How to Write and Publish

a Scientific Paper
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CHAPTER 1 0 - - - - - - -
How to Write the Introduction
A bad beginning makes a bad ending.
-Euripides
SUGGESTED RULES
ow that we have the preliminaries out of the way, we come to the
paper itself. Some experienced writers prepare their title and Ab tract
after tile paper is written even thougb by placement the e elements
come first. You should, however, have in mind (if not 011 paper or in the
computer) a provisional title and an outline of tile paper you propose to
write. You should also consider the level of the audience you are writing
for, so that you will have a basis for determining which terms and
procedure need definition or de cription and which do not. If you do not
have a clear purpose in mind, you might go writing off in six directions
at once.
It i a wise policy to begin writing the paper while the work is still
in progre . Thi makes the writing easier because everything i fresh in
your mind. Furthermore, the writing process itself is likely to point to
incon istencie in the results or perhaps to sugge t interesting sidelines
that might be followed. Thus, start the wliting while the experimental
56
How fo Write the introductioll 57
apparatus and materials are still available. If you have coauthors, it is
wise to write up the work while they are still available for consultation.
The first section of the text proper should of course, be the Intro-
duction. The purpose of the Introduction should be to supply sufficient
background information to allow the reader to understand and evaluate
the results of the present study without needing to refer to previous
publications on the topic. The Introduction should also provide the ra-
tionale for the present study. Above all, you should state briefly and
clearly your purpose in writing the paper. Choose references carefully to
provide the most important background information. Much of the In-
troduction should be written ill present tense, because you will be re-
fening primarily to your problem and the established knowledge relating
to it at the start of your work.
Suggested rules for a good Introduction are as fo llows: (1) The In-
tToduction should present first, with all possible clarity, the nature and
scope of the problem investigated. (2) It should bliefly review the per-
tinent literature to orient the reader. (3) It should state the method of the
investigation. If deemed necessary, the reasons for the choice of a pal"-
ticular method should be stated. (4) It should state the principal results of
the investigation. (5) It should state the principal conclusions suggested
by the results. Do not keep the reader in suspense; let the reader follow
the development of the evidence. An O. Henry surprise ending might
make good literature, but it bardly fits the mold of the scientific method.
To expand on that last point: Many authors, especially beginning
authors, make the mistake of holding back their more important findings
ulltillate in the paper. In extreme ca es, author have ometime omitted
important findings from the Ab tract, pre umably in the hope of building
suspense wh ile proceeding to a well-concealed. dramatic climax. How-
ever, this is a silly ganlbit that. among knowledgeable cientist, goes
over like a double negative at a grammarians' picnic. Basically the prob-
lem with the surprise ending is that the reader become bored and stop
reading long before they get to the punch line. "Reading a cientific
article isn t the same a reading a detecti ve stor . We want to know from
the start that the butler did it" (Ratnoff, 1981 ).
REASONS FOR THE RULES
The first three rules for a good Introduction need little expansion, being
reasonably well accepted by most scientist-writers, even beginning ones.
It is important to keep in mind, however, that the purpose of the Intro-
duction is to introduce (the paper). Thus, the first rule (definition of the
58 How to Write and Publish a SCiell1.ijic Paper How 10 Write the Introduction 59

problem) is the cardinal one. And, obviously, jf the problem is not tated In addition to the above rules, keep in mind tbat your paper may well
in a reasonable, understandable way, readers will have no interest in your be read by people outside your narrow specialty. Therefore, the Intro-
solution. Even if the reader labors through your paper, which is unlikely if duction is the proper place to define any specialized terms or abbrevia-
you haven't presented the problem in a meaningful way, he or she will be tions that you intend to lise. Let us put this in context by citing a sentence
unimpressed with the brilliance of your solution. In a sense, a scientific from a letter of complaint that an editor once received about an adver-
paper is like other types of journalism. In the Introduction you should have tisement in the Journal o/Virology. The ad, which announced an opening
a "hook" to gain the reader'. attention. Why did you choose that subject, for a virologist at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), concluded
and why is it important?
with the statement "An equal opportunity employer, M & F." The let-
The second and third rules relate to the first. The literature review
ter suggested that 'the designation 'M & F' may mean that the NllI is
and choice of method should be presented in such a way that the reader
muscular and fit, musical and flatulent, hermaphroditic, or wants a mature
will understand what the problem was and how you tried to resolve it.
applicant in his fifties."
These three rules then lead naturally to the fourth and fifth, the state-
ment of principal results and conclusions, which should be the capstone of
the Introduction. This road map from problem to solution is so important
that a bit of redundancy with the Abstract is often desirable.

SOME EXCEPTIONS

In some research areas and journals, scientific papers typically follow only
the first three rules. Thus, when looking at papers in your target journal as
models, see whether their Introductions state the results and conclusions.
If they do not, you probably should not do so in your Introduction.
Also, in some fields, the Introduction commonly has a "funnel"
shape, moving from broad and general to narrow and specific. For ex-
ample, in the Introduction you may begin with information on the im-
portance of the overall topic being addressed, next summarize knowledge
about an aspect of the topic, then identify an unresolved question about
that aspect and finall y ay how the cunent research addressed the
question. The approach re embles one you might use when a visitor
comes to your lab and you first provide background information and then
show what you have been doing. In es ence the reader of your paper is
visiting your research venue: an Introduction thus structured can provide
a helpful and hospitable welcome.

CITATIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

If you have previously published a preliminary note or abstract of the work,

you should mention this (with the citation) in the Introduction. If closely
related papers have been or are about to be published elsewhere, you should
say so in the Introduction, customarily at or near the end. Such references
help to keep the literature neat and tidy for those who must search it.