Optical Technologies: An Important Enabler for

Smart Systems and Infrastructures

Slavisa Aleksic, IEEE Senior Member

Institute of Communications Engineering
Leipzig University of Telecommunications (HfTL)
Leipzig, Germany
aleksic@hft-leipzig.de

Abstract— Optical technologies will play a significant role in
realizing a reliable, high-performance, and efficient smart
infrastructures and systems. There are already many ways to
utilize various optical effects to build reliable, efficient, and
precise sensors. Additionally, advanced optical communication
systems are capable of providing high-performance, low energy
consumption, and highly reliable transmission links and
networks to optimally support future applications and services
within a smart environment. This paper gives an overview of
currently available and emerging photonic technologies and
reviews their possible application in the context of the Internet of
Things (IoT) for realizing smart systems and infrastructures.
Keywords—optical technology; Internet of Things (IoT); optical
sensors; optical communication systems and networks
I. INTRODUCTION
The main prerequisite for implementing smart city
applications and systems is an efficient and reliable smart
infrastructure based on integration of basic infrastructures such
as roads, railways, metro, trams, electricity grids, water
distribution systems, and other constructed facilities, together
with distributed smart sensing systems, information
technology, and communication networks. Another emerging
application in smart infrastructures. There are numberless
examples of using photonic devices and systems in smart
infrastructures such as imaging sensors and various sensors for
measuring strain, temperature, tilt, force, acceleration, rotation,
humidity, vibration, velocity, and humidity. Other important
examples are fiber-optic communication systems and networks
as well optical positioning systems. An example of the
positioning of optical technologies within the layered IoT
architecture is shown in Fig. 1. It is evident that optical
technologies mainly relate to the device layer (sensors and
actuators) and the network layer (transport capabilities). While
optical effects and structures are only one of possible
candidates for implementing various sensors and actuators, the
modern transport network infrastructure is based mainly on
optical communication systems. Thus, optical communication
and switching technologies will continue to play the central
role in providing a ubiquitous, high-performance, and reliable
transport networks for IoT systems.
Application Layer
Smart  Smart  Smart  Smart  Smart  Smart  Smart 
Cities Health Living Transport Energy Building Industry
Service and Application Support Layer
Management Capabilities

application is the smart healthcare, which has the potential to Generic Support Specific Support

Security Capabilities
improve the quality of patient care and how health care is
delivered, for example, through a better and faster diagnostics, Network Layer
better treatment of patients, and improved operational Network Layer Networking Capabilities Transport Layer

efficiency. In production environments, the fourth industrial Network Layer Protocols NFV SDN Routing Transport Layer Protocols

revolution is taking place driven by recent developments in Physical Layer Transport Capabilities Data‐Link Layer
Wireless LAN Copper Access
information and communication technology (ICT). It promises Wireless PAN
Optical PAN
Optical Access
Optical LAN
Optical Transport Wireless/Radio Access
to radically alter the face of the industry in the coming decades.
Device Layer
With a widespread realization of Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Sensors Sensors and Actuators Actuators
communication and the Internet of Things (IoT) the traditional Magnetic Sensors Magnetic Sensors Magnetic Actuators Magnetic Actuators
boundaries between the manufacturing and telecommunication Optical Sensors
Electrostatic Sensors Thermal Sensors
Optical Actuators
Electrostatic Actuators  Thermal actuators
sectors will disappear. A large number of sensors, actuators and
various other smart devices interconnected with each other by
means of an omnipresent, high-performance, and highly Fig. 1. Layered architecture of the Internet of Things with emphasized role of
optical technologies. (adapted from ETSI). [1] NFV: Network Function
reliable communication network are building part of a Virtualization, SDN: Software-Defined Networking, PAN: Personal Area
ubiquitous and effective IoT network, which is a key factor in Network, LAN: Local Area Network
delivering integrated and smart infrastructures and systems.
The aim of this paper is to provide a survey on optical
A. The role of Optical Technologies in the IoT technologies in support of applications for smart systems and
Photonic technologies have played and will play in the infrastructures. While wireless systems have widely been
future a significant role in the development of the IoT and its considered and recognized for application in IoT systems, there
is still less work on the importance and application of optical

