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Composite Materials and Structures
Composite Materials and Structures
Composite
Materials and
Structures
4. Define
(a) Lamina
(b) Laminate.
PART B (5 ë 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) What are the advantages of composite materials in compare
with isotropic materials.
13. (a) What is Maximum Strain theory, Tsai Hill Theory and Tsai Wu Theory.
Or
(b) What are the applications of Composite Materials.
15. (a) What are the materials used for sandwich construction? What are
the applications of Sandwich structures.
Or
(b) (i) For a graphite/epoxy unidirectional lamina, find the following.
(i) Compliance matrix.
(ii) Minor poisons ratio.
(iii) Reduced stiffness matrix.
(iv) Strains in the 1- 2 co-ordinate system if the applied stresses
are s1 = 2 MPa, s2 = -3 MPa, t12 = 4 MPa,
E1 = 181 GPa, E2 = 10.3 GPa, u12 = 0.28, G12 = 7.17 GPa.
(b) (ii) Find the following for a 60° angle lamina of graphite/epoxy.
E1 = 181 GPa, E2 = 10.3 GPa, u12 = 0.28, G12 = 7.17 GPa.
(a) Transformed compliance matrix
(b) Transformed reduced stiffness matrix
If the applied stress is sx = 2 MPa, sy = -3MPa, txy = 4 MPa,
also find
5. Smooth metal plates, free of surface defects, same size and shape as
that of a composite lay-up, used immediately in contact with the lay-up
during the curing process to transmit normal pressure and to a smooth
surface on the finished laminate.
6. A laminate in which the ply orientations are oriented at right angles to each
other, with ply orientations limited to 0° and 90° only. It is usually best to
arrange stacking sequences with fibers oriented in different directions.
7. Reinforcing fiber known for its light weight, high strength and high
stiffness produced by pyrolysis of an organic precursor fiber in an inert
atmosphere at temperature above 1000 °C. Can also be graphitised by
heat-treating above 2500 °C.
8. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher
thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness
with overall low density.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyur-
ethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams,
and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-
cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
10. The fiber treatment time and the MAH-PP concentration influenced
the mechanical properties of the composites. Flexural strength of
the composites with MAH-PP treated fibers was higher than that of
unmodified fibers, and increased with fiber loading. The cyclic-dynamic
values at an increasing load indicated that the coupling agent reduces
the progress of damage. Dynamic strength (dynamic failure stress at
load increasing test) of the MAH-PP modified composites is therefore
raised by about 40 %. SEM investigations confirm that the increase in
properties is caused by improved fiber-matrix adhesion. There was less
inclination for fibers to pull out of the matrix.
PART B
11. (a) (i) The advantages of composite materials
Cost: parts manufactured without Good resistance to ageing, even
machining phase and, depending outdoors (UV, thermal shocks,
on the technique, low investment etc.)
levels in tools
Excellent weight/mechanical Self-extinguishing, non toxicity
strength ratio of gases
Possibility of insert Thermal, electric and phonic
overmoulding and adjunction of insulation
accessories
Perfectly suited to aesthetics of Possibility of obtaining complex
modern, functional shapes shapes and integrating functions
Does not corrodes
(7) Medical
(8) Wind turbines
11. (a) (iii) The word “isotropy” is related with uniformity. The meaning
of the word itself is “uniformity in all directions.” As stated in the
introduction, the meaning may slightly differ according to the subject
area. For example, when talking about the isotropy of a material or
mineral, it means having the same properties in all directions. In
industrial processes isotropy means having the same rate in all the steps
regardless of the direction. Molecules having kinetic energy are said to be
moving randomly to any direction. Therefore, in a given time, there will
be many molecules moving in a similar direction, hence show isotropy.
Isotropy can be a property of some materials. Those materials will have
the same properties in all the directions (example: Amorphous solids).
For example, if a solid expands in a similar manner in all directions,
when heat is applied, is said to be isotropic.
Anisotropy, on the other hand, is dependent on the direction. It is the
opposite of isotropy. The measured properties of a material differ in
various directions in anisotropy. These properties can be physical or
mechanical properties like conductivity, tensile strength or absorbance.
Like the word isotropy, anisotropy also has slightly different meanings
in different subjects where it is used. Normally, liquids have no order
in molecules. Anisotropic liquids are liquid with a structural order in
contrast to other common liquids. The sedimentary materials can have
electrical anisotropy, where the electrical conductivity differs from one
direction to another direction. The rock forming minerals are anisotropic
in relative to their optical properties. The orientation of nuclei of a
molecule differs with the strength of the applied magnetic field in
NMR spectroscopy. In this case, anisotropic systems are referred to the
molecules with high electron density. Because of the anisotropic effect
(in molecules with high electron density), the applied magnetic field
is felt differently to the molecule (most often less than the real value);
therefore, the chemical shift varies. In fluorescence spectroscopy also
anisotropic measurement of the fluorescence polarization is used, to
determine the molecular structures. Further, anisotropy is a common
concept in medicine when talking about the ultrasound imaging.
An orthotropic material has two or three mutually orthogonal twofold axes
of rotational symmetry so that its mechanical properties are, in general,
different along each axis. Orthotropic materials are thus anisotropic;
their properties depend on the direction in which they are measured. An
isotropic material, in contrast, has the same properties in every direction.
