumen diameter
• Backflow of blood is prevented by valves to make sure blood goes in

one direction.
• Situated between the skeletal muscular system. As muscles contract,
it helps to push blood through veins.
• Capillaries join to form smal venules which connect to make large
veins.
Capillarie • Walls only 1 cell thick, have very small lumen

s • Walls are an extension of the endothelium layer of arteries and
veins.
• Very narrow: red blood cells must pass through individually.
• Slows down blood flow to allow for material exchange with
surrounding cells.
• Surround body tissues, provide an expansive network so efficient
exchange of materials can occur (high surface area).

The Heart: a muscular pump which keeps blood circulating around the body.
Circulatory system is known as a double circulation system because on every circuit of the body, blood passes
through the heart twice.

Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and identify
tissues in which these changes occur.

Organs responsible for change in chemical concentration in blood

Organ/Tissue Chemical that changes concentration Reason for change in concentration
Lungs Oxygen increases Gas exchange: Oxygen diffuses from lungs to blood.
Carbon dioxide decreases Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to lungs and is
excreted.
Small intestine Products of digestion increase (glucose, Diffuse across villi, into blood to be carried to cells for
amino acids) respiration, repair and other things.
Large intestine Water, vitamins and minerals increase Diffuse across walls into blood to be carried to body
cells
Liver Unwanted substances e.g. toxins, Liver removes and breaks down toxins, alcohol and
alcohol, drugs etc. decrease drugs from blood
Liver Urea concentration increases, excess Ammonia and amino acids removed and converted into
amino acids and ammonia decrease nitrogenous waste: urea in the process of deamination
Liver Concentration of some vitamins and Liver stores some vitamins and minerals e.g. Vitamin A
minerals decrease and E, especially if they are fat soluble.
Liver Glucose concentrations increase or Can remove glucose to store as glycogen, or reload it
decrease into blood from glycogen stores.
Kidney Concentration of urea decrease Urea from liver in blood is filtered out and excreted in
urine
Kidney Concentration of water and salts Excess water and salt removed from blood in process
decrease of osmoregulation
Brain and active Oxygen and glucose decrease, carbon High rate of respiration uses up glucose and oxygen
muscle dioxide increases quickly, releasing more carbon dioxide into blood.

Summary
Chemical Source Destination Form in blood
Oxygen Lungs Cells Oxyhaemoglobin
Carbon dioxide Cells Lungs Bicarbonate ions
Water Small/large intestine Cells Water molecules
Sodium chloride Large intestine Cells Sodium and chloride ions
Glucose and amino acids Small intestine Cells Glucose and amino acid molecules
Urea Live Kidneys Urea molecules
Lipids Lymphatic system, intestines Cells chylomicrons

Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen
saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions which these
technologies are used.

Measuring Concentration of Blood Gases
• Measuring pH and amount of gases in blood can help doctors in their diagnosis of sick patients and in
monitoring them in hospital.
• Concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood are important indicators of how well lungs are
functioning, and effectiveness of circulation of blood within the body.
• Helpful for doctors looking after patients under anaesthetic, in intensive care, in the emergency department
and for premature newborn babies. E.g. when a patient is in a coma and on a respirator, so its function can be
assessed.
• pH of blood is an indicator of kidney and lung functioning. (Carbon dioxide and bicarbonate and hydrogen
ions)

Measurement of Oxygen Saturation:
• Amount of oxygen in blood, carried by haemoglobin. Normal oxygen saturation is ~96%.

Pulse oximeter:
• Easy to monitor under anaethesia/sedation, or with abnormal breathing.
• Monitors pulse
• Looks like a clothes peg which fits over the finger.
• Non invasive.
• Senses change in colour of blood: oxyhaemoglobin is brighter red than haemoglobin.


How it works:
• Red and infrared light is emitted from to LEDs in the top part. Amount of light passing through skin is
determined by an electronic sensor in the bottom. Optical technology is used to measure oxygen saturation in
blood.
• Red light (650nm)
• Infrared (940nm).
• Oxygenated blood reflects red light, deoxygenated blood absorbs more red light.
• Calculating the absorption of the two wavelengths by the photodetector, the processor can compute the
proportion of haemoglobin which is oxygenated.
• Signal amplified, oxygen saturation is calculated and displayed on screen.
• Uses physical (optical) methods of analysis

Disadvantages:
• No information about level of carbon dioxide, limitations in assessment of patients developing respiratory
failure due to high levels of carbon dioxide.
• No information about pathogens in blood
• No information about pH, bicarbonate concentration and partial pressures of gases.

Arteriol blood gas (ABG) analysis
• More invasive: used in study of patients with lung disease, poor gas exchange or unusual kdney function.
• Arteriol blood taken from easily accessible artery [radial (wrist), brachial (upper arm) or femoral (groin) artery].
• Syringe contains small amount of heparin to prevent coagulation.
• Visible gas bubbles eliminated as they can dissolve into the sample and cause inaccurate results.
• Sample packed into ice and taken to laboratory.

Sample is put into machine with measures:
• pH
• Partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide (concentration of gas in a medium)
• Bicarbonate concentration
• Oxygen saturation of haemoglobin
• Uses electrochemical methods of analysis

Disadvantages:
• Invasive
• Takes time

Measuring blood pH
• pH sensor used
• Glass bulb of sensor contains solution of known pH
• Sensor is placed into solution of unknown pH, difference between 2 solutions can be compared to calculate
blood pH.