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technologies. This paper aims to draw attention to the role of
optical technologies in the IoT. It is structured as follows: The
following section describes the recent developments in the area Examples of Applications of Optical Sensors
of technologies for optical sensors. Current works in the area of
remote optical sensing and optical sensor networks are briefly
addressed in Section III. Section IV reports on recent efforts in Measurement of physical quantities
building an adequate network infrastructure that match the
needs of IoT applications and services with particular attention • temperature
• velocity
paid to optical communication technologies. The last section • acceleration
discusses possible future trends and concluders the paper. • strain
• pressure,
• shape of an object
II. OPTICAL SENSORS • …
Optical sensors have traditionally been used for hundreds of Measurement of chemical properties
years in some applications such as, e.g., imaging and distance
measurements. In the last decades, photonic materials and • chemical industry: sensing vapors, gases, 
humidity, pH, ions, organic chemicals
effects have been extensively exploited for sensing • environmental science: environmental analysis, 
applications, so that a number of additional use cases have industrial production monitoring, bioprocess 
appeared. Optical sensors have already found a wide use in control
holography, automated mass manufacturing, transportation, • …
and health applications, just to mention some of examples. In Biomedical and biometric applications
sensitive environments such as those found in health systems,
• measuring blood flow
especially for in-situ and in-vivo applications, there are crucial • testing of skin irritants
advantages of optical systems because of their inherent • blood perfusion measurements in the stomach 
properties such as short wavelength, low size, lightweight, and duodenum
absence of electromagnetic radiation, immunity to • long term  health  assessment
• obtaining fingerprint image
electromagnetic interference, and ability for remote and multi- • …
position measurements. It applies analogously to harsh
environments, in which the immunity to electromagnetic Industrial applications
interference provides the crucial benefit.
• characterization of raw materials and products 
Typical applications of optical sensors include: • real‐time thermal imaging 
• composition analysis
i) measurement of physical quantities such as temperature, • detects of delamination and defects
velocity, acceleration, strain, pressure, or shape of an object, • surface inspection
ii) monitoring health of composite materials by detecting • …
delamination, deformation, and cracking as well as measuring
vibrations, iii) measurement of various chemical properties, Monitoring health of materials and structures
iv) biomedical and biometric applications such as measuring • detecting delamination, deformation, and cracking
blood flow, testing of skin irritants, blood perfusion • measuring vibrations
• …
measurements in the stomach and duodenum, long term health
assessment, obtaining fingerprint image, v) industrial Automotive applications
applications such as characterization of products, real-time
thermal imaging, composition analysis, detects of delamination • autonomous cars: ultrasonic sensors, vision sensors
and defects, surface inspection, and many more. Some more • polution detection, gas sensors, rain and light sensors
• Light detection and ranging, wheel rotation sensors
applications are shown in Fig. 2. • …

A. Classification of Optical Sensors
Mostly optical sensors base on optical fibers as waveguide,
in which a certain effect takes place. Additionally, polymers or
graphene with its derivatives are valuable candidates. Also
free-space optics can be used to sense properties of the
environment.
Different realizations of fiber-based optical sensors can be
classified according to several criteria. One can decide to make
a classification according to the intended application or
purpose. Fiber-based optical sensors can be classified as
follows [1]:
 According to the modulation and demodulation process,
sensors can be based on intensity, phase, frequency, or
polarization modulation.
Fig. 2. Some examples of possible applications of optical sensors
 Optical fiber sensors can be intrinsic or extrinsic. In
intrinsic sensors, the sensing occurs in the fiber itself by
the change of one or more of the physical properties of
the light (intensity, phase, wavelength, or polarization).
Intrinsic sensors are mostly used to measure
temperature, pressure, flow or liquid level. They are
mostly easy to use and less expensive. If the sensing
occurs outside of the fiber and the fiber is essentially
used to guide the light into and out of the sensing
region, then such a sensor is called extrinsic. The main
applications of extrinsic sensors are the measurement of
acceleration, strain, rotation, vibration, and acoustic
pressure. They are more sensitive and expensive than