1 v yx v zx
− 0 0 0
Ex Ey Ez
v 1 v zy
− xy − 0 0 0
e
xx E x Ey Ez s xx
e yy v xz v yz 1 s yy
e − − 0 0 0 s
zz = E x Ey Ez
zz
e yz 1 s y z
0 0 0 0 0
e zx 2G yz s zx
e s
xy 0 1 xy
0 0 0 0
2G zx
1
0 0 0 0 0
2G xy
where,
n yz n zy n zx n xz n xy n yx
= , = , =
E y Ez Ez Ex Ex E y
Note that, in orthotropic materials, there is no interaction between the
normal stresses sx, sy, sz and the shear strains eyz, ezx, exy .
The factor 1/2 multiplying the shear modulii in the compliance matrix
results from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear
strain, where
n xy = e xy + e yx = 2e xy , etc.
The factor of 2 multiplying the shear modulii in the stiffness matrix results
from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear strain,
where,
n xy = e xy + e yx = 2e xy , etc.
where _ij is the part of -i that is due to the load Fj , and can be expressed
as _ij = f ijFj, f ij being the corresponding flexibility coefficient.
According to the Maxwell–Betti Reciprocal Theorem, Fi_ij = Fj_ji (the
work done by one load on the displacement due to a second load is equal
to the work done by the second load on the displacement due to the first),
or, equivalently, f ij = fji (the flexibility matrix is symmetric).
To prove the theorem, it is sufficient to consider a system with only two
loads. If only F1 is applied first, the displacement _1 has the value _11 (while
_2 has the value _21)and the strain energy at that stage is 1 2F1_11. Applying
F2 (with F1 remaining in place) results in the additional displacements
_12 and _22. The work done by F2 is 1 2F2_22, while the additional work
done by F1 is F1_12 (note the absence of the factor of one-half, since F1
remains constant in the process). The final value of the strain energy (or
complementary energy) is therefore
U = -U = 1
F
2 1_11 +1
F
2 2_22 + F1_12.
If the order of application of the loads is reversed, the result is obviously
= -U = 1
F
2 2_22 +1
F
2 1_11 + F2_21.
In a linear elastic system, however, the complementary energy is a
function of the loads only and is independent of the order in which they
are applied. Consequently, F1_12 = F2_21, and the theorem is proved.
It also follows that the stiffness matrix [kij] = [f ij]−1 is symmetric.
where the resin undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may be used
in pultrusion including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and epoxy.
The technology is not limited to thermosetting polymers. More recently,
pultrusion has been successfully used with thermoplastic matrices such
as polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
either by powder impregnation of the glass fiber or by surrounding it
with sheet material of the thermoplastic matrix, which is then heated.
Ecological cleanness of manufactured products, in contrast to composites
on thermosetting resins base, as well as practically unlimited possibilities
of recycling (processing) after the resource depletion appear to be forcible
arguments in favor of reinforced thermoplastics. For these reasons the
industrial output and use of the given materials in highly industrialized
countries have increased by 8-10% per year in recent decades.
Pultrusion technology of manufacturing of fiber composites with
polymer matrix appears to be energy-efficient and resource-saving.
For economic and environmental reasons the matrix of thermoplastic
polymers is more preferable, but due to the high viscosity of melts it
is difficult to achieve high productivity and high quality of fiberfills
impregnation.
Products manufactured under this technology, are widely used in the
following industries:
• In agriculture and chemical industry for manufacturing of chemically
resistant to aggressive media slatted floors with enhanced strength
characteristics used in the construction of livestock facilities, chemical
plants, etc.;
• In construction industry for the production of glass-fiber reinforcement,
profiles, carcasses, stiffening bars for PVC-windows, etc.;
• In aerospace industry for manufacturing of structure components of
aircraft;
• In sports and tourism industry for manufacturing of equipment
having enhanced strength properties: skis, ski poles, tent and hovel
constructions, etc.;
• In electrical power engineering for manufacturing of dielectric
structures, fiberglass rods used in composite insulators and as
supporting structures for elements of signaling blocks, and fiberglass
profiles used in manufacturing of transformers and electric motors;
• In commercial production, using grains of long-fiber molding material
(LLM) as a raw material for subsequent manufacturing of structures
and products with enhanced strength and chemical properties;
12. (b) Transfer molding, like compression molding, is a process where the
amount of molding material (usually a thermoset plastic) is measured
and inserted before the molding takes place. The molding material is
preheated and loaded into a chamber known as the pot. A plunger is then
used to force the material from the pot through channels known as a
sprue and runner system into the mold cavities. The mold remains closed
as the material is inserted and is opened to release the part from the
sprue and runner. The mold walls are heated to a temperature above the
melting point of the mold material; this allows a faster flow of material
through the cavities.
Transfer molding: This is an automated operation that combines com-
pression-, molding, and transfer-molding processes. This combination
has the good surface finish, dimensional stability, and mechanical prop-
erties obtained in compression molding and the high-automation capa-
bility and low cost of injection molding and transfer molding. Transfer
Molding is having a “piston and cylinder”-like device built into the mold
so that the rubber is squirted into the cavity through small holes. A piece
of uncured rubber is placed into a portion of the transfer mold called
the “pot”. The mold is closed and under hydraulic pressure the rubber
or plastic is forced through a small hole (the “gate”) into the cavity. The
mold is held closed while the plastic or rubber cures. The plunger is
raised up and the “transfer pad” material may be removed and thrown
away. The transfer mold is opened and the part can be removed. The
flash and the gate may need to be trimmed. Another key point is that a
premeasured amount of thermosetting plastic in powder, preform, and
even granular form can be placed into the heating chamber.