Partial Pressure of Oxygen
• Only a small amount of oxygen can dissolve in arterial blood.
• This amount depends on the partial pressure: the pressure the gas exerts on the walls of the arteries
• Therefore testing the partial pressure of oxygen is measuring how much oxygen the lungs are delivering to the
blood.
• Measured using Clark oxygen sensor: oxygen in sample diffuses through gas permeable membrane where it
causes an electric current to be generated. This is proportional to the concentration of oxygen in the sample.

Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide
• Partial pressure indicates how well lungs are getting rid of carbon dioxide.
• Carbon dioxide dissolves better than oxygen does in blood: forms bicarbonate and carbonic acid.
• Lungs control carbonic acid level, kidneys regulate bicarbonate.
• If either organ isn't functioning properly, an acid-base imbalance results.
• Determination of bicarbonate and pH levels aids in diagnosing cause of abnormal blood gas values.
• Carbon dioxide sensors based on Severinghaus' 1965 design.
• Sensor detects pH changes in small volume of solution separated from the sample by a gas permeable
membrane.
• As carbon dioxide crosses the membrane, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which then breaks down
into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. This changes the pH, which is related to the concentration of carbon
dioxide.

Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from donated blood and discuss
the uses of these products.

Types of Donated Blood Products:

Whole blood:
• Blood with all components: unseparated
• Used for cancer, blood diseases, haemophilia, anaemia, heart disease, stomach and kidney disease, childbirth
• Blood loss trauma, burns etc.
• Stored for up to 42 days (red cells)

Red blood cells:
• Used for cancer, blood/heart/stomach/kidney disease, haemophilia, blood loss and trauma, childbirth,
operations

White blood cells:
• For patients who are not producing their own white blood cells
• For people with very low white blood cell count and serious bacterial infections

Plasma:
• Just the white/yellow liquid with dissolved proteins
• Used for immune system, muscle & nerve conditions, haemophilia, pregnancy (including anti-D), bleeding,
shock, burns etc.
• Can last for up to 1 year when frozen.

Platelets:
• Tiny protein plates in blood that help clotting and reduce bleeding.
• Vital for people with low platelet counts e.g. cancer patients. Used for leukaemia especial after chemotherapy
and bone marrow transplants
• Used after surgery, trauma, liver disease etc.
• Lasts only 5 days.
• For control of bleeding

Advantages of using blood products:
• Can last much longer usually
• Use of different components can be sent to the people that need them the most
• Less wastage
• You can store each component in its own ideal conditions

Plasma Product Uses
Product Use
Biostate (Factor 8) Management of haemophilia
Rh(D) Prevention of haemolytic disease in newborn babies from Rh(D) negative mothers.
Immunoglobin Prevents antibodies in mother's blood attacking the Rh+ blood of the baby.
(anti-D)
Intragram P Used to reduce susceptibility to infections and manages many immune system diseases

These individuals are ineligible to donate blood due to factors affecting blood quality:
• Under 50kg
• Younger than 16
• Older than 70
• Had a tattoo in last 4 months
• Pregnant/just given birth
• Have heart condition
• Anaemic
• At risk of mad cows disease
• Have had at risk sexual activity in the past 12 months
• Injected recreational drugs
• Going overseas to certain countries 4 months before
• Taken drugs e.g. panadol

Risk associated with blood transfusion:
• Wrong blood type used leading to immune rejection/reactions
• Incorrectly stored bad blood leading to organ failure and severe immune reactions
• Infections from pathogens.

Research to make transfusions better:
• Research into the breakdown of blood products that bind to nitric oxide (NO). This important to keep blood
vessels dilated for blood to flow properly.
• When blood is stored too long, haemoglobin breaks free from cells and binds to NO, collapsing vessels and
creating hypertension.
• Research into ways to prevent this may allow for blood to be stored longer and safer.


Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood
and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed.

Artificial Blood
Artificial blood is a synthetic substance used to maintain life in cases of heavy blood loss to transport oxygen to cells,
and to retain fluid volume.

Human blood Artificial blood
Similarities Both transport oxygen ""
Differences Red blood cells carry oxygen Oxygen carried by perfluorocarbons of HBOCs
Circulation time of 50 days Circulation time of 12-24 hours
Needs to be typed and cross matched No need for typing and cross matching
Stored at refrigerated temperatures Stored at room temperature
Short shelf life (1 month) Shelf life of 12 months
May carry pathogens Sterile

Blood substitutes are grouped according to their function: main area of current research targets oxygen transport,
and another area of research focuses on increasing blood volume using colloids and crystalloids that act as blood
expanders.

Perfluorocarbons:
• Inert compounds that can carry 50 more times oxygen than plasma. Oxygen is dissolved in the
perfluorocarbon.
• Advantage: enough to supply the cells if red blood cells are reduced after blood loss.
• Disadvantage: must be combined with lipids to form an emulsion in order for them to mix with the
bloodstream. Doesn't replace blood volume.


Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers
• Involve extracting haemoglobin from outdated donated human blood.
• Then cross-linked to enzymes found natural in blood to create a stable substitute.
• Advantage: transports oxygen
• Disadvantage: have a short circulated time as they are not protected in a cell.