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 intrinsic sensors and require a more complex signal Pressure sensors are mostly based on movable diaphragms
processing. representing a pair of parallel partially refractive mirrors
separated by an air gap. This structure essentially forms a
 According to measurement points there can be point-
based (discrete), multiplexed, or distributed sensors. In Fabry-Pérot cavity. By exposing a diaphragm to pressure the
a pint-based sensor, the sensing occurs at a single length of the air gap is changed, which leads to a change of
measurement point in the fiber. Multiplexed sensors transmission properties of the Fabry-Pérot cavity. Thus, the
allow several measurement points along a single piece pressure is sensed by measuring the retro-reflected intensity.
of fiber. In distributed sensors, the sensing is taking Flow is often measured by combining pressure sensors
place in a distributed manner at any point along the with the Venturi effect. The flow rate is obtained by
fiber. measuring differentiated pressure between two segments of a
Venturi tube with different apertures.
 Regarding the intended application or physical property Position and displacement sensors have already been
to be sensed, we can have i) physical sensors, e.g., for developed in early 1980s. These sensors rely on a very simple
measuring the temperature, magnetic field,
principle of the change in retro-reflectance of light injected
concentration, humidity, strain, ii) chemical sensors
that sense chemical properties of e.g. gas or liquid into the fiber due to a movement of a proximal mirror surface.
environments, pH factor, refractive index, and For strain measurements one can use different types of optical
iii) biological sensors, e.g., for sensing of physiological sensors such as those based on fiber Bragg grating (FBG)
parameters, glucose and thrombin detection, and blood [3],[4], polarimetric sensors [5], interferometric sensors [6],
flow. sensors based on Raman, Brillouin and Rayleight scattering
[7], and hybrid sensors [8].
1) Physical Sensors
The most widely used optical sensors are those measuring 2) Chemical Sensors
a physical property such as temperature, pressure, position, Typically, optical chemical sensors are based on bifurcated
and flow. fibers or a single piece of fiber with a partially transparent
Probably the largest class of commercially available mirror. Thus, chemical sensors are mostly extrinsic where the
optical sensors is the temperature sensor. Although there are actual chemical sensor, i.e., the sample to be analyzed, is put
many different realizations of optical temperature sensors very close to or integrated in the end of fiber, depending on
basing on various effects and measuring methods, the optical measurement strategy and fiber type. Optical properties that are
fiber-based distribution ones have found the widest application typically measured are fluorescence, luminescence,
in temperature monitoring. Especially for applications, where absorbance, reflectance, phosphorescence, evanescence,
making a temperature profile with a large number of sensing Raman dispersion, and refraction index.
points is a crucial feature, the distributed temperature sensing Additional to the fiber and the sample to be analyzed,
show enormous advantages. Examples of such applications are optical sensors usually comprise an optical source and an
pipelines in refineries, tunnels, electrochemical processes, optical receiver, i.e., a photodetector. Typical device
power cables, feed bands, and oil wells. The typical effect combinations and measurement methods for four examples of
utilized in fiber-based distribution sensors is Raman optical sensors are summarized in TABLE I.
scattering. To measure the temperature a laser generates short
optical pulses that are injected into the fiber, which acts as the TABLE I. EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL CONFIGURATIONS OF OPTICAL SENSORS
sensing element. Due to the interaction of the laser light with FOR SENSING FOUR QUANTITIES: FLUORESCENCE, PHOSPOSRECENCE,
the material of the fiber the light is scattered and a part of the ABSORBANCE AND REFLECTANCE (LED: LIGHT-EMITING DIODE, LD: LASER
DIODE, PD: PHOTODETECTOR, APD: AVALANCHE PHOTODIEODE, PMT:
optical power is transmitted back in the direction inverse to PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE, PL: PULSATING LAMP).
propagation of the generated light. The backscattered light
Optical Sensor Principle
comprises a Rayleigh, a Brillion and a Raman part. The
Quantity Optical Optical
Raman part of the backscattered light carries the information Method
Source Receiver
about the temperature because it is created by thermally Frequency-domain
influenced molecular vibrations. The Anti-Stokes component LED PD measurement
of the Raman backscattered light shows a strong dependence Fluorescence LD APD Impulse-response time-
on the temperature, while the Stokes component does not. By PL PMT domain measurement
Intensity measurement
filtering out the two components (they have different PD Frequency-domain
wavelengths) and calculating the ratio of their intensities, we LED APD measurement
can obtain the information about the temperature. Due to the Phosphorescence LD PMT Intensity measurement
fact that very short optical pulses with duration of only a few PL APD Impulse-response time-
PMT domain measurement
nanoseconds are generated and injected into the fiber, the LED
exact position of the measurement along the fiber can be Absorbance PD Intensity measurement
LD
determined by measuring the arrival time of the backscattered Reflectance
LED
PD Intensity measurement
light. LD

