Harbors
It can be defined as a basin or haven of navigable
waters well protected naturally or artificially from
the action of winds and waves. They are situated at
sea-shore or river estuary or lake or canal connected
to the sea
CLASSIFICATON
Depending upon the protection needed
1) Natural Harbor : Natural formations affording safe
discharge facilities for ships on sea coasts, in the
form of creeks and basins, are called natural
harbours. With the rapid development of navies
engaged either in commerce or war, improved
accommodation and facilities for repairs, storage of
cargo and connected amenities had to be provided in
natural harbours.
2) Semi-natural harbours : This type of harbour is
protected on sides by headlands protection and it
requires man-made protection only at the entrance.
3) Artificial harbours : Where such natural facilities
are not available, countries having a seaboard had to
create or construct such shelters making use of
engineering skill and methods, and such harbours
are called artificial or man-made harbours. Thus, a
naval vessel could obtain shelter during bad weather
within a tract or area of water close to the shore,
providing a good hold for anchoring, protected by
natural or artificial harbour walls against the fury of
storms
Depending upon the Utility
1) Harbours of Refuge
2) Commercial Harbours
3)Fishery Harbours
4)Military Harbours
5)Marina Harbours
Depending upon Location
1)canal Harbour
2)Lake Harbour
3)River Harbour
Components/Features of Harbour
ENTRANCE CHANNEL Water area from which ships
enter in the harbor
BREAK WATER A protective barrier made up of
Concrete or Course Rubble Masonryconstructed
from shore towards the sea to enclose harbor
TURNING BASIN It is water area which is required for
maneuvering the ship after entering to the harbour
and it is large enough to permit free turning.
SHELTER BASIN It is area protected by shore and
breakwater
PIER It is a solid platform at which berthing of ships
on both the sides are possible.
WHARF It is a docking platform constructed parallel
to shoreline providing berthing facility on one side
only
Quary it is also dock parallel to the shore which is
solid structure providing berthing on one side and
retaining the earth on the other
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD HARBOR
1) The depth of a harbor should be sufficient for
every type of visiting ships.
2) The bottom of harbor should provide secured
anchorage to hold the ships against high winds.
3) To prevent destructive wave action, break water
are provided.
4)The entrance of a harbor should be wide enough
to provide the easy passage of ships.
5)To protect against the destructive wave action land
mass or break water must be provided.
Design of Harbors
Depth in entrance : Break waters and entrances
Are usually sited where the depth at low water is not
more than 4-5m
Shelter within the harbor : A degree of wave motion
is tolerated within a commercial port depending
upon the size of the ship,type of the traffic and
frequency . In yatch harbor it must be calm.
Height of the breakwater crest above quay level: For
aesthetic purposes
Entering and leaving harbor under sail : The harbor
entrance should be made to allow yatch to navigate
under sail in diffent sea and wind condition
Littoral Drift : The influence which a port located on a
sandy coast may have on the stability of neighboring
beaches is not considered in this study
Break Water
A breakwater is a structure constructed for the
purpose of forming an artificial harbour with a basin
so protected from the effect of waves as to provide
safe berthing for fishing vessels.
Necessity
Breakwaters are built to provide shelter from waves
to manipulatethe littoral/sand transport conditions
and thereby to trap some sand entrance inside the
Anchorage Area
A breakwater is a large pile of rocks built parallel to
the shore. It is designed to block the waves and the
surf. Some breakwaters are below the water's
surface (a submerged breakwater).
Breakwaters are usually built to provide calm waters
for harbors and artificial marinas.
Submerged breakwaters are built to reduce beach
erosion.