Current use
• No safe and effective artificial blood being routinely used in Aus and the USA
• Scientists are continuing to develop and test possible blood replacements
• AIDS crisis in africa has been driving force for it to be one of the first places to approve an artificial blood
product for limited use in humans (haemopure).
Haemopure:
• Made from stabilised bovine haemoglobin in a balanced salt solution
• 1000x smaller than a red blood cell, it can flow through partially blocked arteries
• Has shelf life of 36 months stored at room temperature.
• Short circulation time (12-24 hours, 50 days for RBC)
Polyheme:
• Made of modified haemoglobin from human red blood cells.
• Can deliver oxygen up to three times more efficiently than red blood cells.
• Short circulation time

Current research include antigen camouflaging of red blood cells to produce a universal blood type, synthetic red
blood cells encapsulating haemoglobin inside biodegradable polymer membranes, and use of haemoglobin from the
earthworm which is up to 50 times larger than human haemoglobin.

Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential.

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Oxygen is needed in all living cells because it is a reactant used in respiration.

Glucose + oxygen --- citric acid/Krebs cycle ---> carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)

Energy if produced in the form of ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) which is chemical energy, and heat energy. This is
used for:
• Metabolism
• Growth
• Repair
• Movement
• Reproduction
• Excretion

Carbon dioxide is a by-prouduct of respiration. It is picked up from the cells and removed from the blood at the
lungs. It forms carbonic acid when dissolved in water.

A build-up of carbonic acid will lower the pH of blood. To maintain optimum pH, carbon dioxide must be removed
quickly.
When the pH of blood is low, the ability of haemoglobin to combine with oxygen decreases, and metabolism will be
interrupted as enzymes will denature.

Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and
phloem tissue.

Transport Mechanisms in Plants
• Xylem and phloem
• Found in vascular bundles in roots, stems and leaves
• Transport materials needed for photosynthesis and respiration, and products of photosynthesis.
• Movement of materials in plants is known as translocation.

Xylem
• Hollow tubes
• Transport water and inorganic mineral ions from roots to shoots.
• Formed from very thin cylinder shaped cells which have no end walls.
• No cytoplasm or nucleus, are dead cells.
• Hollow, little resistance to the flow of water.
• Cell walls very thick, cellulose fibres cemented together with lignin.
• Spiral lignin thickening gives added plant support.

How does water move up xylem cells?

Water molecules move through root hairs by osmosis,
and this helps to force water up xylem.
CAT: Cohesion, Adhesion, Transpiration pull.

Cohesion: Attraction force of water molecules to each
other; allowing a long column of water molecules to stay
attached to each other, due to hydrogen bonding.

Adhesion: attraction force of water to the xylem
(example is with the meniscus in cylinders)

Capillary forces (cohesion and adhesion) allow a column
of water to be supported at a height of several metres.
The thinner the vessel, the higher the water column can
be held.

Transpiration: Evaporation of water from leaves through
stomata.
• As each molecule is evaporates, it creates a
concentration gradient that draws water from xylem.
• This is the transpiration pull.

Therefore, cohesive and adhesive forces with the suction pull of transpiration creates the transpiration stream.

Phloem
• Hollow tubes which transport organic
materials (sugars, amino acids, hormones) up and
down a plant.
• Consist of sieve tube cells, with sieve plates
at both ends, and companion cells.
• Companion cell performs the normal cell
functions for both cells: it has a nucleus and lots of
mitochondria to provide energy for movement of
sugars.
• Pores between cells allow for movement of
cytoplasm.


Pressure Flow Theory: (Source to Sink)
Glucose is converted into sucrose and then moved to places to be converted into glucose for respiration or to starch
for storage.

• Sucrose into phloem is moved by active transport
• Sucrose within phloem is moved by passive transport
• Sucrose out of the phloem is moved by active transport

1. Source: Active loading
• At night, glucose is converted to sucrose and actively loaded into phloem cells.
2. Water osmosis
• Water moves into the phloem from the xylem by osmosis via the concentration gradient as sucrose
concentration increases.
• This creates an area of high osmotic pressure in the phloem near the leaves (source).
3. Pressure gradient (passive)
• As sucrose is removed from the phloem at the roots/fruits (sink), water follows and is removed from the
phloem by osmosis. This creates an area of low osmotic pressure at the sink. The pressure difference
causes a flow of sucrose in the direction of the sink.
4. Sugar removed: active unloading at sink
5. Water osmosis: water moves back into xylem.


Structure and function of phloem cells:
• Companion cells produce energy to transport sugars with lots of mitochondria.
• Sieve plates mean that sap doesn't have to undergo diffusion between each cell, they can just travel through
the gaps.

It's important for sugars to be transported to other areas of the plant as it's required for respiration to produce
energy. However, not all plant cells photosynthesise, so sugar must be transported.

Summary
Xylem Phloem
Type of material Water and dissolved minerals Sugars and organic nutrients: amino acids and hormones
Direction of flow Upwards: roots to leaves/shoots Leaves to other parts of the plant
Tissue Non-living Living
Main cell types Xylem vessels/cells Sieve tube cells & sieve plates
Fibres Companion cells
Tracheids
Parenchyma cells
Active or passive Passive Active and passive

Arrangement of Xylem and Phloem in a Plant

Root

Stem

Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather first-hand data to draw transverse
and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue.