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 When selecting the right device for a specific sensor
application the special attention should be paid to the
characteristics of the quantity to be measured. For example,
since phosphorescence rather generates a low intensity, the
photodetector should have a high sensitivity. Thus, for
phosphorescence sensors an avalanche photodiode (APD) or a
photomultiplier tube (PMT) should be used. On the other hand,
for fluorescence sensors utilizing the impulse-response time-
domain measurement, a pulse source capable of generating
very short optical pulses in combination with a high-speed
detector should be selected. For sensing the luminescence it is
recommended to use shaped fiber tip in order to reduce the
noise at the photodetector caused by the reflected light.
Additionally, selective membranes can also be used to improve
the sensor selectivity. However, the membrane leads to
increased sensor’s settling time because the light is diffused
while passing through.
3) Biological Sensors
In practical applications, biological sensors mostly measure
a chemical or a physical quantity, which is directly related to a
biological parameter. A biological system produces a change of
a chemical or physical variable, which can then be indicated by
measuring a change of a property of the generated light such as
intensity, phase, or frequency, leading to a very similar
measuring principle as already shown in TABLE I. A classic
example of a biosensor is to use the luciferin-luciferase method
for measuring adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content - an
energy coenzyme found in the cells of all living organisms -
which acts as the common energy currency. The chemical
reaction used here is [9]:
ATP + luciferin + O2
 oxyluciferin + PPi + CO2 + AMP + light
Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) is one of the results of
the reaction and emits light. This phenomenon is referred to as
bioluminescence. Due to the fact that the concentration of ATP
is proportional to the emitted light, the ATP content can easily
be measured by measuring the intensity of the
bioluminescence.
III. OPTICAL SENSOR NETWORKS
A more complex sensing system with extended reach is
realizable by combining optical sensors with optical fibers and
network components such as optical multiplexers/
demultiplexers and switches. Main applications of remote
fiber-optic sensing and optical sensor networks envisaged so
far are remote and continuous monitoring of structural health,
environmental monitoring and surveillance, home security,
agriculture, medical monitoring, monitoring of transport
systems, and industry applications. Many types of optical
sensors can be used in a remote configuration including both
distributed and discrete ones. The discrete remote
configurations are mostly based on Fabry-Perot or fiber Bragg
gratings (FBG) while the distributed ones mostly exploit
Brillouin or Raman scattering. Amplification must be applied
to make possible long-distance systems. For example, a remote
sensing system with an extended reach of 230 km can be
implemented by using erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA)
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[10]. An important benefit of remote fiber-optic sensing is the
possibility of multiplexing several sensors on a single fiber. A
system incorporating four FBG sensors and Raman
amplification to provide a reach of over 250 km has been
reported in [11]. Recently, a double-pumped random
distributed feedback (DFB) fiber laser has been used to achieve
remote interrogation of an interferometric sensor over 290 km