The molds in both compression and transfer molding remain closed
until the curing reaction within the material is complete. Ejector pins are
usually incorporated into the design of the molding tool and are used to
push the part from the mold once it has hardened. These types of molding
are ideal for high production runs as they have short production cycles.
Transfer molding, unlike compression molding uses a closed mold, so
smaller tolerances and more intricate parts can be achieved. The fixed
cost of the tooling in transfer molding is greater than in compression
molding and as both methods produce waste material, whether it be flash
or the material remaining in the sprue and runners, transfer molding is
the more expensive process.
Transfer molding (TM) (or resin transfer molding, RTM) differs from
compression molding in that in TM the resin is inserted into the mold
(or tool) which contains the layers of fibres or a preform, whereas in
compression molding prepregs or molding compounds are in the mold
which is then heated and pressure is applied. No further pressure is
applied in TM.
In RTM the resin is injected or drawn into a mold, which contains the
fibres, from a homogeniser under low pressure. The mold can be made
from composites for low production cycles or with aluminium or steel for
larger production. The differences between the two types being that metal
has better heat transfer, hence quicker cycle times; metal lasts longer and
deforms less, but at a higher cost. The main problem with this production
route is that air can be trapped in mold and hence a method must be
incorporated for allowing this air to escape. A number of solutions to the
problem exist including extending one level of reinforcement beyond the
cavity (with a 25% resin loss), appropriate vents and creating a vacuum in
the mold (which also improves quality). Larger structures, better properties
(less movement of fibres), increased flexibility of design and lower cost
are some of the advantage this process has over compression molding
due mainly to the low pressure injection. Other benefits include rapid
manufacture, not labour intensive, ability to vary reinforcements easily or
include cores such as foam and produce low and high quality products.
In the semiconductor industry, package encapsulation is usually done
with transfer molding due to the high accuracy of transfer molding
tooling and low cycle time of the process.
However, the drive to introduce “Green” manufacturing is becoming a
mandatory process in most semicon assembly operations. New transfer
mold designs integrated with suitable surface treatments like CrN, MiCC
and H Cr plating are becoming more popular in the industry.
Some common products are utensil handles, electric appliance parts,
electronic component, and connectors. Transfer molding is widely used
to enclose or encapsulate items such as coils, integrated circuits, plugs,
connectors, and other components.
Plunger molding is a variation on transfer molding, where an auxiliary
ram exerts pressure on the material being molded. This approach often
performs better in fully automatic operation.
s 2 /syp
1.0
0.5
s 1/syp
−1.0 − 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
− 0.5
No yielding
predicted
−1.0
v = 0.35
Failure by yielding
principal material directions while keeping all other stresses zero (i.e.,
a1 # 0, 0 2 = 03 = t 1 2 = t i 3 = t 23 = 0) yields
Assuming a state of plane stress (03 = t i 3 = t 23 = 0) the failure theory
is written as
(G + H ) o ~ + (F + H) D; - 2Hala 2 + 2Ntf 2 = 1
GO: + Ha; + Fa: + Ha; - 2H 0102 + 2Nt:z = 1
Ga; + Fa: + H (a1 - ~ 2+) 2N ~ t;, = 1
Tsai Wu Theory
The Tsai–Wu failure criterion is a phenomenological failure theory
which is widely used for anisotropic composite materials which have
different strengths in tension and compression. This failure criterion is
a specialization of the general quadratic failure criterion proposed by
Gol’denblat and Kopnov and can be expressed in the form
Fis i + Fij s i s j ≥ 1
13. (b) Composites are one of the most widely used materials because
of their adaptability to different situations and the relative ease of
combination with other materials to serve specific purposes and exhibit
desirable properties.
In surface transportation, reinforced plastics are the kind of composites
used because of their huge size. They provide ample scope and
receptiveness to design changes, materials and processes. The strength-
weight ratio is higher than other materials. Their stiffness and cost
effectiveness offered, apart from easy availability of raw materials, make
them the obvious choice for applications in surface transportation.
In heavy transport vehicles, the composites are used in processing of
component parts with cost-effectiveness. Good reproductivity and
resilience handling by semi-skilled workers are the basic requirements
of a good composite material. While the costs of achieving advanced
composites may not justify the savings obtained in terms of weight
14. (a) The process for producing carbon fiber follows three to four steps:
The extrusion of the precursor, the stabilization of the precursor, the
carbonization of precursor, and optionally graphitization of carbon fiber.
The extrusion of the precursor has a great effect on the final properties
of the carbon fiber. The stabilization of the precursor is a diffusion
process and therefore depends upon the thickness of the carbon fiber it
should usually last between 2 and 4 hours for PAN fibers with diameters
of .001 to .0005 mm carbonization has been shown to be optimized at
temperatures between 1500 °C and 1600 °C. Graphitization occurs at
temperatures from 2500 °C to 3000 °C and is also conducted in an inert
atmosphere. To optimize the amount of inert gas required to maintain the
purging atmosphere of the carbonization and graphitization step without
decreasing the opening port to a size where it may damage the fiber
passing through it a liquid can be used to create a seal at the opening
port. Potential liquids must not react with the precursor as it passes
through them; liquids which may be used with PAN based fibers include
benzene, heavy gasoline or mercury.
The inert agent creates a seal between the oxygen atmosphere which the
polymer is oxidized in and the inert atmosphere of the carbonization.