First Hand Investigation - Xylem and Phloem

Aim: To observe and draw transverse and longitudinal sections of xylem and phloem
Equipment:
• Microscope slides
• Coverslips
• Scalpel
• Eosin stain
• Celery

Risk Assessment:
Scalpels Are sharp and can cut skin Cut away from yourself, alert teacher of any cuts
Microscopes Heavy, can damage feet if Place microscopes away from edge of the bench
dropped
Eosin stain Is poisonous Do not inhale/ingest. Wash hands thoroughly after handling
celery.

Method:
1. Cut a transverse section (across width of stem) through a vascular bundle in celery stem which has been left in
eosin solution.
2. Make a wet mount of the vascular bundle and observe xylem and phloem cells under 100x and 400x
magnification.
3. Draw a labelled diagram of xylem and phloem cells.
4. Record the distinguishing features of xylem and phloem cells in a transverse section.
5. Cut two longitudinal sections (along length of stem). One through the xylem and the other through the phloem
6. Make two wet mounts, observe cells under 100x and 400x magnification.
7. Draw labelled diagram of at least 2 xylem and 2 phloem cells.
8. Record distinguishing features of xylem and phloem cells in a longitudinal section.

Results



Transport Systems in Flowering Plants and Mammals

Flowering Plants Mammals
Similarities Transport nutrients around organism e.g. water, sugar, Blood in vessels and sugars in phloem move
amino acids, hormones, wastes along a pressure gradient
Use thin tubes for transporting material
Differences No cells in transport fluid Red and white blood cells and platelets
No haemoglobin or dissolved gases Haemoglobin used to transport oxygen,
carbon dioxide also transported
No control over diameter of vessels Vasodilation and vasoconstriction changes
diameter of vessels
Water and sugar carried in different tubes All nutrients carried in the same vessel
No pump Heart used as pump
Open system: fluid can travel between xylem and Fluid (plasma) is contained within vessels.
phloem


Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or visual
resources and identify the regions involved in the excretion of waste products

Kidney Dissection
Aim: To examine the external and internal structure of a kidney and relate structure to function.

Risk Assessment
Sheep kidney Biological hazard, pathogens can infect. Put in specialty bins to dispose of, wear gloves, wash
hands
Scalpel Sharp and can cause cuts and injury Handle with care

Method:
1. Carefully remove the fat from around the kidney with your fingers and the thin renal capsule.
2. Identify and separate the 3 tubes entering and leaving the kidney: the renal artery, renal vein and ureter.
3. Cut the kidney in half lengthwise. Leave the 3 tubes intact in one side of the dissection.
4. Observe the internal appearance and identify the 3 regions: cortex, medulla and pelvis as well as the renal
pyramids and calyces.
5. Draw a labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a kidney showing all 3 layers. Label the cortex, medulla,
renal pyramid, calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, renal artery and renal vein.
6. Dispose of the dissected kidney in a biological wastes bag. Wash bench and hands thoroughly and sterilise
used instruments.

Results

Conclusion: We were able to dissect a kidney and relate internal and external structures to function.

Discussion:
The renal artery had a thicker wall and smaller lumen, while the vein had a thinner wall and a larger lumen.
Cortex was extremely dark and was striated (with white lines going through it)
Medulla had pyramidal structures, was extremely red/pink because of a large blood supply.
Pelvis was very pale and white. Basin shaped.

Sheep and human kidney sizes are pretty much the same.
Investigation valid because we were able to reach a conclusion, and used a kidney structure very similar to that of a
human kidney.
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for optimal function.

The Importance of Water
• Water makes up 70-90% of living organisms. Internal concentration of water and solutes is similar to sea
water.
• Is one of the best solvents. Most substances dissolve in water (sugars, salts, gases) and water is the medium
for transport.
• Water forms basis of blood, digestive juice, interstitial fluid, fluid in xylem and phloem, and cytoplasm.
• Relative concentration of solutes and water maintains osmotic pressure. If this pressure changes, a cell may
gain water causing it to burst or slow down metabolism. Or it will lose water, shrink and disrupt metabolism
• Changes in osmotic pressure can affect pH
• Changes in osmotic pressure can affect structural support (especially with plants)

Living cells work best in an isotonic environment: solute concentration is same both in and out of the cell.
Organisms try to ensure water balance is maintained by homeostasis in cells, and concentration is held constant .

Roles of water:
Many metabolic reactions only take place in solution.
Water is also a reactant in many chemical reactions e.g. respiration and photosynthesis.

Water protects many organs and acts as a shock absorber e.g. cerebrospinal fluid around brain.

Water plays a role in temperature regulation e.g. sweat

Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity.

Waste Removal

Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in an organism
Excretion: the removal of metabolic wastes from the body

Main waste products: excess water, carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid, ammonia, creatinine) as
well as excess salts

Organs involved in excretion: liver, lungs, kidneys, skin

Lungs: Excrete carbon dioxide, this is essential as carbon dioxide lowers the pH of fluids which can disrupt enzyme
function and metabolism.

