CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

IN4007

REVERSE BIAS:

IN4007
Ex.No.1

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

AIM:

To study the PN junction diode characteristics under Forward & Reverse bias conditions.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name Range Type Qty

.
1 R.P.S (0-30)V 1
2 Ammeter (0–100) mA & (0- 1
500)µA
3 Voltmeter (0–1)V & (0-30)V 1
4 Diode IN4001 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 1
6 Wires

THEORY:

A PN junction diode is a two terminal junction device. It conducts only in one direction (only on
forward biasing).

FORWARD BIAS:

On forward biasing, initially no current flows due to barrier potential. As the applied potential
exceeds the barrier potential the charge carriers gain sufficient energy to cross the potential
barrier and hence enter the other region. The holes, which are majority carriers in the P-region,
become minority carriers on entering the N-regions, and electrons, which are the majority
carriers in the N-region, become minority carriers on entering the P-region. This injection of
Minority carriers results in the current flow, opposite to the direction of electron movement.

REVERSE BIAS:

On reverse biasing, the majority charge carriers are attracted towards the terminals due to the
applied potential resulting in the widening of the depletion region. Since the charge carriers are
pushed towards the terminals no current flows in the device due to majority charge carriers.
There will be some current in the device due to the thermally generated minority carriers. The
generation of such carriers is independent of the applied potential and hence the current is
constant for all increasing reverse potential. This current is referred to as Reverse Saturation
Current (IO) and it increases with temperature. When the applied reverse voltage is increased
beyond the certain limit, it results in breakdown. During breakdown, the diode current increases
tremendously.
PROCEDURE:

FORWARD BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the applied voltage in steps of 0.1V.

3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings If.

4. Plot a graph between Vf& If

REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the applied voltage steps of 0.5V.

3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings Ir.

4. Plot a graph between Vr& Ir

RESULT:

Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the PN junction diode was Studied and verified.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

IZ7.5V

REVERSE BIAS:

IZ7.5V
Ex.No.2

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:

To study the characteristics and to determine the breakdown voltage of a zener diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name Range Type Qty

.
1 R.P.S (0-30)V 1
2 Ammeter (0–100) mA 1
3 Voltmeter (0–1)V & (0-30)V 1
4 Zener Diode IZ7.5 V 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 1
6 Wires

THEORY:

A properly doped crystal diode, which has a sharp breakdown voltage, is known as zener diode.

FORWARD BIAS:

On forward biasing, initially no current flows due to barrier potential. As the applied potential
increases, it exceeds the barrier potential atone value and the charge carriers gain sufficient
energy to cross the potential barrier and enter the other region. the holes ,which are majority
carriers in p-region, become minority carriers on entering the N-regions and electrons, which are
the majority carriers in the N-regions become minority carriers on entering the P-region. This
injection of minority carriers results current, opposite to the direction of electron movement.

REVERSE BIAS:

When the reverse bias is applied due to majority carriers small amount of current (ie) reverse
saturation current flows across the junction. As the reverse bias is increased to breakdown
voltage, sudden rise in current takes place due to zener effect.

ZENER EFFECT:

Normally, PN junction of Zener Diode is heavily doped. Due to heavy doping the depletion layer
will be narrow. When the reverse bias is increased the potential across the depletion layer is
more. This exerts a force on the electrons in the outermost shell. Because of this force the
electrons are pulled away from the parent nuclei and become free electrons. This ionization,
which occurs due to electrostatic force of attraction, is known as Zener effect. It results in large
number of free carriers, which in turn increases the reverse saturation current.
PROCEDURE:

FORWARD BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the power supply in such a way that the readings are taken in steps of 0.1V.

3. Note down the corresponding ammeter readings.

4. Plot the graph : Vf(vs) If.

REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the power supply in such a way that the readings are taken in steps of 0.5V.

3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings Ir.

4. Plot a graph between Vr& Ir

RESULT:
Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the zener diode was studied and verified.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Ex.No.3

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT IN CE CONFIGURATION

AIM:

To study and plot the transistor characteristics in CE configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name Range Type Qty

.
1 R.P.S (0-30)V 2
2 Ammeter (0–100) mA & (0- 1
500)µA
3 Voltmeter (0–1)V & (0-30)V 1
4 BJT 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 2
6 Wires

THEORY:

A BJT is a three terminal two – junction semiconductor device in which the conduction is due to
both the charge carrier. Hence it is a bipolar device and it amplifier the sine waveform as they
are transferred from input to output. BJT is classified into two types – NPN or PNP. A NPN
transistor consists of two N types in between which a layer of P is sandwiched. The transistor
consists of three terminal emitter, collector and base. The emitter layer is the source of the
charge carriers and it is heartily doped with a moderate cross sectional area. The collector
collects the charge carries and hence moderate doping and large cross sectional area. The base
region acts a path for the movement of the charge carriers. In order to reduce the recombination
of holes and electrons the base region is lightly doped and is of hollow cross sectional area.
Normally the transistor operates with the EB junction forward biased. In transistor, the current is
same in both junctions, which indicates that there is a transfer of resistance between the two
junctions. Hence known as transfer resistance of transistor.
PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARECTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set VCE as constant, vary VBE in regular interval of steps and note down the Corresponding IB.