Functions
1) Reduces Intensity of waves
2)protects harbor , shore area , Anchorage or basin
from wave disturbance
3) designed to reduce soil erosion near the bank of
the river
4) artificial harbor can be created using beakwater
Navigational Aid
It means any object or device, external to a vessel
that is intended to assist a navigator in fixing his
position or determining a safe course past hazards to
navigation.  It includes both fixed and floating
objects such as lights, light ships, buoys, day
beacons, and fog signals, plus electronic aids to
navigation such as radio beacons.  They also serve
to warn of hidden dangers and assist in making
landfall when approaching from the high seas. They
also provide a continuous chain of charted marks,
showing improved channels and assisting in coastal
piloting. IMPORTANCE OF NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
Enhances safety and can act as good safety barriers.
Help to improve safety at seas. Finding and safely
navigating a narrow channel in a wide expanse of
water. Also help mariners in determining their
position with respect to land or any navigational
hazard or hidden danger.
Lighthouses
A lighthouse is a tower, building, or another type of
structure designed to emit light from a system of
lamps and lenses and to serve as a navigational aid
for maritime pilots at sea or on inland waterways.
Has many number of floors Top floor contains
powerful lighting equipment and other floor is used
as stores. They may be located on island or on shores
Type of signals
Light Signal : 1 )Light ships: small ships are used,
latern is carried 9-12.m high. The ship is with service
personnel and is securely anchored or moored. light
ships are more stable and the lights in them more
steady which is an important factor for a mariner.2)
Beacons: Any prominent object, natural or artificially
constructed, easily indentifiable and capable of being
used as a means to indicate and guide in navigation
is generally designated as a beacon. Lofty
topographical feature like hill summit, building or
structure like a church steeple, or factory chimney,
could all be made use of as beacons.
3) Buoys : Buoys are floating structures of small size
employed for demarcation like entrances, approach
channel used for indicating direction changes in
means of alignment. Beacons are thus of the
navigation. They are moored to sinkers, or heavy
anchors, with the help of heavy chains, whose
length are two to three times the depth of water and
which are 70 to 90 mm in diameter. Buoys are of
different designs and patterns. They are designed
not only to support their own weight, but also the
weight of cables or chains by which they are moored.
Fog signals These signals are to be provided at places
likely to be seriously affected by fog They are
Ordinary bells struck by hand., Ordinary bells
operated by mechanism. , Submarine bells struck by
mechanism.,Whistles or sirens blown by compressed
air or steam.
Audible signals These signals are to be used in
emergency to bring immediate attention of the
mariners and they take up the form of explosive
signals, electric oscillators, sirens, bells and
diaphones.Thus, audible or sound signals are very
useful during heavy mists or fogs.
Moorings
A mooring is any permanent structure to which a
vessel may be secured. They are limited to a small
number of areas .Mooring line can be made up of
synthetic fiber rope,wire and chain or comb of these
Docks
a dock is an enclosed area of water used for loading,
unloading, building or repairing ships. Such a dock
may be created by building enclosing harbour walls
into an existing natural water space, or by excavation
within what would otherwise be dry land. Docks are
necessary for discharging of the cargo as ships
require a number of days for discharging cargo,
during which period they need a uniform water level.
If ship is subjected to a vertical movement by the
tides, great inconvenience will be felt in lifting the
cargo from the ship and special arrangement will be
needed for lifting the cargo.
Functions
1) Resting place for boats
2) Loading and unloading
3) NOT for shelter
4) well protected than harbor
Classification of Docks
Wet docks: Docks required for berthing of ships or
vessels to facilitate the loading and unloading of
passengers and cargo are called wet docks. These are
also known as harbor docks.
Dry docks: The docks used for repairs of ships are
known as dry docks.
Forms and arrangement of basin and docks
Shape of dock or basin should be straight to
facilitate the ships to stand along them as curved
shape is not convenient for ships. Therefore it is
essential to be made up of a number of straight
patterns as curved lines are unsustable for berthing
Shape of Deck and Basins
Rectangular, Diamond, Inclined

POINT AND CROSSING
Points and crossings are provided facilitates the
change of railway vehicles from one track to another.