Formation of nitrogenous wastes:
• Excess amino acids in the blood are taken into the liver
• Liver converts amino acids to ammonia, which is then converted into the less toxic urea which is released into
the blood
• Urea is removed from the blood by the kidneys and released in urine

Nitrogenous wastes can make the body too alkaline which can denature enzymes and inhibit metabolism. (Especially
as ammonia is a weak base).
pH rise can interfere with transport of substances across membranes, and osmotic pressures, also affecting
metabolism.

2 main roles of the kidney:
1. Excrete urea and nitrogenous wastes with minimum water waste
2. Osmoregulation: balancing salt and water content of blood
3. Maintaining blood pressure, blood volume and pH through the 2 above functions.


Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the
function of the kidney.

Renal Dialysis

Causes of renal disease:
• Acute kidney injury: damage caused to tissue by drugs, severe infection, radiation or kidney obstructions.
• Chronic kidney disease from damaged blood vessels
• Auto-immune attacks
• Growth of kidney cysts
• Damaged due to backflow of urine into the kidney

Symptoms of renal failure:
• May not experience symptoms until 90% of kidney function is already lost.
• High blood pressure (not enough water removed by kidneys)
• Changes in amount and number of times urine is passed
• Changes in urine appearance
• Blood in urine
• Puffiness in legs/ankles/around eyes
• Pain in kidney area
• Tiredness
• Appetite loss, difficulty sleeping, headaches, lack of concentration, itching etc.

Dialysis: A procedure that filters your blood, getting rid of harmful nitrogenous wastes and balancing salt levels.

Components of dialysis:
Water: Concentration in dialysate controls how much water travels in/out of cells through osmosis
Glucose: level controlled so that blood sugar levels remain the same
Urea: dialysate doesn't contain this, so it travels out of the blood into the solution
Salts: level adjusted to maintain a correct salt balance

Dialysate must be constantly replaced to get rid of urea, and maintain a concentration gradient for urea to move out
of the body.

Haemodialysis vs Peritoneal dialysis
Haemodialysis Peritoneal Dialysis
Happens externally: blood pumped out of body Happens internally: blood remains in body
Uses dialysis tubing and dialyzer Uses peritoneal membrane in body
Dialysate remains external and is replace Dialysate poured into peritoneal cavity and flows out eventually
Takes at least 4 hours Takes around 1 hour
Cannot move while undergoing Can do regular activities

Kidney Function vs Renal Dialysis
Kidney Dialysis
Similarities Remove nitrogenous wastes as main Involve passive transport
function, and filter
Differences Natural body process Artificial process to replace damaged kidneys
Performed by two first-sized organs Performed by a dialysis machine attached to a variety of
computer and other equipment
Removes wastes constantly Performed intermittently under hospital conditions (2 or 3
times per week for several hours each)
Varies levels of ions automatically, Level of ions in blood and dialysate is monitored by computers
depending on needs of the body so that excess ions are removed. Some K and Na ions are
retained
Wastes may be removed by active Wastes removed by diffusion
and passive transport
Hormones involved No hormones involved in osmoregulation
No side effects Inconvenient and less effective than a real kidney.
Infections can occur.

Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals.
Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine concentration of
terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish.
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in
some organisms.

Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production and
excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals.

Excretion in Other Organisms

Fish:
• Main nitrogenous waste is ammonia
• Excretion occurs across the gills.
• Kidneys excrete ammonia and carry out osmoregulation.

In Mammals:
• Kidneys excrete main waste of urea via the urethra. They carry out osmoregulation.

Terrestrial vs Desert Terrestrial Mammals
Terrestrial mammals e.g. human Desert mammals e.g. kangaroo rat
Environment Environment varies in the availability of water, Very little water in dry environments. The drier
mammals must be able to adjust concentration of the environment, the longer the loop of Henle
urine according to the body's needs. and proximal tubule and the smaller the
bowman's capsule and glomerulus.
Metabolic water produced in respiration is
used.
Urine Concentration depends on water input and output. Very concentrated, low volume is excreted.
Average concentration of urine is 4 times more Concentration up to 8 times that of plasma
concentrated than plasm
Salt Depends on salt input and output. ""
Controlled by aldosterone with acts on the Distal
Convoluted Tubule and Loop of Henle
Drinking Freshwater Freshwater
Reasons Urea excreted because it is less toxic than Water needs to be conserved. Animals go for
ammonia and can be present in higher long times without drinking and may rely on
concentrations in the body water content in seeds and plants.

Marine vs Freshwater Fish
Marine Bony Fish e.g. whiting Freshwater fish e.g. native bass
Environment Tissues have higher water concentration Tissues have lower water concentration than
than environment environment
Water constantly moves out by osmosis Water constantly moves into fish by osmosis
Need to constantly get rid of water
Need to constantly take in and conserve
water
Nitrogenous Ammonia leaves via gills Ammonia leaves via gills
wastes Very few nephrons: small glomeruli Nephrons in kidney have large glomeruli, small
Small amounts of concentrated urine tubules, and no loop of Henle to reabsorb water.
produced: with urea, salts and water Lots of dilute urine produced: urine contains urea,
ammonia, salts and lots of water
Salt Gills actively excrete salts. Salt also Gills actively absorb salts, kidneys reabsorb salt
excreted in urine
Drinking Drinks seawater Does not drink
Reasons Constantly losing water, so can't excrete Lots of water absorbed through gills and mouth
much water. lining, so must be excreted
Salt moves into the fish by diffusion, so Salts actively taken up because salt concentration in
must be excreted freshwater is low.

