1

Fundamental of Braking

• To convert kinetic energy into Heat Energy.

½ M v2 -> ½ *1100kg * 40m/sec2 -> 880 Kilojoules or 0.244 KWh

• Discs, drums, eddy-current brakes all effectively convert kinetic

energy to heat (and sometimes light if they get warm enough!)

• Regenerative systems use braking as electromagnetic generation,

and use the energy to charge and re-charge batteries.

• Parachutes use the ‘equal and opposite force’ rules.

Motorsport Chassis Design and Dynamics
Main requirements
Braking System Requirements

1.A braking system must decelerate a vehicle in a controlled &

repeatable manner under a variety of conditions
• Slippery wet & dry roads
• Rough & smooth roads
• Straight line & cornering conditions
• High & low rates of deceleration
• New or worn linings
• Laden or unladen
• Towing
Motorsport Chassis Design and Dynamics
Main requirements
Braking System Requirements

2. Permit the vehicle to travel at a constant speed downhill

3. Hold the vehicle still when parked on the flat or a gradient

Linearity and repeatability are very important!

MotorsportBraking
ChassisSystem
Design Components
and Dynamics

1. Energy source – Driver effort (+ servo boost system)

2. Modulation system to control braking effort – driver, or

modulating valves-ABS

3. Transmission system – pipes & linkages

4. Friction Components - discs & pads, Drums & shoes

 BrakingDesign
Motorsport Chassis System basics
and Dynamics

• Wheel braking torque requirements (related to car weight, tyre type, etc.): Adjust
braking capacity using pedal and hydraulic mechanical advantage, pad material,
rotor size, etc.

• System stiffness as related to pedal travel and mechanical advantage

• Balance (hydraulic mechanical advantage front-vs.-rear, balance bar settings,

etc.)

• Response linearity (temperature operating range and release characteristics of

pad compound)
 Factors Affecting Braking Efficiency

• Grip – how much frictional force is at the tyre-tarmac interface?

• Wheel torque generated through grip, depends on frictional force and

wheel radius.

• Wheel torque = braking torque at the point where the wheel locks

• Braking torque depends on:

• Mean radius of disc friction surface
• Coefficient of friction at pad/disc interface
• Number of friction surfaces (2 per disc)
• Clamping force between pads and disc
Motorsport Chassis Design
Weight and Dynamics
Transfer

• Usually more weight on front axle (Front Engine)

• Transfer of weight to front under braking

• So larger braking force can be generated at the front

• Achieved by differentiating pressure to the rear - limiting valve

to reduce pressure or difference in maser cylinder sizes
Motorsport Chassis Design
Designed toand Dynamics
avoid

• Front wheel lock – vehicle remains stable but suffers loss of

steering control

• Rear wheel lock – vehicle becomes unstable and may go out

of control

• Brake fade – coefficient of friction will drop if brakes overheat

- So heat dissipation important design consideration

• Pressure differential between brakes on same axle

Motorsport Chassis
DesignDesign and Dynamics
Considerations

• Effective heat dissipation

• Multiplication of force
• Sealing of the system
• Materials – coefficient of friction, heat resistance, wear
out rate
• Front & rear forces – weight transfer
• Variation in operating conditions
• Legal requirements
 Hydraulics
• Specially designed rubber seals fitted to moving
pistons keep hydraulic system sealed
• Pressure is constant throughout system
• Force = Pressure x Area
• Pressure created depends on the force applied & area
of the master cylinder
• Smaller master cylinder diameter = higher pressure but
greater travel distance
• Larger output wheel cylinder/piston creates greater
force with less travel – Force Multiplication
Motorsport Chassis Design and Dynamics
Hydraulics

Force = Pressure x Area

 TYPES OF BRAKES

Mechanical Brakes

•Drum Brakes

Hydraulic Brakes

•Drum Brakes

•Disc Brakes

Power Brakes

•Pneumatic Brakes

• Pneumatic Hydraulic Brakes

•Vaccum Brakes

•Electric Brakes
Typical Layout of System
Motorsport ChassisDrum Brakes
Design and Dynamics