3. Repeat the above procedure for different values of VCE.

3. Plot the graph: VBEVs IB for a constant VCE.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set IB as constant and Vary VCE in regular interval of steps and note down the corresponding
IC reading.
3. Repeat the above procedure for different values of IB.
4. Plot the graph: VCEVs IC for a constant IB.

RESULT:

The transistor characteristics of a Common Emitter (CE) configuration were plotted.

Ex.No:4

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

AIM:

To Plot and study the characteristics of FET.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.N NAME RANGE QUANTITY

O
1 R.P.S (0-30)V 2
2 Ammeter (0-30) 1
mA
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V 1
(0-10)V 1
4 FET BFW10 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 2
6 Bread board - -
7 Wires - Req

THEORY:

FET is a voltage operated device. It has got 3 terminals. They are Source, Drain & Gate. When
the gate is biased negative with respect to the source, the PN junctions are reverse biased &
depletion regions are formed. The channel is more lightly doped than the p type gate, so the
depletion regions penetrate deeply in to the channel. The result is that the channel is narrowed,
its resistance is increased, & ID is reduced. When the negative bias voltage is further increased,
the depletion regions meet at the centre & ID is cut-off completely.
TABULAR COLUMN:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

VGS= VGS=
VDS (V) ID(mA) VDS (V) ID(mA)
PROCEDURE:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the gate voltage VGS = 0V.
3. Vary VDS in steps of 1 V & note down the corresponding ID.
4. Repeat the same procedure for VGS = -1V.
5. Plot the graph VDS Vs ID for constant VGS.

RESULT:
Thus the Drain characteristics of given FET is Plotted and studied.
Circuit diagram
Forward direction:

Reverse Direction
Ex.No.5
Date:
Characteristics of DIAC
Aim:
To draw the V-I characteristics of DIAC and obtain the break over voltage (VBO).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.N NAME RANGE QUANTITY

O
1 R.P.S (0-60)V 1
2 Ammeter (0-100)mA 1
3 Voltmeter (0-50)V 1
4 DIAC SSD3A 1
5 Resistor 1K Ω 1
6 Bread board - 1
7 Wires - Req

Theory:

A DIAC is a two terminal three layer bidirectional device which can be switched from its off
state to on state for either polarity of applied voltage. The operation of DIAC is identical both in
forward and reverse conduction. The DIAC does not conduct until the applied voltage of either
polarity reaches the break over voltage VBO.
TABULATIUON:

S.N FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

O
VOLTAGE(V) CURRENT(mA VOLTAGE(V) Current(mA)
)
Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. First DIAC is connected in forward direction.
3. The input supply is increased in step by step by varying the RPS
4. The corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted and tabulated.
5. Then the DIAC is connected in reverse condition.
6. The above process is repeated

Result:
Thus the V-I characteristics of DIAC was obtained and graph was drawn.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Ex.No.

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF RTD

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics of RTD.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Name Type Qty

.
1 RTD PT-100 1
2 Thermometer 1
3 Multi meter 1
4 Beaker 1
5 Electric Stove 1

THEORY:

Resistance Temperature Detectors operate through the principle of electrical resistance changes
in pure metal elements. Platinum is the most widely specified RTD element type although nickel,
copper, and Balco (nickel-iron) alloys are also used. Platinum is popular due to its wide
temperature range, accuracy, stability, as well as the degree of standardization among
manufacturers. RTDs are characterized by a linear positive change in resistance with respect to
temperature. They exhibit the most linear signal with respect to temperature of any electronic
sensing device.
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

TEMPERATURE (ºC) RESISTANCE(Ω)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections were given as per the diagram.

2. Temperature of the water in beaker was measured using the thermometer.
3. Corresponding resistance value of RTD was also noted from multimeter.
4. The temperature of the water has been increased and follow step 2&3.
5. Note the values of temperature and resistance in tabular column.
6. Plot a graph between temperature and resistance.

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of RTD was studied and verified.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Ex.No.