The Grasshopper
• Use Malpighian tubules for excretion.
• These are branches of the digestive tract between the midgut
and hindgut.
• Release nitrogenous waste as uric acid into the body fluid.
• Absorbed by Malpighian tubules and passed into the insect's
hind gut.
• Uric acid precipitates out as crystals
• In rectum, there is some reabsorption of water ions.
• Do not urinate.
• Uric acid passes out with food wastes in almost a dry form,
conserving water.

Summary
Animal Nitrogenous Excretory Toxicity of waste Water demand
waste organs
Fish, unicellular Ammonia Kidneys, gill Most toxic and soluble Needs to be removed quickly in
organisms, tadpoles (mainly) and membranes in water a stream of flowing water
urea
Mammals, adult Urea Kidneys Less toxic than Dissolved in water for removal,
frogs ammonia, soluble in cannot accumulate for a long
water period of time
Insects, birds, Uric acid Malpighian Non-toxic, insoluble Excreted as a white solid paste,
reptiles tubules in doesn't require water
insects

Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian
kidney.

Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid
composition.

Active and Passive Transport

• Way in which nitrogenous wastes are excreted from the bodies animals depends on the type of animal and
environment.
• Unicellular organisms e.g. bacteria: excretion can occur solely by the process of diffusion and osmosis across
the cell membrane. Large surface area to volume ratio of unicellular organisms ensure this can happen.
• Multicellular organisms are too large to rely on diffusion and osmosis for excretion.

Why is diffusion inadequate?
• Rate of diffusion is too slow (as concentration of wastes equalises between cells and outside, rate slows down)
• Not all wastes can be removed by diffusion
• Too much water may be lost in urine

In the kidneys, both passive and active transport are used.
Passive: diffusion & osmosis
Active: active uptake and secretion

The Nephron
• Filters the blood for nitrogenous wastes
• Maintains correct osmotic balance in blood (water & salt)
• Balances pH of blood through bicarbonate ions.

1. Blood in renal artery
2. Glomerulus (blood vessels)
3. Bowman's capsule
4. Proximal convoluted tubule
5. Descending loop of Henle
6. Distal convoluted tubule
7. Ascending loop of Henle
8. Collecting duct
9. Capillaries

Nephron Processes

Filtration:
• Occurs in glomerulus: a tight knot of blood vessels branched from renal artery
• Blood is under very high pressure
• Causes lots of blood plasma to flow through capillary walls and into the Bowman's capsule
• Small things will be filtered out of the blood e.g. water, nitrogenous wastes, amino acids, glucose, urea,
vitamins, hormones and salts.
• Almost 200L of fluid seeps out of the glomerulus each day.
• Substance which passes through is called glomerular filtrate. Most is reabsorbed.
• Big molecules e.g. red and white blood cells, plasma proteins are too large to move out, so remain in blood.

Reabsorption:
• Most water in filtrate must be reabsorbed as adults only lose around 1.5L of urine a day usually.
• All glucose and amino acids must be reabsorbed.
• Some salts need to be reabsorbed to that the correct amount is found in blood.

Secretion: Active process
• Hydrogen ions, drugs and excess urea are removed from blood and tissues, and are secreted into the nephron
tubule.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule:
• Absorbs all glucose and amino acids.
o Some can return via diffusion
o However all must be reabsorbed
o Therefore is active process
• Ions reabsorbed
o Bicarbonate and potassium reabsorbed passively
o Sodium and chloride ions reabsorbed actively
• Hydrogen ions, extra urea, drugs (e.g. penicillin, aspirin, morphine) actively secreted into proximal tubule

Loop of Henle:
• Reabsorbs water
• When glucose, amino acids and ions are returned to the blood in the capillaries, 80% of the water will follow
passively by osmosis until concentrations are equal. However, this is insufficient and we would lose 40L of
urine per day.
• Water can't be absorbed by active transport
• Ascending loop of henle:
o Salts (NaCl) actively pumped out, enter interstitial fluid.
o This makes interstitial fluid around the loop of henle very salty
o Impermeable to water, only permeable to salt
• Descending loop of henle:
o Water follows the salt via osmosis into interstitial fluid
o Water reabsorbed into blood capillaries

Distal Convoluted Tubule
• Ions secreted and reabsorbed to adjust pH and salt balance of blood.
• Active reabsorption: sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions. Water follows by osmosis
• Potassium and Hydrogen ions are secreted into tubule actively, added to urine

Collecting Duct:
• Final reabsorption of water takes place by osmosis
• Hormones control permeability of walls of collecting duct to salt ions and water, altering amount of water and
ions that are reabsorbed.
• Duct connects to renal pelvis, then ureter, then the bladder and urethra.

Urine contains 97% water, 3% nitrogenous wastes and salt.

