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A reduced representation of 2×25 kV electrical systems for high-speed railways

Conference Paper · May 2003

DOI: 10.1109/RRCON.2003.1204665 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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A reduced representation of 2x25kV electrical
systems for high-speed railways
E. Pilo, IEEE Member, L. Rouco, IEEE Member, A. Fernández
Universidad Pontificia Comillas, Madrid, Spain
Abstract— This paper presents a reduced model of 2x25 kV
electrical systems for high speed railways. The structure of both
the proposed reduced model and the 1x25 kV system are similar.
This reduced model has been developed to be included in an
design optimization program of high-speed railways power
supply systems. The accuracy of the reduced model is checked
with a detailed model of power supply system of high speed-
railways.
Index Terms—Rail transportation, Power system modeling,
Power transmission.
I. INTRODUCTION
S ince the last years of the XIX century, electrified railways
have extensively used direct current (DC) because of the
ease of controlling the speed in DC motors by modifying
excitation current. Since the 1950s, the development of
rectifier devices made possible the implementation of new
control schemes for alternative current (AC) motors, allowing
easy speed-regulation.
AC power-supply systems have been adopted in railways of
several countries in Europe (England, Central Europe,
Portugal, etc.). However, it has been the development of
commercial high-speed railways in the 1980s that extended
the use of AC power-supply systems. High-speed railways
involves large power flows compared to DC railways, that are
much easier to transport at higher voltages.
However, main high-speed corridors are very intensively
exploited. Therefore, a newer system called 2x25kV (in this
paper, it will be referred to as dual system) was specifically
designed for lines with these high power requirements. In a
few words, with this system the catenary is fed with a higher
voltage which is reduced by autotransformers placed along the
catenary [1]. By rising the feeding voltage, this systems
reduces the necessary current for transporting the power
needed by rolling stock.
Traditionally, an equivalent resistance per length unit has
been used to model the catenary in DC [2, 3]. The same
analysis has been possible in AC conventional systems (in this
paper, they will be referred to as single systems or 1x25 kV)
by replacing resistances by impedances [4]. For analyzing
dual systems the model had to be generalized by using matrix
representation instead of scalar impedances and by taking into
account the autotransformers [5, 6].
These models are very useful to determine the behavior of
1
these circuits, so several simulation tools use them to calculate
voltages, currents and power flows [7]. The models can also
be used for qualitative analyses of DC and AC single systems.
However, AC dual systems are much harder to analyze due to
matrix model of the catenary.
This paper presents a new model for dual power-supply
systems. In spite of its simplicity, excellent numerical results
have been obtained. Furthermore, qualitative analysis become
much easier. This paper presents a representation of dual
systems in a similar manner to single systems.
The paper is organized as follows. Section II introduces the
structure of AC power-supply systems. Section III and Section
IV summarize the conventional model and the proposed
model of dual systems. Section V compares the results
obtained with an example by using both models. Finally,
Section VI presents the conclusions of this work.
II. STRUCTURE OF AC POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM
A. General Structure
Fig. 1 shows the general structure of an AC power-supply
system:
Three-phase high-voltage network
Traction Traction Traction
substation 1 substation 2 substation 3
Sector 1-L Sector 1-R Sector 2-L Sector 2-R Sector 3-L Sector 3-R
Fig. 1. General structure of the power supply system
The railway electrical system is divided in electrically-
isolated single-phased sectors, which are fed from the three-
phase network through a traction substation. These substations
are connected between two of the three phases of the high-
voltage network. It should be noted that topology can be
modified in case of failures to guarantee the operation. For
instance, if one of the transformers of a substation fails, the
other takes on the corresponding sector.
Each of these sectors can use either single system or dual
system. In single systems, the feeding conductors are set to the
specified voltage level (see Fig 2). In dual systems, a higher
voltage is set between feeding conductors. This voltage is
reduced by using autotransformers distributed along the
catenary (see Fig. 3). Typical values for distance between
autotransformers are 10÷15 km.
 2

Positive
and sectors can be assumed to be independent for the purposes
Train
of voltages, currents and load flows determination. Otherwise,
other phenomena such as unbalances in the three-phase
networks should be considered, and more complete models
should be considered.
The electrical model of dual power supply system include a
High-Voltage network representation for the catenaries, the substations and the
Fig. 2. Single system configuration. autotransformers.
Positive
A. Base magnitudes
Train
All the figures and equations of this section are expressed
in unitary magnitudes.
The circuit can be divided into three zones based on their
nominal voltage (see Fig. 5): (i) high-voltage zone, (ii)
Negative
positive zone and (iii) negative zone.
High voltage Positive zone