• Drums are normally made from cast iron

• Shoes forced out against drum by wheel cylinder pistons
• Spring return when pressure released
• Often fitted with self adjusters to compensate for wear
• Usually contain parking brake – shoes pushed against
drum by lever action
• Often used on all wheels till late 1960s
• Only used on rear brakes now and superseded by rear
discs in many cases
Drum Brakes
Motorsport ChassisDrum Brakes
Design and Dynamics
Drum Brakes

• Drums are efficient but suffer from

overheating and expansion issues – it
is very difficult to cool the friction
interface and as the drum gets hot it
expands away from the brake friction
material
 Drum Brakes
• Found in some rear brake applications
• Good initial stopping
• Inexpensive, mechanical parking brake

• Dual-servo drum brake

• Self-energizing: during stopping, leading shoe digs into brake drum
• Servo action: small force applied to make larger force

• Leading-trailing brake
• Non-servo brake with anchor at bottom end of each shoe
 WORKING OF DRUM BRAKES

• Drum brakes work on the same principle as the disc brakes.

• Shoes press against a rotating surface.

• In this system that surface is called a drum.

• Drum brake also has an adjuster mechanism, an emergency

brake mechanism and lots of springs.

• The shoes are pulled away from the drum by the springs
when the brakes are released.
 Drum Brake Adjustment
• Brakes wear: clearance increases between lining and drum
• Typical drum brake adjust has threaded shaft attached to integral
starwheel
• Dual-servo self-adjusters operate when brakes are applied during a
stop when backing up
• Brake fade: results with excessive brake heat
• Drum brakes do not dissipate heat as well as disc brakes
• Increased heat causes drum to expand
• More effort required to stop the car
 DISC BRAKE

• Disc brakes use friction to create braking power.

• Disc brakes create braking power by forcing flat friction pads against
sides of rotating disc
 Continued…
• Higher applied forces can be used in disc brakes than in drum brakes,
because the design of the rotor is stronger than the design of the
drum.

Disc versus drum brakes.

 Disc Brake System
• Modern vehicles always equipped with disc brakes on at least
the front two wheels.

• Rotor

• Caliper

• Brake pads
 Disc Brake System
• Pushrods transfer force through brake booster.

• Master cylinder converts pedal force to hydraulic pressure.

 Disc Brake System
• Hydraulic pressure transmitted via brake lines and hoses to
piston(s) at each brake caliper.
• Pistons operate on friction pads to provide clamping force
• Rotors are free to rotate due to wheel bearings and hubs that
contain them
• Hub can be part of brake rotor or separate assembly that the
rotor slips over and is bolted to by the lug nuts

The hub and hubless rotors.

 Disc Brake System

• The brake caliper assembly is normally bolted to the vehicle axle

housing or suspension

Caliper mounting methods.

 Disc Brake System

• Advantages

• Greater amounts of heat to atmosphere

• Cooling more rapid

• Rotors scrape off water more efficiently

• Self-adjusting

• Don’t need periodic maintenance

• Easier to service
 Disc Brake System

• Disadvantages

• Prone to noise (squeals and squeaks)

• Rotors warp easier

• Not self-energizing

• Hard to use as parking brakes

 Disc Brake Calipers
• Bolted to vehicle axle housing (steering knuckle)
• Two types of calipers: fixed and sliding/floating
 Disc Brake Calipers

Fixed calipers with multiple

pistons. Fixed caliper being applied.
 Disc Brake Calipers

O-rings. A. Square cut O-ring and O-ring cut to show square section.
B. Square cut O-ring groove in caliper.
 Disc Brake Calipers

• Square cut O-ring seals piston in disc brake calipers.

• Compressed between piston and caliper housing

• Keeps high-pressure brake fluid from leaking

• Prevents air from being drawn into system

 Disc Brake Calipers

Square cut O-ring. A. Square cut O-ring during brake application.

B. Square cut O-ring during brake release.
 Disc Brake Calipers

• Low-drag calipers designed to maintain larger brake pad-to-

rotor clearance.
 Disc Brake Calipers
• Although the phenolic pistons themselves do not corrode, the
cast iron bore of the caliper does corrode and rust

• can cause a phenolic piston to seize in the bore

 Disc Brake Calipers

• Bushings must be lubricated with high-temperature, waterproof

disc brake caliper grease.