The tracks may be parallel, diverging, or converging
to each other. Points and crossings are necessary
due to the inside flanges of wheels of railway
vehicles and, therefore require special arrangement
to navigate their way on the rails.
Turnout It is an arrangement of points and crossings
with lead rails by means of which the rolling stock
may be diverted from one track to another
CROSSING
A crossing or frog is a device introduced at the point
where two gauge faces across each other to permit
the flanges of a railway vehicle to pass from one
tract to another. To achieve this objective, a gap is
provided from the throw to the nose of the crossing,
over which the flanged wheel glides or jumps. In
order to ensure that this flanged wheel negotiates
the gap properly and does not strike the nose, the
other wheel is guided with the help of check rails
Requirements and characteristics of a good crossing
1)The nose of crossing should have some thickness,
from practical considerations.
2) The assembly of crossing has to be rigid to stand
against severe vibrations which causes loosening of
the components.
3) The crossing body should be as rigid as possible
and as long as practicable. A short crossing body has
a tendency to rock due to heavy loads at one end
and lifting of the other unloaded end.
Station Yard
A yard is a system of tracks laid out to deal with the
passenger as well as goods trafficbeing handled by
the railways. Coaching yard, Goods yard ,
Marshalling yard
Signaling
Signalling consists of the systems, devices and means
by which trains are operated efficiently and tracks
are used to maximum extent, maintaining the safety
of the passengers, the staff and the rolling stock. It
includes the use and working of signals, points, block
instruments and other equipments.
Types : Detonating signals, Hand signals, Fixed signal,
Semaphore, Shunt signals, Colour light signals, Point
indicators
INTERLOCKING
Interlocking is a device or a system meant to ensure
the safety of trains. Interlocking can, therefore, be
defined as an arrangement of signals, points, and
other apparatus so interconnected by means of
mechanical or electrical locking that they can be
operated in a predetermined sequence to ensure
that there is no conflicting movement of signals and
points and trains run safely
METHODS OF INTERLOCKING
Key interlocking is the simplest method of
interlocking and still exists on branch lines of small
stations on Indian Railways. The method involves the
manipulation of keys in one form or the other. This
type of interlocking is normally provided with
standard Iinterlocking with a speed limit below 50
km/h. This type of interlocking is also known as
succession locking and is also used for checking
conflicting movements in shunting operations.
Mechanical interlocking Mechanical interlocking or
interlocking on lever frames is an improved form of
interlocking compared to key locking. It provides
greater safety and requires less manpower for its
operation. This method of interlocking is done using
plungers and tie bars. The main components of an
interlocking system are a locking frame, point
fittings,signal fittings, and connecting devices for
connecting the locking frame to the point and signal
fittings. The locking frame consists of a number of
levers, which work various points, point locks, signal
levers, etc.
SYSTEMS FOR CONTROLLING TRAIN MOVEMENT
Centralised traffic control system: This is a
progressive technique in control of points and signals
from the noninterlocked to the multiple cabin to the
single cabin, then to remote control points and
finally to centralized control of points and signals
over an entire section. In this system,the centralized
traffic control panel is used which consists of
illuminated track diagram, showing the relative
position of signals, points and track circuits together
with their reference numbers. There are a number
of thumb switches below the illuminated track
diagram for the control of points. there is also a
switch to determine the directions of movement of
trains. the person controlling the panel is known as
Dispatcher. The Dispatcher makes all the
arrangements for crossings, points and signals
Automatic train control system
In these systems not only the tracks are electrical
circuited, but there are electrical fittings at the wheel
brakes of the locomotives. The advantage of these
fittings is realized when the driver fails to obey the
signal at danger-position.