K1:1 Train 1
Ztr2

Zthevenin Ztr1
High-Voltage network Zcat Zcat Zcat
Ztr3
Fig. 3. Dual system configuration. Vthevenin
-1:1 -1:1
K2:-1

In this paper, the term cell refers to the portion of catenary
located between two consecutive autotransformers. The cell of
the train is the cell in which the considered train is located.
The transmission cells are those located between the
substation and the cell of the train. Finally, downward cells
are those which are located more faraway from the substation
than the cell of the train.
B. Catenary
The typical configuration of the catenary of a AC railway
line is shown in Fig. 4. The catenary contains several physical
conductors that can be grouped into three groups: positive,
negative and ground wires. In case of multiple track, other
conductor arrangements are possible.
Positive
Negative
Neutral Positive
feeder
Sustainer
Contact
wire
Rail
Longitudinal section Transversal section
Fig. 4. Typical conductor distribution.
The positive wires are the positive feeder, the sustainer wire
and the contact wire. There is usually only one negative wire
called negative feeder. The ground wires are the rail, the
collector wire and the return wire.
The conductors of each group are connected between them
at regular intervals (typically 300 meters). Additionally,
ground conductors are frequently connected to earth.
III. FULL MODEL OF DUAL SYSTEMS
Even if sectors are usually connected to the same three-
phase high-voltage network, network is usually strong enough
Negative zone
Fig. 5. Zone division for setting base magnitudes.
The base power Sbase has to be chosen and is common to all
the zones (a typical value is 10MW). Furthermore, base
voltages have to be selected for the three zones. If base
voltages are exactly the voltages of every zone in a scenario
without any kind of load, transformation ratios take values of
1 and –1. Base impedance and base currents can be
determined from the base power and voltage of each zone.
B. Catenary
As sectors are quite short (typically no longer than 50km),
each catenary portion can be represented by its concentrated
parameter π-model that includes serial impedance and shunt
admittance.
Negative
Feeder
Serial impedance matrix represents the effect of resistance,
self-inductance and magnetic coupling between conductors.
Return
Shunt admittance matrix represents capacitances and the
wire
leakage resistances between conductors (or between
conductors and the earth). However, due to the reduced
catenary lengths, shunt effects can usually be neglected.
Physical conductor models represent separately each
conductor of the catenary. In such models, serial impedance
matrices can be calculated from Carson formulas that take into
account the effect of earth currents.
However, for the calculation of voltages, currents and load
flows, equivalent conductor models are usually preferred. In
such models, all the conductors of the same voltage level are
replaced by one equivalent conductor. Furthermore, grounded
conductor voltages can be assumed to be zero, and the
equivalent ground conductor can be eliminated. Consequently,
dual system catenaries are usually modeled as two mutually
coupled conductors.
In the equivalent conductors model, voltage drops can be
expressed as:
 3

 i p ,CAT   z pp z pn   i p ,CAT   v p  IV. REDUCED MODEL OF DUAL SYSTEMS

z cat ⋅  = ⋅ =  (1)
 i n ,CAT   z np z nn   i n,CAT   v n  Fig. 8 shows the behavior of a sector where one train is
power consuming.
where z cat is the serial impedance matrix of this section of Vneg
I·(1-Kautot) Kautot= 
Vpos+Vneg
the catenary.
I

Ia1·Kautot

Ia2·Kautot

Ia3·Kautot

Ia4·Kautot

Ia5·Kautot

Ia6·Kautot
C. Substation
I0
A traction substation connects two sectors to the high- 
VHV
voltage three-phase voltage. From the point of view of

Ia1·(1-Kautot)

Ia2·(1-Kautot)

Ia3·(1-Kautot)

Ia4·(1-Kautot)

Ia5·(1-Kautot)