[12]. Additionally, the optical fiber link can be used not only
for sensing but also simultaneously to carry signals for data
transmission and power distribution to remote sensor nodes
[13].
A number of network arrangements and topologies
including simple sensor arrays, serial and ladder arrangements
as well as tree and partially meshed topologies have already
been considered for sensor networks [14],[15],[16],[17]. To
enable various topologies and increased reliability optically
transparent switches and routers can used [16].
Additionally to fiber-based sensor networks also optical
wireless sensor networks have gained particular attention of the
research community [15],[17],[18],[19],[20],[21],[22]. The
proposed systems consider both terrestrial free-space and
underwater communication. The data measured and sometimes
partially processed within a sensor network are mostly sent to
either a central unit or a distributed system for further
processing. In both cases, the interconnection of sensor
networks with other sensor networks and data centers is a
crucial function for realizing effective, reliable and large-scale
applications. As already discussed in Section I and indicated in
Fig. 1, transmission and networking capabilities represent an
important middle layer between the device layer and the
application layer. Therefore, the communication network
infrastructure will play a significant role in future development
(1) of IoT systems and applications. Tus, the next section provides
a brief review of current developments and future trends in the
optical network infrastructure with a particular focus on its
capability to support demands of IoT applications.
IV. OPTICAL NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE
Optical transmission technologies and networks have made
a huge progress in the last few decades towards a high-
capacity, high-performance and flexible network
infrastrucurture. Many new technologies and network
concepts have evolved recently [23]. One of the main drivers
of this development is the rapidly growth of applications such
as machine-to-machine communication and smart
infrastructures. These new applications set very high and even
more important, different requirements on the network
infrastructure than the traditional communication application
and services. Especially low end-to-end latency, high
availability, data consistency and security are important
requirements of many IoT applications. A new concept is
needed to cope with this trend in order to provide high
flexibility, adaptability, and reliability together with a high
level of security and efficient separation of different network
slices. Thus, flexible and adaptable network concepts are
needed for all network areas and layers, as indicated in Fig. 3.
 Data Centers 5th Generation Radio M2M / IoT Similar to the development of radio communication
Access Network Smart City Industry 4.0 systems, also the evolution of optical communication systems
Server
and networks can be presented by five technological
Smart Infrastructures generations as shown in TABLE II. The recent developments
Smart Grids Smart Buildings of optical communication systems are promising to provide
Smart Transport
Smart Health
sufficiently high capacity for supporting all current and
emerging applications within the area of smart systems and
Optical 
infrastructures. However, without an improvement in
Network  flexibility, adaptability and manageability of optical networks,
Infrastructure Ultra HD the network infrastructure will not be able to adequately
Video
Core respond to very different and dynamically changing
Aggregation requirements of various emerging applications and services.
Access