This allows the orifices which the fiber must pass through between the
oxidation stage and carbonization stage to be large enough to avoid
damaging the fibers while still maintaining a seal. The seal allows
smaller amounts of inert gas to be used to maintain an oxygen free
atmosphere.
O O O O
NH NH NH NH NH
B
E
D
C
14. (b) Resin in the most specific use of the term is a hydrocarbon secretion
of many plants, particularly coniferous trees. Resins are valued for
their chemical properties and associated uses, such as the production of
varnishes, adhesives, and food glazing agents; as an important source of
raw materials for organic synthesis; and as constituents of incense and
perfume. Plant resins have a very long history that was documented in
ancient Greece by Theophrastus, in ancient Rome by Pliny the Elder,
and especially in the resins known as frankincense and myrrh, prized
in ancient Egypt. These were highly prized substances, and required as
incense in some religious rites. Amber is a hard fossilized resin from
ancient trees.
More broadly, the term “resin” also encompasses a great many synthetic
substances of similar mechanical properties (thick liquids that harden
into transparent solids), as well as shellacs of insects of the superfamily
Coccoidea.
Other liquid compounds found in plants or exuded by plants, such as
sap, latex, or mucilage, are sometimes confused with resin, but are not
chemically the same. Saps, in particular, serve a nutritive function that
Applications:
Sandwich structures can be widely used in sandwich panels, this
kinds of panels can be in different types such as FRP sandwich panel,
aluminum composite panel etc. FRP polyester reinforced composite
honeycomb panel (sandwich panel) is made of polyester reinforced
plastic, multi-axial high-strength glass fiber and PP honeycomb panel
−− 1
S 12 = −0.7878(10 −11 )
Pa
15. (b) (ii) −−
−10 1
S 16 = −0.3234(10 )
Pa
−− 1
S 22 = 0.3475(10 −10 )
Pa
−− 1
(a) S 26 = −0.4696(10 −10 )
Pa
−−
−9 1
S 66 = 0.1141(110 )
Pa
0.2365 0.3246 0.2005
−−
(b) Q = 0.3246 0.1094 0.5419 × 1011 Pa
0.2005 0.5419 0.33674
e x 0.5534(10 )
−4
(c) e y = −0.3078(10 −3 )
g 0.5328(10 −3 )
xy
e1 0.1367(10 )
−4
(d) e 2 = −0.2662(10 −3 )
g 12 −0.5809(10 −3 )
s 1 0.1714(10 )
7
(e) s 2 = −0.2714(10 7 ) Pa
t 12 0.4165(10 7 )
(f) smax, min = 4.217, -5.217 MPa
(g) tmax = 4.717 MPa
(h) emax, min = 1.962 (10-4), -4.486(10-4)
2. Define lamina.
PART B (5 ë 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) How are composites classified?
Or
(b) Give a description of graphite fibers.
12. (a) Why are there so many resin systems in advanced polymer
composites?
Or
13. (a) State the generalised Hooke's law applicable for orthotropic material.
Or
(b) Explain Autoclave molding, Filament Winding and Pultrusion.
1 4. (a) (i) Distinguish between open mould and close mould processes.
(ii) What is ‘failure envelopes’?
Or
(b) (i) Define inter laminar stresses with causes.
(ii) What are the assumptions made in classical small deformation
theory for a laminate?
1 5. (a) (i) What are the merits and demerits of Tsai-hill failure theory?
(ii) What are the assumptions made in micro mechanics?
Or
(b) (i) What are the assumptions made in the strength of materials
approach model?
(ii) What is meant by orthogonally isotropic material? Give an
example.
4. The Q16 and Q26 terms are non-zero when i has any value other than 0°
or 90°. This indicates the anisotropic behaviour of an orthotropic lamina
when its fibers are not oriented along or perpendicular to the reference
load direction. The terms Q16 and Q26 are that cause an orthotropic lamina
to behave like an anisotropic lamina in a laminate, when i is neither 0°
nor 90°. (Better 30° and 60°).
PART B
11. (a) Composites are classified by the geometry of the reinforcement
particulate, flake, and fibers or by the type of matrix, polymer, metal,
ceramic, and carbon.
Particulate composites consist of particles immersed in matrices
such as alloys and ceramics. They are usually isotropic because the
particles are added randomly. Particulate composites have advantages
such as improved strength, increased operating temperature, oxidation
resistance, etc. Typical examples include use of aluminum particles in
rubber; silicon carbide particles in aluminum; and gravel, sand, and
cement to make concrete.
Flake composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. Typical
flake materials are glass, mica, aluminum, and silver. Flake composites
provide advantages such as high out-of-plane flexural modulus, higher
strength, and low cost. However, flakes cannot be oriented easily and
only a limited number of materials are available for use.
Fiber composites consist of matrices reinforced by short (discontinuous)
or long (continuous) fibers. Fibers are generally anisotropic and examples
include carbon and aramids. Examples of matrices are resins such as
epoxy, metals such as aluminum, and ceramics such as calcium–alumino
silicate. Continuous fiber composites are emphasized in this book and
are further discussed in this chapter by the types of matrices: polymer,
metal, ceramic, and carbon. The fundamental units of continuous fiber
matrix composite are unidirectional or woven fiber laminas. Laminas are
stacked on top of each other at various angles to form a multi directional
laminate.