Ia6·(1-Kautot)
voltages, currents and load flows of the sector, the substation
represents the high-voltage network seen from the catenary 

side. I·(1-Kautot)
Fig. 8. Typical behavior of the sectors.
The representation of the substation includes: (i) the
Thevenin equivalent of the three-phase seen between the two In order to simplify analysis, loads have been considered to
phases used for the connection, and (ii) the equivalent circuit be ideal current sources. However, these simplifications do
of the three-windings transformer. not imply any loss of generality for the proposed model.
Usually, open-circuit impedance is high enough to be The basic assumptions for the development of this model
neglected, so only the short-circuit impedances of the three- are presented and discussed in part A. Then, in part B currents
winding transformers are considered. are expressed as a function of the train current for a scenario
Additionally, if the three-phase network is strong enough, with only one train. Voltage drops are then expressed as a
its Thevenin equivalent impedance is very small compared to function of the train current in part C. Finally, superposition
transformer’s impedances, and it can be neglected. principle is applied to study scenarios with several trains in
If base voltages have been set as described previously, Fig. part D.
6 shows the equivalent model of dual system substations.
1:1 ZPOS A. Assumptions
POS The first assumption that has been made is that voltage drop
along a cell in the positive and in the negative side have the
ZHV IPOS
HV same value but different sign.
M
The second assumptions is that, as far as autotransformers
IHV 1:-1 ZNEG can be supposed ideal, it can be assumed that there are current
VTH NEG
flows only in the autotransformers that are immediately
INEG adjacent to the considered train.
Fig 9. shows a sector that has been simplified with the
Fig. 6. Model of dual system substation. previous assumptions.
Ip,trans AT1 Ip,train In,train AT2
The expressions (2), (4) and (4) show the voltage drop in
Vcell1 Vcell2 Vcell3 Vcell4 Vcell5 Vcell6
transformers with transformation ratio of 1 and –1: I

v HV − v M = z HV ⋅ i HV (2)    

I0 xLcell
v M − v POS = z POS ⋅ i POS (3) VHV
Lcell
v M + v NEG = z NEG ⋅ i NEG (4)    

-Vcell1 -Vcell2 -Vcell3 -Vcell4 -Vcell5 -Vcell6

D. Autotransformers
In,trans In,train
If base voltages have been chosen as described previously,
autotransformers can be modeled as transformers with the Transmission
cell
Transmission Transmission
cell cell
Cell of the train Downwards cell Downwards cell

transformation ratio of –1: Fig. 9. Simplified circuit.

v POS + v NEG = z AT ⋅ i AT (5)
It should noted that current flows by ground conductors in
As shown in Fig. 7, the model of transformers usually
the transmission cells (noted as i gnd ,trans ) have not been
includes only the short-circuit impedance because open-circuit
impedance is much higher and can be neglected. assumed to be zero. Actually, they will take the value that
ZAT 1:-1 fulfils the condition of voltage drops equal to zero in these
POS NEG conductors.

IAT B. Branch currents

Fig. 7. Model of dual system substation.
In the transmission cells, the first assumption can be
expressed as:
 4

 v cell ,trans  i p ,trans = c p ,trans ⋅ i train (20)

−v  = Lcell [ z% cat ][ i trans ]
 cell ,trans  i n ,trans = c n ,trans ⋅ i train (21)
(6)
 z% pp z% pn  i p ,trans  where
= Lcell    z% nn + z% pn
 z% np z% nn   i n ,trans  c p ,trans = (22)
where the sub-indexes p and n represents the positive and z% pp + z% pn + z% np + z% nn