TABLE II. EVOLUTION OF OPTICAL NETWORK CAPACITY AND

FUNCTIONALITY REPRESENTED BY FIVE NETWORK GENERATIONS. (PDH:
PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY, SDH: SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL
Fig. 3. The role of optical network infrastructure in the context of emerging HIERARCHY, FC: FIBRE CHANNEL, SONET: SYNCHRONOUS OPTICAL
NETWORK, APS: AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING, EON: ELASTIC
applications. (M2M: Machine-to-Machine, IoT: Internet of Things, UHD: OPTICAL NETWORKING, M2M: MACHINE-TO-MACHINE COMMUNICATION ,
Ultra-High Definition) HOS: HYBRID OPTICAL SWITCHING, RAN: RADIO ACCESS NETWORK, OTN:
OPTICAL TRANSPORT NETWORK, SDN: SOFTWARE-DEFINED NETWORKING,
Traditionally, optical networks have been developed and NFV: NETWORK FUNCTION VIRTUALIZATION, ROADM; RECONFIGURABLE
OPTICAL ADD/DROP MULTIPLEXER, ODU: OPTICAL DATA UNIT)
operated in a quite static manner. Even though both capacity
and topology have been continuously adapted to increasing Optical Description
requirements, the flexibility and adaptability features have not Network Examples of Main Line Data
Generation Technologies Characteristics Rates
been supported at all. The capacity requirements have mostly
PDH p-t-p links,
been met by step-wise increasing the line data rate and using 1st Generation FC bit-wise
1 Mbit/s –
the dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) 140 Mbit/s
Optical Ethernet multiplexing
technique with the fixed wavelength grid. The topology of mainly ring
choice was mainly either a double counter-rotating ring or a nd topology, APS, 50 Mbit/s –
2 Generation SDH, SONET
partially meshed topology. Especially with regard to providing p-t-p links, byte- 2.5 Gbit/s
high capacity, the optical transmission systems have made a wise multiplexing
huge progress through increasing the spectral efficiency and ring and mesh
topologies, fixed
using advanced multiplexing techniques and multi-level
SDH, SONET wavelength grid, 50 Mbit/s –
modulation formats as well as special types of fibers such as 3rd Generation
over WDM APS, p-t-p links, 40 Gbit/s
multi-core and multimode fibers. As an example, Fig. 4 shows byte-wise
the evolution of optical transmission systems over the last four multiplexing
decades as well as recent laboratory experiments providing OTN, DWDM,
ring and mesh
more than 100 Tbit/s of aggregate capacity over the standard topologies, fixed 1 Gbit/s –
4th Generation ROADM, 100G
wavelength grid, 100 Gbit/s
fiber type, i.e., the standard single mode fiber (SSMF), or even Ethernet
ODU switching
more than 1 Pbit/s when using the space-division multiplexing
EON, HOS, mesh topology,
(SDM) over multicore fibers [24]. NFV, multi- adaptive
layer SDN, modulation, 10 Gbit/s –
5th Generation
Total Capacity [bit/s] Optical Cloud, flexible grid, 1 Tbit/s
5G wireless adaptability,
1018
backhaul energy efficiency
> 1 Pbit/s
1015

> 100 Tbit/s A. Flexibility and Adaptability

1012
One of the first steps towards greater flexibility of optical
SDM (Multicore and Multimode)
network infrastructure is to replace the fixed wavelength grid
109 Advanced Modulation
Formats and Coding with a flexible wavelength grid, which makes possible a more
WDM/OTDM effective utilization of the available optical spectrum. As
106 SSMF shown in Fig. 5, two crucial components for realizing flexible
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 optical networks are bandwidth-variable transceivers (BVT)
Year and adaptive optical nodes based on flex-grid reconfigurable
Fig. 4. Evolution of optical transmission systems regarding achievable add-drop multiplexers (FG-ROADMs). The former makes
capacity. (SDM: Space-Division Multiplexing, WDM: Wavelength-Division possible to encode and decode information on an optical
Multiplexing, OTDM: Optical Time-Division Multiplexing, SSMF: Standard carrier with almost arbitrary center wavelength and using
Single-Mode Fiber)