Nano composites consist of materials that are of the scale of nano meters
(10–9 m). The accepted range to be classified as a nano composite is that
one of the constituents is less than 100 nm. At this scale, the properties
of materials are different from those of the bulk material. Generally,
advanced composite materials have constituents on the micro scale
(10–6 m). By having materials at the nanometer scale, most of the
properties of the resulting composite material are better than the ones
at the micro scale. Not all properties of nano composites are better; in
some cases, toughness and impact strength can decrease. Applications
of nano composites include packaging applications for the military in
11. (b) Graphite fibers are very common in high-modulus and high-strength
applications such as aircraft components, etc. The advantages of graphite
fibers include high specific strength and modulus, low coefficient of
thermal expansion, and high fatigue strength. The drawbacks include
high cost, low impact resistance, and high electrical conductivity.
Manufacturing:
Graphite fibers have been available since the late 1800s. However, only
since the early 1960s has the manufacturing of graphite fibers taken
off. Graphite fibers are generally manufactured from three precursor
materials: rayon, polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and pitch. PAN is the most
popular precursor and the process to manufacture graphite fibers from it
is given next. PAN fibers are first stretched five to ten times their length
to improve their mechanical properties and then passed through three
heating processes. In the first process, called stabilization, the fiber is
passed through a furnace between 392 and 572° F (200 and 300°C)
to stabilize its dimensions during the subsequent high-temperature
processes. In the second process, called carbonization, it is pyrolized in
an inert atmosphere of nitrogen or argon between 1832 and 2732°F (1000
and 1500°C). In the last process, called graphitization, it is heat treated
above 4532°F (2500°C). The graphitization yields a microstructure that
is more graphitic than that produced by carbonization. The fibers may
also be subjected to tension in the last two heating processes to develop
fibers with a higher degree of orientation. At the end of this three-step
heat treatment process, the fibers are surface treated to develop fiber
adhesion and increase laminar shear strength when they are used in
composite structures. They are then collected on a spool.
12. (a) Each polymer has its advantages and drawbacks in its use
• Polyesters: The advantages are low cost and the ability to be made
translucent; drawbacks include service temperatures below 170 °F
(77 °C), brittleness, and high shrinkage of as much as 8 % during
curing.
• Phenolics: The advantages are low cost and high mechanical strength;
drawbacks include high void content.
• Epoxies: The advantages are high mechanical strength and good
adherence to metals and glasses; drawbacks are high cost and
difficulty in processing. Each of the resin systems has its advantages
and drawbacks. The use of a particular system depends on the
application. These considerations include mechanical strength, cost,
smoke emission, temperature excursions, etc.
flexibility, and lower weight than conventional ski poles. This reduces stress
and impact on upper body joints as the skier plants his poles.
Medical devices:
Applications here include the use of glass–Kevlar/epoxy light weight
face masks for epileptic patients. Artificial portable lungs are made of
graphite–glass/epoxy so that a patient can be mobile. X-ray tables made
of graphite/epoxy facing sandwiches are used for their high stiffness,
light weight, and transparency to radiation.
1 v yx v zx
− 0 0 0
Ex Ey Ez
v 1 v zy
− xy − 0 0 0
e xx E x Ey Ez s xx
e yy v xz v yz 1 s yy
e − − 0 0 0 s
zz = E E E zz
x y z
e yz 1 s y z
0 0 0 0 0
e
zx 2G yz s zx
e s
xy 0 1 xy
0 0 0 0
2G zx
1
0 0 0 0 0
2G xy
where,
n yz n zy n zx n xz n xy n yx
= , = , =
E y Ez Ez Ex Ex E y
Note that, in orthotropic materials, there is no interaction between the
normal stresses sx, sy, sz and the shear strains eyz, ezx, exy .
The factor 1/2 multiplying the shear modulii in the compliance matrix
results from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear
strain, where
n xy = e xy + e yx = 2e xy , etc.
The factor of 2 multiplying the shear modulii in the stiffness matrix results
from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear strain,
where,
n xy = e xy + e yx = 2e xy , etc.
13. (b) Autoclave molding
The process takes place in an autoclave, where it is possible to create
pressure and heat at the same time.
Layers of pre-impregnated fibres (prepreg) are piled with varying fibre
orientation, to form the desired thickness above the forming tool.
The prepreg is pressed down to the forming tool by pressure. Following
heating hardens the matrix and the laminate gets the desired shape.
The process is very versatile and gives a very uniform quality, as pressure
and heat can be regulated very precisely. Any geometry can be produced.
On the other hand, it is very costly and time requiring.
Filament molding
Filament winding is a fabrication technique for manufacturing composite
material, usually in the form of cylindrical structures. The process involves
winding filaments under varying amounts of tension over a male mould
or mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a carriage moves horizontally,
laying down fibers in the desired pattern. The most common filaments
are carbon or glass fiber and are coated with synthetic resin as they are
wound. Once the mandrel is completely covered to the desired thickness,
the mandrel is placed in an oven to solidify (set) the resin. Once the resin
has cured, the mandrel is removed, leaving the hollow final product.
Filament winding is well suited to automation, where the tension on the
filaments can be carefully controlled. Filaments that are applied with
high tension results in a final product with higher rigidity and strength;
lower tension results in more flexibility. The orientation of the filaments
can also be carefully controlled so that successive layers are plied or
oriented differently from the previous layer. The angle at which the fiber
is laid down will determine the properties of the final product. A high
angle "hoop" will provide crush strength, while a lower angle pattern
(known as a closed or helical) will provide greater tensile strength.
Products currently being produced using this technique range from golf
clubs, pipes, oars, bicycle forks, power and transmission poles, pressure
vessels to missile casings, aircraft fuselages and lamp posts and yacht
masts.
