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PAIYANOOR, OMR, CHENNAI
Call For Research Projects Final
year students of B.E in EEE, ECE, EI,
M.E (Power Systems), M.E (Applied
Electronics), M.E (Power Electronics)
Ph.D Electrical and Electronics.
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1
BM 2203 - Sensors and
Measurment
G.Thiyagarajan
BM 17
REC/BME
2
Block diagram of a
generalized instrumentation
system
Process or
measurement Environmental
medium effects (noise,
Physical variable temperature etc)
to be measured
Observer
Feedback signal for control
Input
signal
Intermediate Modified
Controller
stage signal
Primary stage
Manipulation
Detector -transducer
Transduced & Indicator
Sensing & conversion
signal transmission
Calibration Recorder Quantity
signal presented
to observer
Calibration signal Final (output )
External
source representing stage
power
known value of
physical variable
3
The Bourdon
Gauge 4
Block diagram of the
pressure gauge based
Physical variable
on Bourdon tube
to be measured
Pressure
Pressure
(input)
Displacement Intermediate stage
Detector – transducer stage (transduced signal) Gearing arrangement that
Bourdon tube amplifies the displacement
Pressure to mechanical signal
displacement
6
Feedback with and without
clinician
Patient
Instrument
Patient Clinician
Instrument
7
A patient monitors vital signs and
notify a clinician if abnormalities
occur
Abnormal
Clinician readings Patient Instrument
8
Detailed generalized medical
measurement system
9
Alternative operational modes
Direct-indirect modes
Sampling and continuous modes
Generating and modulating sensors
Analog and digital modes
Real-time and delayed-time modes
10
Example to sampled data
Laboratory test Typical value
Hemoglobin 13.5 to 18 g/dL
Hematocrit 40 to 54%
Erythrocyte count 4.6 to 6.2 × 106/ µ L
Leukocyte count 4500 to 11000/ µ L
Differential count Neutrophil 35 to 71%
Band 0 to 6%
Lymphocyte 1 to 10%
Monocyte 1 to 10%
Eosinophil 0 to 4%
Basophil 0 to 2%
Amplitude
Amplitude
Time Time
12
Continuous and discrete-time
signals
Amplitude
Amplitude
Time Time
13
Origins of
common
biological
signal
14
Medical measurement
Measurement
constraints
Range Frequency, Hz Method
Blood flow 1 to 300 mL/s 0 to 20 Electromagnetic or ultrasonic
Blood pressure 0 to 400 mmHg 0 to 50 Cuff or strain gage
Cardiac output 4 to 25 L/min 0 to 20 Fick, dye dilution
Electrocardiography 0.5 to 4 mV 0.05 to 150 Skin electrodes
18
Interfering and modifying inputs
19
Simplified
Electrocardiographic
recording system
20
Compensation Techniques
Inherent insensitivity
Negative feedback
Signal filtering
Opposing inputs
21
Negative feedback
( xd − H f y )Gd = y
y
xd
+ ∑ Gd xd Gd = y (1 + H f Gd )
- Gd
Hf y= xd
1 + H f Gd
22
Signal filtering
23
Opposing inputs
Differential amplifier: v0 = Gd(vA- vB)
DC cancellation (bucking)
A m p li t u d e
D c o f
T im e
25
Data points with
Accuracy
Accuracy: closeness with which an
instrument reading approaches the
true or accepted value of the variable
(quantity) being measured. It is
considered to be an indicator of the
total error in the measurement without low accuracy
looking into the sources of errors.
2. Number of distinguishable
alternatives. 2.434 V is more
precise than 2.43 V.
high precision
27
Resolution
The smallest change in measured value
to which the instrument will respond.
28
Tolerance
Maximum deviation allowed from the conventional
true value.
It is not possible to built a perfect system or make
an exact measurement. All devices deviate from
their ideal (design) characteristics and all
measurements include uncertainties (doubts).
Hence, all devices include tolerances in their
specifications. If the instrument is used for high-
precision applications, the design tolerances must
be small.