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various modulation formats. Consequently, central
wavelength, data rate, and bandwidth of the generated optical
signal can be adapted to actual needs and situation in the
network. The later component enables formation of elastic
optical paths through the network by establishing optically
transparent connections in a flexible manner while supporting
optical signals of different wavelengths and modulation
formats. Putting together and operating in a coordinated,
efficient way, these components can be used to implement the
concept of elastic optical networking (EON) [25].
Tunable, bandwidth‐variable and 
software‐controllable transceivers
Line Interface
8QAM
QPSK 16QAM
BPSK
Modulation Optical Optical Symbol Rate
Format Carriers Power [GBaud]
Central Wavelength
Port Data Rate
Control
Detuning
Interface
Elastic optical path
Network node, switch, router
Optical transceiver
Fig. 5. Main principle and components of elastic optical networks.
The main building block of a FG-ROADM is the
bandwidth-flexible wavelength-selective switch (WSS) [26].
Within a WSS, the incoming light is firstly spectrally
demultiplexed by using diffraction gratings and then sent to
the space switching element through the angle-to-space
conversion lens. A micro-electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS) switch or a liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) switch
can act as the space switching element. LCoS is made as a
large two-dimensional array of liquid crystal pixels, acting as
electrically-programmable grating. Thus, LCoS are capable of
controlling the phase of the reflected light, and consequently,
the reflected light beams are directed to the desired output
port. Additionally, it is possible to change the passband width
by selecting less or more pixel columns for each beam.
Commercially available WSSs are capable of supporting a
relatively fine granularity of 12.5 GHz.
In an EON, optical paths can be realized using spectrum
and rate adaptive superchannels. Optical superchannels consist
of a number of closely spaced, adjacent optical subcarriers that
propagate along the same optical path. Since superchannels
can occupy different spectral widths, a bandwidth-flexible
ROADM has to be used for switching along the path. For this
purpose, flex-grid ROADMs based on LCoS WSS are suitable
candidates because they are capable of providing adjustable
bandwidths and making possible spectrally efficient resource
allocation and efficient grooming.
The flexibility and adaptability enabled by the use of
flexible and elastic optical components can be exploited by
using software-defined networking (SDN) and network
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function virtualization (NFV). Although SDN has initially
been developed for packet-switched networks and mainly for
applications in data center networks, it can easily be adopted
for use in optical networks. Actually, the control plane of
optical networks has traditionally been based on centralized
concepts and there exists a separation between the
management, control and data planes. The entire potential of
SDN and NFV can only be exploited when implementing
SDN in a cross-layer fashion. This results in an integration of
the so called optical SDN into the overall, multi-layer SDN
concept. The main optical components that can be a part of an
Elastic and Adaptive Optical Nodes
optical SDN network are software-controllable BVTs and FG-
ROADMS incorporating bandwidth-flexibl WSS [27].
Additionally, the use of different switching paradigms and a
combined implementation of the switching elements in
Buffers per Electronic
Port switching [%]
F
E Throughput
C
O
electronics and optics, often referred to as hybrid optical
switching (HoS) [28], can lead to an even higher flexibility
v
e
r
Multicast
h
e
a
d
Port utilization O O O
P C B
S S S
and better transmission efficiency due to the possibility of
Client
having lover granularities of data flows [29]. The parameters
that can be directly controlled by software include modulation
Interface
Bit rate 100  40  10  100  10  scheme, center frequency or wavelength as well as the number
Gbit/s Gbit/s Gbit/s Gbit/s Gbit/s
of optical carriers belonging to a superchannel. Additionally,
Fixed format 
and grid switching bandwidth, symbol rate, data rate and forward error
QPSK 16QAM 16QAM
Adaptive 
correction (FEC) overhead can be adjusted. Controlling these
modulation Superchannel parameters in a more or less dynamic manner would give a
Elastic channel
spacing
great flexibility in an efficient providing various data rates,
bandwidths and switching speeds adapted to the needs of
different applications. Further, network slicing implemented
directly in the signal transmission domain becomes possible,
which can lead to both an increase in performance and a better