negative conductors respectively, and the symbol z% means z% np + z% pp

cn ,trans = − (23)
that impedance z is expressed per length unit. z% nn + z% pn + z% np + z% pp
Eliminating v cell ,trans from (6), it can be obtained: From (22) and (23), it can be established that:
i p ,trans = c pn,trans ⋅ i n ,trans (7) c p ,trans − c n,trans = 1 (24)
where
C. Bus voltages
z% nn + z% pn
c pn,trans = − (8) Voltage drops in the impedances z HV , ss , z p , ss and z n, ss of
z% np + z% pp
the traction substation can be expressed as:
v HV , ss = z HV , ss ⋅ i train (25)
In the cell of the train, the first assumption can be expressed
as: v p , ss = z eqv , p , ss ⋅ i train = ( z p , ss ⋅ c p ,trans ) ⋅ i train (26)
 v cell ,train   i p ,cell  v n, ss = z eqv , n , ss ⋅ i train = ( z n , ss ⋅ c n ,trans ) ⋅ i train
 = x ⋅ Lcell [ z% cat ]  −i
(27)
−v 
 cell ,train   n,cell  In the transmission cells, expressions of voltage drop along
(9)
 −i n ,cell  the positive and negative conductors can respectively be
+ (1 − x ) ⋅ Lcell [ z% cat ]  
 −i n ,cell  obtained from (6):
where x represents the relative position of the train in its v p ,trans = z% eqv ,cat ⋅ X ⋅ i train (28)
cell. v n,trans = − v p ,trans (29)
Eliminating v cell ,train from (9), it can be obtained: with
i p ,train = c pn ,train ⋅ i n,train (10) z% eqv ,cat = z% pp ⋅ c p ,trans + z% pn ⋅ cn ,trans (30)
where where X is the distance between the considered position of
(1 − x ) ⋅ ( z% np + z% pp ) + ( z% nn + z% pn ) the catenary and the substation.
c pn,train = (11) The equivalent impedance z% eqv ,cat can be written as:
x ⋅ ( z% np + z% pp )
z% pp ⋅ z% nn − z% pn ⋅ z% np
Furthermore, currents i p ,train and i n ,train can be calculated z% eqv ,cat = (31)
z% pp + z% nn + z% pn + z% np
form the current i train consumed by the train because: In the cell of the train, voltage between the first
i p ,train + i n,train = i train (12) autotransformer and the train itself, corresponds to the first
From expressions (11) and (12), it can be obtained that: part of expression (9):
i p ,train = c p ,train ⋅ i train (13) v p , AT 1 − v p ,train = x ⋅ Lcell ⋅ ( z% pp ⋅ i p , cell − z% pn ⋅ i n , cell ) (32)
i n ,train = c n,train ⋅ i train (14) v n, AT 1 − v n,train = x ⋅ Lcell ⋅ ( z% np ⋅ i p , cell − z% nn ⋅ i n , cell ) (33)
where Voltage drop v p , AT 1 − v p ,train can be expressed as a function
z% pp + z% np
c p ,train = 1 − x ⋅ (15) of i train and grouped in two terms: (i) the voltage drop with the
z% pp + z% pn + z% np + z% nn
same expression that has been used for transmission cells, and
z% pp + z% np (ii) the deviation between the real voltage drop and the first
cn ,train = x ⋅ (16)
z% pp + z% pn + z% np + z% nn term:
From (12), (13) and (14) it can also be established that: v p , AT 1 − v p ,train = ( x ⋅ Lcell ⋅ z% eqv , cat + z gap ) ⋅ i train (34)
c p ,train + cn ,train = 1 (17) with
By applying Kirchhoff law for currents to buses A and B z% 2pp + z% pp z% np + z% pn z% pp + z% pn z% np
(see Fig. 12): z gap = Lcell x (1 − x ) (35)
z% pp + z% pn + z% np + z% nn
i p ,train − i AT 1 = i p ,trans (18)
By derivating expression (35) with respect to the relative
−i n,train − i AT 1 = i n ,trans (19) position of the train x , it can be proven that maximum
Eliminating i AT 1 from (18) and (19), and expressing i p ,train deviation occurs when the train is in the middle of the sector
( x = 1 2 ). This can be used to calculate an upper bound for the
and i n ,train as a function of i train :
 5

voltage deviation: Consequently, voltage drops in the substation can be

z% 2
pp + z% pp z% np + z% pn z% pp + z% pn z% np
v dev , max = 14 Lcell
z% pp + z% pn + z% np + z% nn
In the cell of the train, voltage drop between the first and
the second autotransformer corresponds to equation (9). If
currents i p ,train and i n ,train are expressed as a function of i train ,
the voltage drop can be expressed as:
z% pp ⋅ z% nn − z% pn ⋅ z% np
v p , AT 1 − v p , AT 2 = x ⋅ i train
z% pp + z% nn + z% pn + z% np
= z% eqv ,cat ⋅ x ⋅ i train
v p , AT 1 − v p , AT 2 = − ( v n , AT 1 − v n , AT 2 )
calculated as the sum of the voltage drops in the substation
i train (36) produced by all the trains that are fed by this substation.
The voltage drops along the catenary can also be calculated.
However, some facts can be helpful to simplify the process.
Voltage deviations in the cell of each train do not affect other
cells. In other words, it is not necessary to calculate the
voltage deviation of a train of cell 1 for calculating voltage of
a train in cell 3. In contrast, if several trains are in the same
cell, voltage deviations have to take into account the
(37)
contribution of all the trains located in this cell (see Fig. 12).
AT Train 1 Train 2 AT
Voltage
(38) deviations