Where does this process occur in the
nephron?
Process Definition
Why is this process important?
Passive Movement of liquid or gas through cell

Transport membranes without using any energy.
Substances move from a region of higher to
lower concentration.
Diffusion The movement of a substance from an area PCT: Bicarbonate and Potassium ions
where it is in high concentration to an area absorbed
where it is in low concentration down a
concentration gradient Collecting duct: Sodium and Chloride diffuses
out of duct into blood
Important to balance salt concentration
Osmosis The diffusion of water across a semi- Water reabsorbed in DCT, descending loop
permeable membrane down a concentration of Henle and collecting duct.
gradient (from an area where it is in high Important so we don’t lose all our water.
concentration to an area where it is in low
concentration.
Active Movement of substances across membranes

Transport that requires the expenditure of energy.
Moves substances against a concentration
gradient from a region of lower to higher
concentration.
Active Uptake The active reabsorption of substances from PCT: NaCl absorbed actively
the tubule into the blood
Ascending loop of Henle: NaCl pumped out
DCT: NaCl and bicarbonate absorbed actively
Secretion The active movement of particular PCT: Hydrogen, urea and drugs secreted
substances across the cells of the tubule
walls into the filtrate. DCT: Hydrogen and potassium ions secreted

Outline the role of hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), in the regulation of water and salt
levels in blood.

Aldosterone and ADH (Anti-diuretic hormone)

Hormones:
• Chemical messengers released by glands in the Endocrine system
• Travel in blood to specific target cells in target organs
• Bring about changes in metabolic activity and their levels in blood are controlled by feedback systems

Regulation of Water Levels
• Amount of water reabsorbed matches body's needs and is regulated by the hypothalamus.
ADH (Antidiuretic hormone) causes water retention in the body


Regulation of Salt Levels in the Blood
• Low salt (sodium ion) concentrations of a decrease in blood volume and pressure is detected by kidneys.
• Aldosterone causes retention of sodium ions.
• Aldosterone is released from the adrenal glands, and signal the ascending loop of Henle to become more
permeable to salt.

Response to low blood salt levels (and low blood pressure):
• Low salt/decrease in blood pressure detected by receptor cells in kidney
• Adrenal glands release aldosterone
• More aldosterone means more sodium ions reabsorbed into bloodstream along ascending loop of Henle and
DCT. Tubule becomes more permeable to sodium.
• Decreased levels of sodium in urine, more sodium retained.
• Leads to normal blood salt levels.

Response to high blood salt levels (and high blood pressure):
• High blood salt and pressure detected by receptor cells in kidney
• Aldosterone not released by adrenal glands
• Less reabsorption of sodium into bloodstream in DCT and ascending loop of Henle. Tubule is less permeable to
sodium.
• Increased levels of sodium in urine, more sodium is lost
• Leads to normal blood salt levels.

Summary
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) Aldosterone
Release controlled Hypothalamus and pituitary gland, Kidney detector cells and adrenal glands, sodium
by amount of water levels
Stimulus Low water Low salt
Location of Hypothalamus (brain) Kidney receptor cells
receptor
Location of Pituitary gland (under hypothalamus) Adrenal glands (on top of kidneys)
hormone release
Target cells DCT and collecting ducts in kidney, DCT and ascending loop of Henle, more sodium
(descending loop of henle) reabsorbed as tubule becomes more permeable
Response More water is reabsorbed, leading to an More salt reabsorbed along with water via osmosis,
increase in blood water levels increase in blood pressure and salt levels.

Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot secrete
aldosterone.

Addison's Disease
• Insufficient aldosterone produced by cortex of adrenal gland
• Caused by autoimmune disease 98% of the time, immune system causes inflammation in glands.
• Also caused by tuberculosis or cancer which destroys the adrenal gland or the pituitary gland that controls it.
• Results in low sodium levels and high potassium levels which lead to low blood volume and pressure.

Symptoms:
• Weakness and tiredness
• Weight loss
• Increased appetite for salt
• Feeling light headed

Consequences:
• Raised heart rate and dangerously low blood pressure
• Nausea, vomiting, acute abdominal pain
• Unconsciousness and death due to heart failure

Treatment: Hormone Replacement Therapy
• Take fludrocortisone one a day.
• This can raise blood volume and pressure and remove the danger of heart failure allows sufferers to lead
normal lives.
• This is manufactured by genetic engineering.
• Excessive fludrocortisone may result in high blood pressure or heart failure.

Precautions taken by Addison Disease Patients
• Eat regularly
• Always wear/carry medical identification
• Travel with a clearly labelled emergency kit which has a syringe and needle, hydrocortisone and instructions
• Avoid strenuous physical activity in hot, humid weather.
• Eat lots of salts and drink more fluids.
• Follow doctor's directions.

Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the
environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations.

Enantiostasis: The maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the
environment.
Organisms have evolved adaptations to allow them to maintain normal physiological functioning despite
fluctuations.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment through negative feedback systems that
counteract changes in the internal environment.

Enantiostasis is where an organism maintains normal functioning despite the outside environment changing.
It can do this without maintaining homeostasis.

Estuaries
An estuary is the area where a river meets the sea, is filled with brackish water. Salt and water concentrations
fluctuate on a daily basis e.g. Sydney Harbour, Lane Cove river estuary etc.

Is a unique area because salt and water levels fluctuate depending on tides, rainwater and distance from the see.

Osmoconformers and Osmoregulators
Osmoconformers Osmoregulators
Conform to changes in environment by modifying salt Avoid changes internal environment , excludes salts
concentrations in body to match fluctuations in the from cells.
environment. Body fluids similar to a marine environment, so when
Concentration of salt in the body cells and environment exposed to freshwater, produces dilute urine to reduce
are the same. excess water intake.
Metabolic process can tolerate large changes in salinity in
own body fluids and cells.
E.g. Fiddler crab: when in salt water it accumulates E.g. Mussels in rock pools close valves when the tide is
additional salt, and pumps this out from gills in freshwater out to keep the salt concentration the same as that of
sea water
Salmon drink and eliminate salt through gills. In
freshwater they stop drinking, absorb salt through gills
and excrete dilute urine.
Bullsharks too.

Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss processes used by
different plants for salt regulation in saline environments.

Plants in Saline Environments

Mangroves are halophytes (salt plants) and can live in high salinity environments that are usually fatal. They tolerate
salt in sap, and have mechanisms to reduce the concentration of salt in their tissues
• Salt exclusion: special tissues in roots form a barrier against salt, so xylem don't have very salty water.
• Salt accumulation: excess salt is accumulated in bark and old leaves, this is lost when the leaves fall off
• Salt secretion: mangroves with high levels of salt in xylem secrete. They do this through special glands on their
leaf surfaces, and the salt crystallises when water evaporates. This is blown off by wind, and washed off by
rain.

The Salt bush:
• Terrestrial plant that lives in saline conditions
• Excrete large amounts of salt through special glands in their leaves.
• Rain washes salt of

Australian Samphire:
• Succulent plant found on salt marshes.
• Accumulates salt in swollen leaf bases which are sloughed off, removing excess salt.

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plans that assist in minimising water loss.

Minimising Water Loss in Plants
• Water is lost in transpiration, evaporating through stomates.
• To reduce water loss, it can close stomata, but they need to be open for gas exchange for photosynthesis.
• Water loss by transpiration is also a cooling mechanism.
• Plants in arid environments must balance these needs.

Adaptations of Xerophytes: Xerophytes are plants that have adaptations to survive under dry and hot conditions.
E.g. acacias, eucalyptes
• Phyllodes: Many plants in the Acacia group replace leaves with phyllodes (modified leaf stalks). Contains fewer
stomata than normal leaves.
• Reduced leaf size: Plants such as casuarinas reduce leaf size so much that they are nearly scales. This reduces
stomates and water loss. Cacti have reduced leaves to spines.
• Sunken stomates: Some leaves such as those on the Wollemi pine, hakea and cladodes of Casuarina have
stomates that are sunken into the leaf. These are not in direct contact with the atmosphere, so water
evaporation is reduced. Stomates are protected in a cave-like area. Creates a high humidity area above
stomates so rate of transpiration is reduced.
• Waxy cuticle: some leaves have an extra thick layer of waxy cuticle to reduce water loss e.g. eucalypts, salt
bush and banksias
• Leaf curl: eucalyptus, and porcupine grasses curl leaves when temperatures get too high. Most stomates are
on the upper side of their leaves so when the leaves roll up, the stomates are on the inside and are protected
from water los.
• Hairy leaves: hairs trap water that has been evaporated to reduce water loss e.g. coastal banksia
• Fleshy/succulent stems/leaves: store water when it is readily available. Water is then able to be released from
these stores.
• Shallow root system: cacti have shallow root systems just below the surface so they can absorb overnight
condensation
• Deep root system: acacias have deep tap roots that can reach the water supply in the lower water table.
• CAM Plants (Crassulacean acid metabolism): close stomates in the day, open stomata at night to let carbon
dioxide in, storing it in vacuoles.

Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in plants that assist in the conservation
of water.

Conservation of Water

Aim: To gather information and observe structures in plants that assist in the conservation of water.

Risk assessment:
Glass slides Can break and cause cuts and Handle with care, if broken, contact teacher to clean up
scrapes immediately.

Equipment:
• Plant material: eucalypts, banksia, casuarina
• Hand lens
• Slide of xerophyte cross section

Method A
1. Collect 2 plant specimens that have adaptations to minimise water loss e.g. casuarinas, eucalyptus, Spinifex,
acacia, hakea, grevillea, banksias, eucalypts, cacti, succulents
2. Carefully observe each of the plant structures that minimises water loss. Use a hand lens if necessary.
3. Make a neat labelled drawing of a leaf from 2 of the plant samples. Label the relevant structures and state
how it helps to minimise water loss. Include a scale.
4. Using a light microscope, observe the position of stomata in the cross section of a xerophytic leaf.
5. Draw a labelled diagram of the cells surrounding a sunken stomate.

Results:
Banksia: pointed tips to reduce surface area
Eucalyptus: leaves curling to minimise water loss
Pitted stomates to reduce water loss

Conclusion: we were able to gather information and observe how various plants conserve water.

Plant Adaptation Reason
Banksia Narrow leaves Reduces surface area for water evaporation
Waxy Prevents water evaporation
Eucalyptus Waxy Prevents water evaporation
Curled Reduces surface area exposed to the sun
Narrow leaves Reduces surface are for water evaporation
Hang vertically Reduces surface area exposed to sun when overhead
Pale leaves Light and heat is absorbed less, so less photosynthesis that uses up water.

Maintaining A Balance - Biology HSC

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Belinda

Zhang HSC Biology

Vein • Carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein) towards the

Capillarie • Walls only 1 cell thick, have very small lumen

Passive Movement of liquid or gas through cell

Important to balance salt concentration

Active Movement of substances across membranes

DCT: NaCl and bicarbonate absorbed actively

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