separation of individual network slices.
B. Optical Cloud Infrastructure
Reliable and high-performance cloud infrastructures and
services are key enables of IoT and smart infrastructures.
Optical transmission and switching technologies play a major
role in a further development of cloud infrastructure, both
within and between large data centers. Within large data
centers, novel optical interconnection solutions enable flexible
and high-capacity interconnection of a huge number of servers
and storage devices in an efficient manner [30],[31]. Since
applications such as mirroring and content distribution
networks require highly available, and dynamically managed
high-capacity connections between different data center sides,
which can even be located on different continents, flexible and
software programmable optical networks turned out to be best
suited candidates to optimally meet these requirements [32].
C. Optical Access Networks and 5G Backhaul/Fronthaul
Current fiber-based optical access technologies already
provide data rates up to 10 Gbit/s. Both point-to-point (p-t-p)
and point-to-multipoint (p-t-mp) topologies are represented.
Passive optical networks are widely deployed because they
inherently support tree topologies and split ratios up to 1:256.
An overview of current and emerging standards for PONs is
presented in TABLE III. The emerging standards NG-EPON
(IEEE) and G.hsp.x (ITU-T) are considered to be supporting on the selection of the split option, i.e., the potential placement
technologies for a further development of 5G networks. of fronthaul and backhaul interface, the expected required
capacity for the fronthaul connection regarding
TABLE III. PASSIVE OPTICAL NETWORK (PON) STANDARDS. downlink/uplink vary from about 4 Gbit/s / 3 Gbit/s (option 2,
Characteristics interface between CU and DU) and about 22 Gbit/s / 86 Gbit/s
Name Data Rates (option 7, interface between DU and RU) [34]. This fact
Standard Comment
Upstream/Downstream underlines the need for new optical access technologies and
BPON
ITU-T
622 Mbit/s / 155 Mbit/s based on ATM standards capable of supporting very high data rates in both
G983.x upstream and downstream directions.
GPON
ITU-T
2.5 Gbit/s / 1.25 Gbit/s based on ATM Another emerging and promising optical technology that
G984.x can be used in the access, local area, and personal area
IEEE based on networks as well as for proximity communication are optical
EPON 1 Gbit/s / 1 Gbit/s
802.3ah Ethernet
wireless communication systems. There have been a lot of
IEEE based on
10G-EPON
802.3av
10 Gbit/s / 10 Gbit/s
Ethernet
research efforts recently to propose, investigate, and develop
ITU-T optical wireless systems using both the infrared and the visible
XG-PON 10 Gbit/s / 2.5 Gbit/s based on ATM parts of the optical spectra and in combination with RF
G987.x
NG-PON2
ITU-T 10 Gbit/s / 10 Gbit/s TWDM, 4 λ systems [35],[36]. Especially visible light communication
G989.x 10 Gbit/s / 2.5 Gbit/s p-t-p WDM, 8 λ (VLC) and LiFi as specified in the standard IEEE 802.15.7
ITU-T Symmetric have the potential to address a number of smart systems and
XGS-PON 10 Gbit/s / 10 Gbit/s
G9807.1 GPON
NG-PON2 ITU-T TWDM, 8 λ smart infrastructure applications [37],[38]. Some examples are
10 Gbit/s / 10 Gbit/s communication and positioning applications in smart offices,
Amd1 G989.x p-t-p WDM, 16 λ
NG-EPON
IEEE 25 Gbit/s / 25 Gbit/s
future standard
smart buildings, smart factories, warehouses, transportation
802.3ca 50 Gbit/s / 50 Gbit/s systems, and hospitals.
ITU-T
G.hsp.x 50 Gbit/s / 50 Gbit/s future standard
SG15 V. CONCLUSIONS
Conventional methods for providing backhaul/fronthaul to In conclusion, this paper provides a brief overview of
radio base stations such as microwave links, TDM leased lines various optical technologies in context of their potential
(e.g., E1/T1), asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), and digital application in future smart systems and infrastructures. Optical
subscriber lines (xDSL) are hardly capable of providing high technologies have already played and will also play in the
data rates in the order of several Gbit/s. On the other hand, future an important role in developing and implementing a
optical access networks are able to provide very high data global, high-performance, and highly reliable Internet of
rates over long distances together with high energy efficiency. things (IoT). They provide fundamental components and
However, the main prerequisite for using optical fiber-based functions at both device and network layers of the IoT layered
transmission is the installed fiber, which is not always possible model such as variety of practical sensor implementations and
or practical. Hence, optical access technologies in combination high-performance communication and network capabilities.
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