Consists of 2 parts Warning system (Drivers Cabin),
Mechanical or electrival installation to apply brake
automatically
Classicication of break water
Vertical wall breakwaters: The Vertical wall
breakwaters as the name implies, are vertical
structures built of concrete/masonry and are used at
sites where the water is shallow. Foundation soil
should be firm and stable for construction because
of their great weight. Further, energy reflection from
a vertical wall breakwater is very large giving raise to
clapotis or standing waves in front of the structure
which is definitely not desired.
Rubble mound breakwaters: These are very
popularly used almost for all depths and in all sorts
of soil conditions even where the soil is soft and
weak. The reflection of wave energy from a rubble
mound breakwater is negligibly small as most of the
incident wave energy is dissipated within the pores
of the structure.
Composite type of breakwaters. : Composite types
are a combination of rubble and the vertical wall
type. On a rubble base, a concrete or any other type
of vertical structure is provided. This type is adopted
when depth is large and foundation soil is poor.
Alignment
A good alignment for breakwater is to have straight
converging arms so that the angle of intersection
does not exceed 60 degrees. Cost may be reduced if
such location alignment are possible. which will
make higher storm wave break before it reaches.
Design Principle of Break water
1) The design should be based on the extreme
phenomena of the wind and waves
2) Height of the wave should be H=0.34
3) Height of the wall should be decided accordingly
by making sufficient allowance for free board
4)the crest height of seawalls with rubble mound
protection may well be determined by an allowable
ocertopping percentage.this means that under
design conditions only a few percentages of the
waves may reach the crest and inner side of the
structure
Forces Acting on break water
1) Shearing of bed joints due to Horizontal pressure
of the wave, This is prevented by the adhesive force
of the motar joint
2) Overturning : It is an another aspect of horizontal
pressure , like ordinary walls to keep the resultant of
the weight and the horizontal pressure within the
middle third of the base, to avoid tensional stress in
the foundation courses
3)Uplifting : Due to wave action or wave force
underneath a mass
4)Fracture It is caused by dislocated blocks, knocking
against each other and breaking loose the joints and
such failures are usually avoided by proper bonding
Quays
WHARVES along and parallel to the shore are
generally called quays and their protection walls are
called quay walls , quay walls are designed similar to
Retaining walls. They are built to retain and protect
the embankment or filling
Piers
A pier is a raised structure that rises above a body of
water and usually juts out from its shore, typically
supported by piles or pillars, and provides above-
water access to offshore areas. The dimensions of a
pier should be worked out very carefully. Its length
must be sufficient to accommodate the longest ship
its width must be sufficient to satisfy its utility
Wharves
A wharf commonly comprises a fixed platform where
ships come for landing close enough to shore. These
plat form location should give sufficient depth of
water for the ship to float. The level of wharf should
be above high water level.it should be economical to
load vessels when the water is low to
Jetties
A jetty is a long, narrow structure that protects a
coastline from the currents and tides. Jetties protect
the shoreline of a body of water by acting as a
barrier against erosion from currents, tides, and
waves. Jetties can also be used to connect the land
with deep water farther away from shore for the
purposes of docking ships and unloading cargo. This
type of jetty is called a pier.
Transit Shed
Transit shed: As the name suggests, it is a shed for
goods in transit from the vessel to the consignees or
from consignors to the vessel. These sheds are
single or double storied in height. The floor area is
being used for handling and distributing the
incoming and out going cargo requiring protection. A
transit shed is a necessary facility attached to a
berth. The width of the transit shed is determined
by the area. Factors influencing the size of the
transit shed:  Nature of cargo, height of its staking
and allowance for movement and other non storage
areas.  Size of the vessels  Length of the transit
shed
Warehouses
A warehouse is a commercial building generally used
for storage of goods and warehousing is the process
of proper storage and handling of goods and cargo
using scientific methods in the warehouse and
making them available easily and smoothly when
needed. In recent days, warehousing is considered as
one of the most important aspect of trade.
Warehousing is also important for price stabilization.
For necessary goods, the Government stores them in
the warehouses and controls its supply in the market
as per the price fluctuations. Private Public Govt