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMOCOUPLE

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics of thermocouple.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name Type Qty

.
1 Thermocouple Type K 1
2 Thermometer 1
3 Multi meter 1
4 Beaker 1
5 Electric Stove 1

THEORY:

Thomas Seebeck discovered if metals of two different materials were joined at both ends and one
end was at a different temperature than the other, a current was created. This phenomenon is
known as the Seebeck effect and is the basis for all thermocouples.
A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by joining two dissimilar metals
at one end. The joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION. The other end of these
dissimilar metals is referred to as the COLD END or COLD JUNCTION. The cold junction is
actually formed at the last point of thermocouple material.

Certain combinations of metals must be used to make up the thermocouple pairs. If there is a
difference in temperature between the hot junction and cold junction, a small voltage is created.
This voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro-motive force) and can be measured and in turn
used to indicate temperature. The voltage created by a thermocouple is extremely small and is
measured in terms of millivolts (one millivolt is equal to one thousandth of a volt). In fact, the
human body creates a larger millivolt signal than a thermocouple. To establish a means to
measure temperature with thermocouples, a standard scale of millivolt outputs was established.

MODEL GRAPH

TABULAR COLUMN:

TEMPERATURE (ºC) VOLTAGE (mV)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections were given as per the diagram.

2. Temperature of the water in beaker was measured using the thermometer.
3. Corresponding voltage value of thermocouple was also noted from multimeter.
4. The temperature of the water has been increased and follow step 2&3.
5. Note the values of temperature and voltage in tabular column.
6. Plot a graph between temperature and voltage.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of thermocouple was studied and verified.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Ex.No.

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTOR

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics of thermistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Qty

1 Thermistor 1
2 Thermometer 1
3 Multi meter 1
4 Beaker 1
5 Electric Stove 1

THEORY:

Thermistors are generally composed of semiconductor materials. Although positive temperature

coefficient units are available, most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (TC);
that is, their resistance decreases with increasing temperature. The negative T.C. can be as large
as several percent per degree Celsius, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in
temperature which could not be observed with an RTD or thermocouple circuit. The price we
pay for this increased sensitivity is loss of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear
device which is highly dependent upon process parameters. Consequently, manufacturers have
not standardized thermistor curves to the extent that RTD and thermocouple curves have been
standardized.
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

TEMPERATURE (ºC) RESISTANCE(KΩ)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections were given as per the diagram.

2. Temperature of the water in beaker was measured using the thermometer.
3. Corresponding resistance value of Thermistor was also noted from multimeter(2KΩ).
4. The temperature of the water has been increased and follow step 2&3.
5. Note the values of temperature and resistance in tabular column.
6. Plot a graph between temperature and resistance.

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of thermistor was studied and verified.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Ex.No.

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOAD CELL

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics of load cell.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name Qty

.
1 Load cell trainer kit 1
2 Weights
3 Multi meter 1

THEORY:

Load cells are designed to sense force or weight under a wide range of adverse conditions; they
are not only the most essential part of an electronic weighing system, but also the most
vulnerable. In order to get the most benefit from the load cell, the user must have a thorough
understanding of the technology, construction and operation of this unique device. In addition, it
is imperative that the user selects the correct load cell for the application and provide the
necessary care for the load cell during its lifetime. Understanding these important issues and
properly maintaining the load cells will ensure trouble free weighing for a long period of time.
Load cells may be damaged because of (shock) overloading, lightning strikes or heavy surges in
current, chemical or moisture ingress, mis-handling (dropping, lifting on cable, etc.), vibration,
seismic events or internal component malfunctioning.
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Load (g) Voltage (V) Voltage (V)

Loading Unloading
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the sensor to the load cell trainer kit.

2. Connect the multimeter to trainer kit.
3. Add weight and note the voltage change in multimeter
4. Plot the graph between load and voltage.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of load cell was studied and verified.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Ex.No.

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF STRAIN GAUGE

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics of load cell.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name Qty

.
1 Starin gauge trainer kit 1
2 Weights
3 Multi meter 1

THEORY:

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain
(ε) is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in Figure 1 below. Strain can be
positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless, strain is sometimes
expressed in units such as in./in. or mm/mm.

When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, as in Figure 1, a phenomenon known as Poisson
Strain causes the girth of the bar, D, to contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The
magnitude of this transverse contraction is a material property indicated by its Poisson's Ratio.
The Poisson's Ratio ν of a material is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the transverse
direction (perpendicular to the force) to the strain in the axial direction (parallel to the force), or ν
= –εT/ε. The most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded metallic strain gauge. The metallic
strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid
pattern.). The cross sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and
Poisson Strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly
to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred directly
to the strain gauge, which responds with a linear change in electrical resistance.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Load (g) Loading Unloading

Voltage (V) Strain Voltage (V) Strain

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the sensor to the strain gauge trainer kit.

2. Connect the multimeter to trainer kit.
3. Add weight and note the voltage change in multimeter
4. Plot the graph between load and voltage.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of strain gauge was studied and verified.