• Floating calipers are mounted in place by guide pins and

bushings
 Disc Brake Calipers

• Sliding calipers slide in the caliper mount and are held in place
by a spring steel clip.
 Disc Brake Pads and Friction
Materials

• Disc brake pads consist of friction material bonded or

riveted onto steel backing plates.
 Disc Brake Pads and Friction
Materials
• Backing plate has lugs that correctly position the pad in the
caliper assembly and help the backing plate maintain the
proper position to the rotor

Brake pad locating lugs.

 Disc Brake Pads and Friction

• Amount of friction expressed as ratio

• Coefficient of friction

• Kinetic energy (motion) of sliding surfaces converts to

thermal energy (heat).
 Disc Brake Pads and Friction
Materials
• Composition of friction material
affects brake operation
• Materials that provide good
braking with low pedal pressures
tend to lose efficiency when hot
• Wear out quicker
• Materials that maintain stable
friction coefficient over a wide
temperature range
• Generally require higher pedal
pressures
• Tend to put added wear on
disc brake rotor
 Disc Brake Pads and Friction
Materials
• Disc brake pads and drum brake linings are made from
materials that have a moderate coefficient of friction.
 Disc Brake Pads and Friction Materials

• Brake friction materials:

• NAO materials

• Low-metallic non-asbestos organic (NAO)

• Semimetallic materials

• Ceramic materials
Disc Brake Pads and Friction
Materials
• Combination of weighted qualities:
• Stopping power
• Heat absorption and dispersion
• Resistance to fade
• Recovery speed from fade
• Wear rate
• Performance when wet
• Operating noise
• Price
 Disc Brake Pads and Friction
Materials
• Coefficients of friction:
• C: ≤0.15
• D: 0.15–0.25
• E: 0.25–0.35
• F: 0.35–0.45
• G: 0.45–0.55
• H: >0.55
• Z: Unclassified
 Disc Brake Pads and Friction
Materials
• Disc brakes more prone to squealing
• Due to vibrations between brake pad and rotor
• Shims and spring-loaded clips help reduce squealing.
 Disc Brake Pads and Friction
Materials

• Anti-noise measures:

• Softer linings

• Brake pad shims

• Springs to hold in place

Example of brake pad retainers.

 Disc Brake Pads and Friction Materials
• Anti-noise measures:
• Contour and groove linings
• Bendable tangs
• Noise-reducing compounds
 Wear Indicators

• Inspect brakes at regular intervals.

• Wear Indicators

• Spring steel scratchers

• Warning lamps

• Messages on dash
 Disc Brake Rotors

• Brake disc or rotor is main rotating component of disc brake

unit.

• Withstand high temperatures

• Made of cast iron

• Two-part rotor

• Composite rotor
 Disc Brake Rotors

• Rotors can fail in two ways:

• Parallelism

• Lateral runout

• Dust shields help to shield the rotor from dust, water, and
debris.
 Disc Brake Rotors
• Types of rotors
• Solid
• Ventilated
 Disc Brake Rotors

• Some ventilated rotors are directional, meaning they are

designed to force air through the rotor in one direction only.
 Disc Brake Rotors
• Some rotors are slotted and drilled
• Better dissipation of heat
• Better removal of water from the surface of the pads
 Disc Brake Rotors
Worn rotors cannot absorb as much heat and
therefore are subject to brake fade much sooner.
 Parking Brakes

• Parking brakes are designed to hold vehicles stationary

when parked.

• Holds vehicle on specified grade in both directions

• Separately active from service brake

• Mechanically latches into applied position.