Expressions (37) and (38) correspond exactly to the voltage Train 1

DEV(1,1)

DEV(2,1)
drop along the catenary between the first autotransformer and
the train if the model of the transmission cells has been used. Train 2

DEV(2,1)
That means that the voltage deviation is completely recovered

DEV(2,2)
by the effect of the second autotransformer of this cell.
Finally, in the downward cells, there are no additional
voltage drops. Total

DEV(2,1)
DEV(1,1)+
Fig. 10 shows the proposed model for dual systems circuits:

DEV(2,2)
DEV(1,2)+
Zeqv,SS Zeqv,cat
Positive
Zgap
Vthevenin
Train
X1 X2

Ground Fig. 12. Superposition of voltage deviations (several trains in the same cell).
High Voltage Network Transformer Catenary
Voltage deviations vector VDEV can be calculated as:
Fig. 10. Proposed model for positive side of dual sectors. VDEV = ZDEV ⋅ I train (39)
Fig. 11 summarizes the voltages in the sector in a scenario where I train is a vector with the currents consumed by the
with only one train: trains of the considered cell, VDEV is a vector with the
1 VAT1-VAT2 voltage deviations at the bus of each train of the considered
Traction A.T. 1 Train A.T. 2
Substation 2 VAT1-Vtrain cell, and ZDEV is a square matrix of deviation impedances
XAT1 Xtrain XAT2
3 Zgap·itrain whose elements can be calculated as:
( )
(km)
, xij ⋅ z gap ( i )
VSS xi x
ZDEV (i, j ) = min xj
(40)
dV/dx=Zeq,CAT·Itrain
VCAT where xi and x j are the relative position of trains i and
j respectively, and z gap ( i ) is the impedance deviation of the
2
1 3 train i if it was the only train of the cell.
(V)
Fig. 13 shows the equivalent circuit in a scenario in which
several trains are located in the same cell, and how voltage
Fig. 11. Voltage drops in a dual sector. deviations at each train are interdependent.
Zeqv,SS
It can be seen that the deviation impedance z gap is Zeqv,cat,1 Zeqv,cat,2 Zeqv,cat,3 Positive

proportional to the distance between autotransformers. Vthevenin

[ZDEV]

Consequently, as far as the number of autotransformers is Train 1 Train 2 Train 3

increased, the relative weight of the deviation is reduced. Ground

High Voltage Network Transformer Catenary
Moreover, if the number of autotransformers was enough,
voltage deviation could be assumed in terms of modeling error Fig 13. Equivalent circuit if several trains located in the same cell.
(see expression (36)) and thus z gap could be eliminated from
the circuit. V. EXAMPLE
D. Scenarios with several trains An example scenario has been used to make a comparison
As linear models have been assumed for the circuits and the between the proposed model and the conventional model
loads, superposition principle can be applied. (used as the reference). Reference calculations have been
 6

performed with the tool SILVIA, a simulation tool for high- always lower than 1.5%. This accuracy could even be
speed railways electrifications. enhanced if voltage deviations had not been neglected.
The base power used for all the sectors is 10MW. The base
voltages are 27.5kV for the positive and negative zones. VI. CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 14 shows the scenario that has been analyzed as well as This paper has presented a novel approach for modeling
the name of the buses. 2x25kV systems in a similar way to simpler 1x25kV system.

bus 10

bus 12
bus 11
This model makes dual systems behavior more comprehensive
bus 1
bus 2

bus 3
bus 4

bus 5
bus 6

bus 7

bus 8

bus 9
than conventional models. Furthermore, qualitative and
220kV/27,5kV
quantitative analysis can easier be performed, without
km 0.1

km 18

km 27

km 36

km 45
km 9

sacrificing accuracy.
Currently, the proposed model is being used to optimize the
electrification of high-speed power supply systems.