Pultrision
Pultrusion is a continuous process for manufacture of composite materials
with constant cross-section. Reinforced fibers are pulled through a resin,
possibly followed by a separate preforming system, and into a heated
die, where the resin undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may
be used in pultrusion including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and
epoxy.
The technology is not limited to thermosetting polymers. More recently,
pultrusion has been successfully used with thermoplastic matrices such
as polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
either by powder impregnation of the glass fiber or by surrounding it
with sheet material of the thermoplastic matrix, which is then heated.
Ecological cleanness of manufactured products, in contrast to composites
on thermosetting resins base, as well as practically unlimited possibilities
of recycling (processing) after the resource depletion appear to be forcible
arguments in favor of reinforced thermoplastics. For these reasons the
industrial output and use of the given materials in highly industrialized
countries have increased by 8-10% per year in recent decades.
Pultrusion technology of manufacturing of fiber composites with
polymer matrix appears to be energy-efficient and resource-saving.
For economic and environmental reasons the matrix of thermoplastic
polymers is more preferable, but due to the high viscosity of melts it
is difficult to achieve high productivity and high quality of fiberfills
impregnation.
Products manufactured under this technology, are widely used in the
following industries:
• In agriculture and chemical industry for manufacturing of chemically
resistant to aggressive media slatted floors with enhanced strength
characteristics used in the construction of livestock facilities, chemical
plants, etc.;
• In construction industry for the production of glass-fiber reinforcement,
profiles, carcasses, stiffening bars for PVC-windows, etc.;
• In aerospace industry for manufacturing of structure components of
aircraft;
• In sports and tourism industry for manufacturing of equipment
having enhanced strength properties: skis, ski poles, tent and hovel
constructions, etc.;
• In electrical power engineering for manufacturing of dielectric
structures, fiberglass rods used in composite insulators and
1 4. (a) (i)
Open mould process: It is done in open structure.
• Spray lay up
• Hand lay up
• Filament winding
• SMC
• Expansion tool moulding
• Contact moulding
Closed mould processes: It is done in a closed structure.
• Compression moulding
• Vacuum bag
• Injection moulding
• Resin transfer
14. (b) (ii)
(i) Each lamina is orthotropic.
(ii) Each lamina is homogeneous.
(iii) A line straight and perpendicular to the middle surface remains
straight and perpendicular to the middle surface during deformation
(_xz = _xz = 0).
(iv) A straight line in the z-direction remains of constant length
(_z = 0).
(v) The laminate is thin and is loaded only in its plane. (plane stress)
(_z = _xz = _xz = 0).
(vi) Displacements are continuous and small throughout the laminate.
(_u_, _v_, _w_<< laminate thickness).
(vii) Each lamina is elastic.
(viii) No slip occurs between the lamina inter faces.
15. (a) (ii) Micro mechanics – The study of composite material behaviour
wherein the interaction of the constituent materials is examined in detail
as part of the definition of the behaviour of the heterogeneous composite
material.
The two basic approaches to the micromechanics of composite materials
are
(i) Mechanics of materials
(ii) Elasticity
15. (b) (ii) The Q16 and Q26 terms are non-zero when i has any value other
than 0° or 90°. This indicates the anisotropic behaviour of an orthotropic
lamina when its fibers are not oriented along or perpendicular to the
reference load direction. The terms Q16 and Q26 are that cause an
orthotropic lamina to behave like an anisotropic lamina in a laminate,
when i is neither 0° nor 90°. (Better 30° and 60°).
4. Define lamina.
PART B (5 ë 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) State the generalised Hooke’s law applicable for orthotropic material.
Or
(b) Explain Autoclave molding, Filament Winding and Pultrusion.
12. (a) What is Maximum Strain theory, Tsai Hill Theory and Tsai Wu Theory.
Or
(b) (i) Distinguish between open mould and close mould processes.
(ii) What is ‘failure envelopes’?
13. (a) What are the materials used for sandwich construction? What are
the applications of Sandwich structures.
Or
(b) (i) Define inter laminar stresses with causes.
(ii) What are the assumptions made in classical small deformation
theory for a laminate?
14. (a) (i) What are the advantages of composite materials in compare
with isotropic materials.
(ii) State various applications of composite materials.
(iii) Differentiate between isotropic, anisotropic and orthotropic
materials with suitable example.
Or
(b) Why are there so many resin systems in advanced polymer
composites?
cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is
applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat
and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The
process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either
in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms. Compression
molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding
complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements.
A process using a two-sided mould set that shapes both surfaces of
the panel. On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is
a flexible membrane or vacuum bag. The flexible membrane can be a
reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film. Then, vacuum
is applied to the mould cavity. This process can be performed at either
ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric pressure
acting upon the vacuum bag. Most economical way is using a venturi
vacuum and air compressor or a vacuum pump.
6. In classical lamination theory no account is taken of stresses such as _zx,
_zx and _zy which are shown on an element of an angle-ply laminate
loaded with Nx. These stresses are called inter laminar stresses and exist
on surfaces between adjacent layers although they exist within the layers
but are usually largest at the layer interfaces.
Accordingly, classical lamination theory does not include some of the
stresses that actually cause failure of a composite laminate.
7. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher
thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness
with overall low density.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyur-
ethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams,
and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-
cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
8. Advanced composites are composite materials which are traditionally
used in the aerospace industries. These composites have high
performance reinforcements of a thin dia. in a matrix material such as
epoxy and aluminium.