• Foot or hand operated

 Parking Brakes
• Two types of parking brakes used in standard disc brakes:

• Integrated

• Top hat drum

 Parking Brakes

• Electric parking brakes:

• Pull on a conventional parking brake cable

• Mounted on caliper and directly drive caliper piston

• Electric motor to apply disc brake assemblies

• Automatically released by electronic control module

(ECM)
 Hydraulic Brake System Operation
• Brake pedal depression
• Moves piston in master cylinder
• Fluid under pressure is pushed to slave cylinder
• Slave cylinders are located at each wheel

• Pascal’s Law:
• Pressure in an enclosed system is equal and undiminished in all
directions
• Force = Pressure x Area
• Force applied to brake linings increases with larger diameter wheel
cylinder
 Hydraulic Brake Fluid
• Glycol-based fluids are hygroscopic
• Absorb water
• Brake fluid
• Higher boiling point than water
• DOT specifications
• List both dry and wet boiling points
 Properties of Brake Fluid

1. Does not Thicken with changing heat

2. Must not Boil

3. Must be Compatible with brake material

4. Must lubricate internal parts

5. Must no Evaporate Easily

 Hydraulic System Operation

• Driver depresses the brake pedal

• Linkage applies force to piston at rear of master cylinder

• Master cylinder operation

• Supplies hydraulic pressure to wheel cylinders
• Primary cup compresses fluid when pedal is depressed
• Secondary cup keeps fluid from leaking out

• Seal lips are directional

• Seal installed backwards will leak
 Low Brake Pedal

• Low pedal
• Brake pedal moves closer to floor before brakes applied
• Tandem master cylinder
• Cylinder bore with two pistons and chambers
• Master cylinder reservoirs
• Prevented from vacuum locking
• Rubber diaphragm in cover or plastic float
• Master cylinders
• Mounted on bulkhead
 Split Hydraulic System

• Longitudinally split system

• Front and rear brakes: separate hydraulic systems
• Used on rear-wheel-drive vehicles

• Diagonally split system

• Operates brakes on opposite corners of vehicle
• Used on front-wheel-drive vehicles

• Front suspension geometry

• Negates brakes’ tendency to pull to one side
Front/Rear Split System
Diagonally Split System
 Master Cylinder

• Some disc brake calipers are designed to have less drag when
brakes are not applied
• More fluid needed to take up clearance

• Quick take-up master cylinder

• Moves larger amount of fluid when pedal first applied
• Rear of primary piston larger diameter than front
• Larger part of bore allows piston to move large volume of fluid
more quickly
Motorsport Chassis Master
DesignCylinders
and Dynamics

• Consist of cast iron cylinder body & plastic

fluid reservoir

• Split design ( Duel Circuit ) since 1960s

• Vacuum servo assisted

• Without the vacuum – much more force is

required!
Master Cylinder
Motorsport Chassis Design
Dual Circuit and Dynamics
Master Cylinder

75
 Wheel Cylinder
• The wheel cylinder consists of a number of components.
• One wheel cylinder is used for each wheel.
• A pair of pistons operates the shoes, one at each end of the wheel
cylinder.
• When hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder acts upon the
piston cup, the pistons are pushed toward the shoes, forcing them
against the drum and the piston is returned to its position by the
force of the brake shoe return springs when the brakes are not being
applied
 Hydraulic System Valves and
Switches
• Tandem systems have a hydraulic safety switch
• Alerts drivers when half the system fails

• Some master cylinders have a fluid level switch

• Several designs
 Hydraulic Control Valves

• Metering valve
• Used on front disc brakes when car has rear drum brakes
• Prevents front brakes applying until rear shoes overcome spring
pressure and contact drums
• Unnecessary with four-wheel disc brakes
• Proportioning valves
• Prevent rear wheels from locking during hard stop
• Newer cars
• Equipped with antilock brakes
 Pressure Control Valves and
Switches
• All modern brake hydraulic systems contain pressure

• control valves.

• These systems also contain brake switches, which operate dashboard-mounted

warning lights, or illuminate

• the rear brake lights.

• Pressure control valves affect the hydraulic pressure delivered to the wheel
units, which

• Can make brake action more efficient. Brake switches are

• Used to illuminate warning lights on the dashboard, alerting

• the driver to the presence of a brake problem.

• Some valves and switches work together to sense problems and warn the driver
 Metering Valve
• The front brake pads are very close to the rotor and are not held in
a retracted position.
• When the brakes are first applied, hydraulic pressure moves the
front disc pads into contact with the rotor almost immediately .
• However , the rear brake shoes are held in the retracted position by
return springs and must over come spring pressure to move the
shoes into contact with the drum.
• This means the front pads would apply much more quickly than the
rear shoes.
• A metering valve is used to keep this from happening.
 Proportioning Valve
• when the brakes are applied, much of the vehicle’ s weight is transferred to the
front wheels.