220kV/27,5kV REFERENCES
km 10 km 20 km 30 km 40 km 50 [1] H. Roussel, "Power supply for the atlantic TGV high-speed line,"
presented at IEE International Conference on Main Railway Electrification,
Fig 14. Equivalent circuit if several trains located in the same cell.
York, 1989.
Trains are supposed to consume 20MW and 2MVAR. [2] G. Cosulich and T. Ghiara, "MOTORS: a flexible traffic simulator to
investigate rail and metrorail capability," presented at Railway operations,
Substation has been located at the beginning of the sector (km computers in railways IV, Southhampton, 1995.
0). The high-voltage network has been assumed to be ideal. [3] Y. Cai, M. R. Irving, and S. H. Case, "Iterative techniques for the solution
The three-windings transformer has been assumed to be of complex DC-rail-traction systems including regenerative braking.," IEE
Proceedings on Generation, Transimission and Distribution, vol. 142, pp.
almost ideal (all the short-circuit voltages are set to 0.1%). 445-452, 1995.
Autotransformers have been located every 10km. They have [4] J. D. Glover, A. Kusko, and S. M. Peeran, "Train voltage analysis for AC
been supposed to be almost ideal (short-circuit voltage railroad electrification," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.
IA-20, pp. 925-934, 1984.
usc =0.1%). The serial impedance matrix per length unit z% [5] P. H. Hsi, S. L. Chen, and R. J. Li, "Simulating on-line dynamic voltages of
(expressed in pu/m) of the selected catenary is: multiple trains under real operating conditions for AC railways," IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 14, pp. 452-459, 1999.
 0.0811 + 0.2376·j 0.0337 + 0.1244·j  -5 [6] R. J. Hill and I. H. Cevik, "On-line simulation of voltage regulation in
z% =   ⋅10
 0.0337 + 0.1244·j 0.1783 + 0.3844·j  autotransformer-fed AC electric railroad traction networks," IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 42, pp. 365-372, 1993.
The equivalent impedance z eqv ,cat can be calculated from [7] E. Pilo, L. Rouco, A. Fernández, and A. Hernández-Velilla, "A simulation
tool for the design of the electrical supply system of high-speed railway
expression (31): lines," presented at IEEE PES Summer meeting 2000, Seattle, 2000.
z eqv ,cat = 4.1972E-7 +j·8.7556E-7 (pu/m)
For calculations, voltage deviation has been neglected, as E. Pilo obtained his Electronic Engineering Degree from the
this situation corresponds to the simplest model. Universidad Pontificia Comillas, ICAI, Madrid, in 1997.
Table 1 compares the voltages in the positive buses of the During years 1998 to 2000, he worked at Instituto de
Investigación Tecnológica of the ETS de Ingeniería ICAI,
catenary using both models and provides the error of the Universidad Pontificia Comillas of Madrid, in the development
reduced model. of a CAD tool for the design of the electrification of high-
Table 1. Comparison of the models speed railways. At the present time, he is finishing his doctoral thesis
"Optimization of the high-speed railways design".
Bus Voltage (p.u.) Voltage (p.u) Model
(using conventional (using proposed error L. Rouco obtained his Ingeniero Industrial and Doctor
model) simplified model) (%) Ingeniero Industrial degrees from Universidad Politécnica de
Mmadrid in 1985 and 1990. He is Professor of the School of
1 0.9996<-0.1º 1.0000<0º 0.1791 Engineering of Universidad Pontificia Comillas. He teaches a
2 0.9995<-0.1º 0.9999<-0.005º 0.1696 course of Electric Machines at undergraduate level and courses
of Advance Power System Analysis and Power System
3 0.9310<-4.9º 0.9325<-4.608º 0.5334 Dynamics at graduate level. His areas of interest are modeling,
4 0.9260<-5.1º 0.9265<-5.050º 0.1012 analysis, simulation and identification of electric power systems. He has been
5 0.8779<-9.2º 0.8805<-8.794º 0.7669 visiting researcher at Ontario Hydro, MIT and ABB Power Systems.
6 0.8712<-9.6º 0.8719<-9.540º 0.1308 A. Fernández graduated in Physics in 1991 from the
7 0.8395<-12.9º 0.8430<-12.26º 1.1847 Universidad Complutense de Madrid. In 1997 received the
8 0.8339<-13.2º 0.8348<-13.08º 0.2382 Ph.D. degree in engineering from the Universidad Pontificia
Comillas de Madrid, UPCO. From 1991 to 1995 was a
9 0.8148<-15.5º 0.8190<-14.75º 1.4022 postgraduated student at the Instituto de Investigación
10 0.8127<-15.4º 0.8138<-15.32º 0.1866 Tecnológica (UPCO), and from 1996 is research staff in this
11 0.8028<-16.8º 0.8075<-16.05º 0.1747 centre and lecturer in the Mechanics Department of ICAI (UPCO).
12 0.8062<-16.1º 0.8075<-16.05º 1.4249

It can be seen that estimation error due to the model is

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