9. A combination of two or more materials (reinforcing elements, fillers, and
composite matrix binder), differing in form or composition on a macroscale.
The constituents retain their identities, that is, they do not dissolve or merge
completely into one another although they act in concert. Normally, the
components can be physically identified and exhibit an interface between
one another. Examples are cermets and metal-matrix composites.
PART B
11. (a) Some engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric materials
(e.g. Rochelle salt) and 2-ply fiber-reinforced composites, are orthotropic.
By definition, an orthotropic material has at least 2 orthogonal planes of
symmetry, where material properties are independent of direction within
each plane. Such materials require 9 independent variables (i.e. elastic
constants) in their constitutive matrices.
In contrast, a material without any planes of symmetry is fully anisotropic
and requires 21 elastic constants, whereas a material with an infinite
number of symmetry planes (i.e. every plane is a plane of symmetry) is
isotropic, and requires only 2 elastic constants.
Hooke’s law in compliance form
By convention, the 9 elastic constants in orthotropic constitutive
equations are comprised of 3 Young's modulii Ex, Ey, Ez, the 3 poisson’s
ratios nyz, nzx, nxy, and the 3 shear modulii Gyz, Gzx, Gxy.
The compliance matrix takes the form,
1 v yx v zx
− 0 0 0
xE Ey Ez
v 1 v zy
− xy − 0 0 0
e xx E x Ey Ez s xx
e yy v xz v yz 1 s yy
e − − 0 0 0 s
zz = E E E zz
x y z
e yz 1 s y z
0 0 0 0 0
e
zx 2G yz s zx
e s
xy 0 1 xy
0 0 0 0
2G zx
1
0 0 0 0 0
2G xy
where,
n yz n zy n zx n xz n xy n yx
= , = , =
E y Ez Ez Ex Ex E y
Note that, in orthotropic materials, there is no interaction between the
normal stresses sx, sy, sz and the shear strains eyz, ezx, exy .
The factor 1/2 multiplying the shear modulii in the compliance matrix
results from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear
strain, where
n xy = e xy + e yx = 2e xy , etc.
The factor of 2 multiplying the shear modulii in the stiffness matrix results
from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear strain,
where,
n xy = e xy + e yx = 2e xy , etc.
Pultrision
Pultrusion is a continuous process for manufacture of composite materials
with constant cross-section. Reinforced fibers are pulled through a resin,
possibly followed by a separate preforming system, and into a heated
die, where the resin undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may
be used in pultrusion including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and
epoxy.
The technology is not limited to thermosetting polymers. More recently,
pultrusion has been successfully used with thermoplastic matrices such
as polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
either by powder impregnation of the glass fiber or by surrounding it
with sheet material of the thermoplastic matrix, which is then heated.
Ecological cleanness of manufactured products, in contrast to
composites on thermosetting resins base, as well as practically unlimited
possibilities of recycling (processing) after the resource depletion appear
to be forcible arguments in favor of reinforced thermoplastics. For these
reasons the industrial output and use of the given materials in highly
industrialized countries have increased by 8-10% per year in recent
decades.
Pultrusion technology of manufacturing of fiber composites with
polymer matrix appears to be energy-efficient and resource-saving.
For economic and environmental reasons the matrix of thermoplastic
polymers is more preferable, but due to the high viscosity of melts it
is difficult to achieve high productivity and high quality of fiberfills
impregnation.
Products manufactured under this technology, are widely used in the
following industries:
• In agriculture and chemical industry for manufacturing of chemically
resistant to aggressive media slatted floors with enhanced strength
characteristics used in the construction of livestock facilities, chemical
plants, etc.;
• In construction industry for the production of glass-fiber reinforcement,
profiles, carcasses, stiffening bars for PVC-windows, etc.;
• In aerospace industry for manufacturing of structure components of
aircraft;
•
In sports and tourism industry for manufacturing of equipment
having enhanced strength properties: skis, ski poles, tent and hovel
constructions, etc.;
s 2 /syp
1.0
0.5
s 1/syp
−1.0 − 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
− 0.5
No yielding
predicted
−1.0
v = 0.35
Failure by yielding
Tsai Wu Theory
The Tsai–Wu failure criterion is a phenomenological failure theory
which is widely used for anisotropic composite materials which have
different strengths in tension and compression. This failure criterion is
a specialization of the general quadratic failure criterion proposed by
Gol’denblat and Kopnov and can be expressed in the form
Fis i + Fij s i s j ≥ 1
12. (b) (ii) A failure envelope is a three dimensional plot of the combinations
of the normal and shear stresses which can be applied to an angle lamina
just before failure. Since drawing three-dimensional graphs can be time
consuming, one may develop failure envelopes for constant shear stress,
_xy, and then use the two normal stresses _x and _y as the two axes. Then
if the applied stress is within the failure envelope, the lamina is safe,
otherwise it has failed.
Applications
Sandwich structures can be widely used in sandwich panels, this
kinds of panels can be in different types such as FRP sandwich panel,
aluminum composite panel etc. FRP polyester reinforced composite
honeycomb panel (sandwich panel) is made of polyester reinforced
plastic, multi-axial high-strength glass fiber and PP honeycomb panel
in special antiskid tread pattern mold through the process of constant
temperature vacuum adsorption and agglutination and solidification
13. (b) (ii)
(i) Each lamina is orthotropic.
(ii) Each lamina is homogeneous.
(iii) A line straight and perpendicular to the middle surface remains
straight and perpendicular to the middle surface during deformation
(_xz = _xz = 0).