However, if a low degree of accuracy is acceptable,
it is not economical to use expensive sensors and
precise sensing components
29
Static sensitivity
Sensor
Sensor
signal
signal
Measurand
Measurand
30
Static sensitivity constant over a limited
range
32
Linearity
Output Output
Input Input
A linear system fits the A nonlinear system does not fit
equation y = mx + b. a straight line 33
Calibration for linearity
Output Output
Input Input
S e n s o r
s i g n a l
M e a s u r a n d
35
Independent
nonlinearity
36
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students
should be able to:
37
Introduction
Sensors and transducers are classified
according to;
the physical property that they use
(piezoelectric, photovoltaic, etc.)
the function that they perform
(measurement of length, temperature, etc.).
Since energy conversion is an essential
characteristic of the sensing process, the various
forms of energy should be considered.
38
Introduction
There are 3 basic types of transducers namely
self-generating, modulating, and modifying
transducers.
39
Introduction
Modulating transducers (photoconductive
cells, thermistors, resistive displacement devices) do
require a source of energy.
For example, a thermocouple is self-generating,
producing a change in resistance in response to a
temperature difference, whereas a
photoconductive cell is modulating because it
requires energy.
The modifying transducer (elastic beams,
diaphragms) is characterized by the same form of
energy at the input and output. The energy form on
both sides of a modifier is electrical.
40
Definition
The words 'sensor' and 'transducer' are
both widely used in the description of
measurement systems.
The former is popular in the USA
whereas the latter has been used in Europe
for many years. The word 'sensor' is derived
from entire meaning 'to perceive' and
'transducer' is from transducer meaning 'to
lead across'.
41
Definition
A dictionary definition of 'sensor' is
`a device that detects a change in a physical
stimulus and turns it into a signal which can
be measured or recorded;
The corresponding definition of
'transducer' is 'a device that transfers energy
from one system to another in the same or in
the different form'.
42
Features of Sensors
The desirable features of sensors are:
44
Sensors Types
45
Common Sensors
Listed below are some examples of common
transducers and sensors that we may encounter:
47
Resistive Position Transducers
• The principle of the resistive position transducer
is that the measured quantity causes a resistance
change in the sensing element.
• A common requirement in industrial
measurement and control work is to be able to sense
the position of an object, or the distance it has
moved.
• One type of displacement transducer uses a
resistance element with a sliding contact linked to the
object being monitored.
• Thus the resistance between the slider and one
end of the resistance element depends on the
position of the object.
48
Resistive Position Transducers
• The output voltage depends on the wiper position and
therefore is a function of the shaft position.
• In figure below, the output voltage Eout is a fraction
of ET, depending on the position of the wiper.
• The element is considered perfectly linear if
the resistance of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of wiper.
Eout R2
=
ET R1 + R2
49
Resistive Position Transducers
Example 1
An RPT with a shaft stroke of 5.5 inches is applied in
the circuit as below. The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 4.7kΩ. The applied voltage is
ET= 3V.
When the wiper is 0.9 in. from B, what is Eout ?
50
Strain Gauges
• The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive
transducer that uses electrical resistance variation
in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on
the wire.
• It is a very versatile detector and transducer for
measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force or
displacement.
51
Strain Gauges
The construction of a bonded strain gauge shows a
fine wire looped back and forth on a mounting plate,
which is usually cemented to the element that
undergoing stress.
52
Strain Gauges
• For many common materials, there is a constant
ratio between stress and strain.
• Stress is defined as the internal force per unit
area.
•
F
S= S – Stress (kg/m2)
F – Force (kg)
A A - Area (m2)
53
Capacitive Transducers
• The capacitance of a parallel plate is given
by:
55
Capacitive Transducers
Example 2:
An electrode-diaphragm pressure transducer has
plates whose area is 5x10-3 m2 and distance
between plates is 1x10-3 .
Calculate its capacitance if it measures air
pressure with k=1.
56
Inductive Transducers
• Inductive Transducers may be either the self-
generating or the passive type transducers.