• If the brakes are applied hard during an emergency stop, so much vehicle
weight is transferred to the front wheels that the rear wheels can easily lose
traction and lock up.

• Rear wheel lockup can cause wear on the rear tires and can cause the vehicle
to spin out of control, especially on wet or icy roads.

• However, rear wheel lockup is a problem on many vehicles with four -wheel
disc brakes, especially those with front-wheel drive.

• To prevent rear wheel lockup, a proportioning valve, is installed in the rear

brake line.

• Inside the proportioning valve assembly, a calibrated spring holds the valve
away from the opening to the rear brakes.
 Brake Lines and Hoses

• For the hydraulic pressure developed in the master cylinder to reach

the wheel brakes, they must be connected by some sort of hydraulic
tubing.

• This tubing consists of rigid steel lines and flexible rubber hoses.
 Steel Brake Lines
• Whenever Possible, The Hydraulic System Uses Rigid Steel Brake Lines,
Sometimes Called Tubing, to Transmit Hydraulic Pressure.
• Steel Lines Are Resistant To Collision Damage And Vibration, Can Stand Up
To High Brake System Pressures, And Are Relatively Inexpensive.
• For Added Safety , The Steel Used In The Lines Is Double-wall (Double
Thickness) Elded Steel Made From Copper -Coated Sheet Steel.
• Common Steel Line Sizes Range From 1/8-3/8” (3.25-9.5 Mm).

• Steel Lines Are Often Coated With Tin, Zinc, Lead, Or Teflon To Reduce
Damage From Corrosion.
• The Lines Are Clamped To The Vehicle Unibody Or Frame At Close Intervals

• To Reduce Damage From Vibration And Road Debris.

 Flexible Hoses
• The wheel brake units are independently suspended (they can move in
relation to the frame and body),

• Hydraulic connections between the wheels and body cannot

• Be rigid.

• Flexible hoses, are used at the wheels to allow for movement. As the
wheels rise, fall, and turn, the flexible hose will transmit high pressure
without breaking.

• Most flexible hose lines are made from natural rubber and synthetic
fabric.

• There are usually two-plies of rubber and two piles of braided fabric
material for added pressure.
 Anti Lock Braking System
 The theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. A skidding wheel (where the tire
contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction than a non-
skidding wheel.
 If you have been stuck on ice, you know that if your wheels are spinning you
have no traction. This is because the contact patch is sliding relative to the ice.
 There are four main components to an ABS system:
 Speed sensors
 Pump
 Valves
 Controller
Speed Sensors
 The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is
about to lock up.
 The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the
differential, provide this information.
Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some
systems, the valve has three positions:
In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed
right through to the brake.
In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master
cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push
the brake pedal harder.
In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.
Pump

Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be
some way to put that pressure back.
That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces the pressure in a line, the
pump is there to get the pressure back up.
Controller
The controller is a computer in the car. It watches the speed sensors and
controls the valves.
 ABS At
Work
The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for
decelerations in the wheel that are out of the ordinary.
Right before a wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration. If left
unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could.
It might take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 kph) under ideal
conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second.
The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it
reduces the pressure to that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases
the pressure until it sees the deceleration again.
It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed.
 The result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the
brakes keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock up.
This gives the system maximum braking power.
When the ABS system is in operation you will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal;
this comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. Some ABS systems
can cycle up to 15 times per second.
 Wheel speed sensors and computer
 Monitor wheel speed
 Wheel speed sensors measure rotational speed of the wheel
• Wheel locks: antilock brake controller pulsates the pressure
to that wheel
 ABS is disabled below a certain speed
 ABS senses failure: system reverts to conventional-only braking
 Pedal feel: bump followed by rapid pulsing
 Types of Antilock Brake Systems
• Integral ABS
• Combine master cylinder, power brake booster, ABS hydraulic circuitry in
single assembly
• Early systems used pump for pressure
• Reservoir is usually much larger
• Some systems have pressure sensitive switch

• Nonintegral ABS
• ABS unit is separate from master cylinder and is in series with brake lines
• Two or four wheel
• One, three, or four-channel
 ABS Systems Schematic
Motorsport Chassis Design and Dynamics