(iv) A straight line in the z-direction remains of constant length
(_z = 0).
(v) The laminate is thin and is loaded only in its plane. (plane stress)
(_z = _xz = _xz = 0).
(vi) Displacements are continuous and small throughout the laminate.
(_u_, _v_, _w_<< laminate thickness).
(vii) Each lamina is elastic.
(viii) No slip occurs between the lamina inter faces.
14. (a) (iii) The word “isotropy” is related with uniformity. The meaning
of the word itself is “uniformity in all directions.” As stated in the
introduction, the meaning may slightly differ according to the subject
area. For example, when talking about the isotropy of a material or
mineral, it means having the same properties in all directions. In
industrial processes isotropy means having the same rate in all the steps
regardless of the direction. Molecules having kinetic energy are said to be
moving randomly to any direction. Therefore, in a given time, there will
be many molecules moving in a similar direction, hence show isotropy.
Isotropy can be a property of some materials. Those materials will have
the same properties in all the directions (example: Amorphous solids).
For example, if a solid expands in a similar manner in all directions,
when heat is applied, is said to be isotropic.
Anisotropy, on the other hand, is dependent on the direction. It is the
opposite of isotropy. The measured properties of a material differ in
various directions in anisotropy. These properties can be physical or
mechanical properties like conductivity, tensile strength or absorbance.
Like the word isotropy, anisotropy also has slightly different meanings
in different subjects where it is used. Normally, liquids have no order
in molecules. Anisotropic liquids are liquid with a structural order in
14. (b) Each polymer has its advantages and drawbacks in its use
• Polyesters: The advantages are low cost and the ability to be made
translucent; drawbacks include service temperatures below 170 °F
(77 °C), brittleness, and high shrinkage of as much as 8 % during
curing.
• Phenolics: The advantages are low cost and high mechanical strength;
drawbacks include high void content.
• Epoxies: The advantages are high mechanical strength and good
adherence to metals and glasses; drawbacks are high cost and
difficulty in processing. Each of the resin systems has its advantages
and drawbacks. The use of a particular system depends on the
application. These considerations include mechanical strength, cost,
smoke emission, temperature excursions, etc.
15. (b) Resin in the most specific use of the term is a hydrocarbon secretion
of many plants, particularly coniferous trees. Resins are valued for
their chemical properties and associated uses, such as the production of
3. How does one evaluate the material properties along arbitrary directions
in a fiber reinforced lamina knowing the properties along principal
material directions?
4. Name any two matrix materials with fibers used in fiber reinforced
laminates.
PART B (5 ë 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Starting from generalized Hooke’s law, derive the material stiffness
matrix Q for a fiber reinforced lamina in terms of elastic constants
in principal material directions.
Or
(b) Explain various applications of composites in detail.
12. (a) Consider a two-ply laminate with the ply orientations of 0° and 45°
with laminate axis as shown in figure. The bottom lamina is 0° layer
with thickness of 5 mm, whereas the 45° top lamina is 3 mm thick.
The stiffness matrices Q, referred to the principal material directions
are the same for the two layers:
20 0.7 0
[Q ] = 0.7 2.0 0 GPa
0 0 0.7
Obtain laminate stiffness matrix.
Lamina 1
45° h1 = −1 h0 = −4
Z=0
X
Lamina 2 0° h2 = 4
Z
Or
(b) Starting from fundamentals, derive the contents of A, B and D
matrices.
The loading is
sx = − 2 MPa, sy = 4 MPa, sshear = −1 MPa fiber orientation 60°
6. Define
(a) angle ply laminate
(b) cross ply laminate.
10. What are the advantage of compression moulding method for making
sheet molding compounds in comparison with other methods?
PART B (5 ë 16 = 80)
11. (a) Derive the material stiffness laminate ‘Q’ for plane fiber reinforced
lamina starting from the fundamentals.
Or
(b) Write a detailed account about the various types of fibers, which are
generally used in composite materials.
12. (a) A two ply laminate having its top and bottom layers are 3 mm and
5 mm respectively. The stiffness matrix ‘Q’ referred to the principal
material directions are the same for the layers and is given as
20.0 0.7 0
[Q ] = 0.7 2.0 0 GPa. Obtain A, B and D matrices of the
0 0 0.7
laminate.
Or
(b) Starting from fundamentals, derive the contents of A, B and D
matrices of a laminate.
13. (a) A four layered angle ply laminate of [± 45°] , with a thickness
of 3 mm for each layer. The stiffness matrices Q, referred to the
principal material directions are same for all the layers and is given as
20.0 0.7 0
[Q ] = 0.7 2.0 0 GPa. Numerically obtain A, B and D
0 0 0.7
matrices. And discuss its important characteristics with respect to
A, B and D matrices.
Or
(b) A three – ply symmetric laminate 45 0 , which has top and bottom
layers are each 3 mm thick and middle layer is 6 mm thick. The ‘A’
matrix for the laminate is given as
159.3 35.1 27.0
[ A] = 35.1 51.3 27.0 GPa-mm . Calculate the stresses and
27.0 27.0 35.1
strains Nx = 1000 N/mm, Ny = 200 N/mm and Nxy = 0.
14. (a) Derive the governing differential equation for the bending of a
composite plate applied with load along normal to surface of the
plate.
Or
(b) Discuss in detail the manufacturing of a sandwich beam.
15. (a) Explain how polymer composites are manufactured. Give example.
Or
(b) Explain compression moulding of composites.