57
Tachometers
• Examples of a Common Tachometer
58
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Passive inductive transducers require an external
source of power.
• The Differential transformer is a passive inductive
transformer, well known as Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT).
• It consists basically of a primary winding and two
secondly windings, wound over a hollow tube and
positioned so that the primary is between two of
its secondaries.
59
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Some examples of LVDTs.
60
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• An example of LVDT electrical wiring.
61
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• An iron core slides within the tube and therefore
affects the magnetic coupling between the primary
and two secondaries.
• When the core is in the centre , the voltage
induced in the two secondaries is equal.
• When the core is moved in one direction of centre,
the voltage induced in one winding is increased and
that in the other is decreased. Movement in the
opposite direction reverse this effects.
62
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
•In next figure, the winding
is connected ‘series opposing’
-that is the polarities of V1
and V2 oppose each other
as we trace through the circuit
from terminal A to B.
•Consequently, when the core
is in the center so that V1=V2,
there is no voltage output,
Vo = 0V.
63
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• When the core is away from S1, V1 is greater than
V2 and the output voltage will have the polarity of V1.
• When the core is away from S2, V2 is greater than
V1 and the output voltage will have the polarity of V2.
• That is the output of ac voltage inverts as the core
passes the center position.
• The farther the core moves from the centre, the
greater the difference in value between V1 and V2,
and consequently the greater the value of Vo.
64
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Thus, the amplitude of Vo is a function of distance
the core has moved. If the core is attached to a
moving object, the LVDT output voltage can be a
measure of the position of the object.
• The farther the core moves from the centre, the
greater the difference in value between V1 and V2,
and consequently the greater the value of Vo.
65
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Among the advantages of LVDT are as follows:
66
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Example 3:
An ac LVDT has the following data; input 6.3V,
output 5.2V, range ±0.50 cm. Determine:
a) Plot of output voltage versus core position for a
core movement going from +0.45cm to -0.03cm?
b) The output voltage when the core is -0.35cm from
the center?
c) The core movement from center when the output
voltage is -3V?
d) The plot of core position versus output voltages
varying from +4V to -2.5V.
67
Piezoelectric Transducers
• When a mechanical pressure is applied to a
crystal of a Rochelle salt, quartz, or tourmaline type, a
displacement of the crystals that will produce a
potential difference will occur.
68
Piezoelectric Transducers
• When externally force is applied to the plates, a
stress will be produced in the upper part of the crystal.
69
Temperature Transducers
• The temperature transducers can be divided
into four main categories:
70
Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
• Detectors of resistance temperatures
commonly employ platinum, nickel, or
resistance wire elements, whose resistance
variation with temperature has a high intrinsic
accuracy.
71
Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
• Some examples of RTDs are as follows:
72
Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
• The relationship between temperature and
resistance of conductors can be calculated from
this equation:
R = Ro (1 + α∆T )
where;
R= resistance of the conductor at temp t (oC)
Ro=resistance at the reference temp.
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
∆ = difference between operating and reference
temp.
73
Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
Example:
A platinum resistance thermometer has a
resistance of 220Ω at 20oC. Calculate the
resistance at 50oC?
Given that α 20 oC=0.00392.
74
Thermocouples
• A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. It consists of two dissimilar / different
metals, joined together at one end, which produce a
small unique voltage at a given temperature. This
voltage is measured and interpreted by the
thermocouple.
75
Thermocouples
• Some examples of the thermocouples are as
follows:
76
Thermocouples
• Common commercially available
thermocouples are specified by ISA
(Instrument Society of America) types.
78
Thermocouples
•Calibration curves for several commercially
available thermocouples is as below:
79
Thermocouples
• The magnitude of thermal emf depends on the
wire materials used and on the temperature difference
between the junctions.
• The effective emf of the thermocouple is given as:
E = c(T1 − T2 ) + k (T − T ) 1
2
2
2
•Where;
c and k – constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 - temperature of the ‘hot’ junction.
T2 - temperature of the ‘cold’ or
‘reference’ junction.
80
Thermocouples
Example
81