A three-channel ABS
system
 Longitudinal Slip
From week 2 - Slip ratio
•A vehicles tyres are not always moving at the same speed as the
vehicle – they can travel both faster and slower than the ground speed
•Distance traveled by the external surface of the tyre Xst
•Distance traveled by the wheel centre Xwc

•Could be due to
•Wheel spin / lock up
•Movement of the contact patch vs. the rim
•Longitudinal deformation of the contact patch
•
Motorsport Chassis Design andslip
Longitudinal Dynamics
Motorsport Chassis Design
Braking and Dynamics
force

Brake system pressure

4 Fr
P=
Where πd 2

F = force input,
r = pedal ratio,
d = master cylinder bore diameter
Motorsport Chassis Design and Dynamics
Braking force

Caliper forces

Fc = PA
Where
Fc = Clamping force,
A = total piston area per caliper
Motorsport Chassis Design and Dynamics
Braking force

At the discs
Braking torque:

Td = Fc µR
Where
Fc = clamping force,
μ = coefficient of friction at pad/disc interface
R = mean radius of disc
Motorsport ChassisBraking
Design and
forceDynamics

At the wheels

•Since the brakes and wheels revolve around a common axis,

and are physically bolted together, they are subject to the
same torque.

•Therefore the force at the road surface depends on the

braking torque, wheel radius, corner weight and μ at the road
surface
Motorsport ChassisBraking
Design and Dynamics
force

At the road surface

The frictional force at the road surface is equal to
μW with W = corner weight.
Torque generated by the wheels is therefore
Tw = R μW with R = rolling radius
At the point where Tw and Td are equal, the wheel
locks
Consequently the amount of necessary braking force
can be calculated easily
Motorsport Chassis
WorkedDesign and Dynamics
through example

294 kg 299 kg

299 kg 299 kg Tyre μ = 1.2

Tyre Rolling radius – 0.298m
Friction force
μW = 1.2 x (299kg * 9.81m/s/s) = 3519.83N
Wheel torque
Tw = R μW -> 3519.83N * 0.298m =
1048.91Nm
 Worked
Motorsport Chassis through
Design andexample
Dynamics

Wheel locks when Tw = Td OD 330.5mm

ID 200.5mm
Therefore wheels are locked at Td = 1048.91Nm

Disk braking torque - Disk/pad μ = 0.55

Td = Fc μR -> 1048.91Nm / ( 0.55 * 0.13275m) =
Clamping force = 1048.91Nm / 0.0756 =
14366.15N 4 x 31.5mm pistons
Clamping force 4 x (π * 15.75mm2) => 3117.245mm2

Fc = PA 14366.15N / 0.003117 m 2 =
= 4608605 N/m2 or Pa
(46.1 bar)
Motorsport Worked
Chassis Design
throughand Dynamics
example

180mm / 30mm = 6 Master cylinder ¾” =

0.01905m

4 Fr
P=
πd 2

P (πd )2
4 Fr
=F d =
4r π.P
Motorsport Chassis Design and Dynamics

180mm / 30mm = 6 Master cylinder ¾” =

0.01905m
P (πd ) 2
=F
4r
( 4608605 N/m2 ( π * 0.01905 m2) ) / ( 4 * 6 ) =
F = 218.93 N or 22.32
kg
 Motorsport Chassis
Consideration Design and Dynamics
– Longitudinal weight transfer
Static Lt = A [ (W X cgH)/ L ]
Lt - Load transfer (kg)
A - Acceleration (g)
0.52m W - Vehicle weight (N) X
cgH - cg height (m)
598kg 2.76m 593kg L - Wheelbase (m)
Total mass = 1190kg * 9.81 = 11673.9N From last week F =
µN
Braking - 0.4g
0.4g [ (11673.9N*0.52m) / 2.76m ] =
879.78N or 89.68kg
Braking – 0.9g 508.32kg 682.68kg

0.9g [ (11673.9N*0.52m) / 2.76m ] =

1979.49N or 201.8kg
794.78kg / 2 = 397.4kg! (was
299kg)
Now what about cross 396.22kg 794.78kg
weights?