Spacecraft Engineering

Fall 2020

Dr. Rehan Mahmood

Lab Director, SSTRL
Asst Prof, EE

Institute of Space Technology, Pakistan

Course Outline
• Space environment and Orbits (1 Week)
• Power Budget – Power Subsystem (1 Week)
• Communication Link Budget (1 Week)
• Thermal Budget – Thermal Subsystem (1 Week)
• Electronics/Radiation effects on Electronics (2
Weeks)
• Spacecraft OBC (1 Week)
• Spacecraft Attitude (1 Week)
• Spacecraft propulsion (1 Week)
• Workshops (3-4 weeks)
Power Subsystem
Spacecraft Subsystems

Power
Subsystem Attitude
Determination and
Structural Control Subsystem
Subsystem

Spacecraft
Thermal Subsystem
Payload

On Board Data Communication

Handler Subsystem
Power Subsystem
Electrical Power Supply
Design Baseline

• Spacecraft power subsystem design criteria

• to provide continuous and uninterrupted power to the
subsystems in sunlight and during eclipses
• It has to be provided over a wide range of operating
temperatures
• Also maintained to the EOL of the spacecraft
• solar cells have been degraded by radiation
• Efficiency of the electrical power control system has also
deteriorated.
Spacecraft Power subsystem
• PRIMARY SOURCE OF ENERGY CONVERSION
• Chemical - batteries
• Nuclear - radio isotope thermoelectric (RTG)
• Solar - photo-voltaic 'solar' cells
• ENERGY STORAGE
• Re-chargeable Batteries - Nickel-Cadmium
• Silver-Cadmium
• Silver-Zinc
• Nickel-Hydrogen
• POWER Distribution/Regulation/Control
• Battery charge/discharge control
• Voltage regulation
• Load switching & protection
• Voltage/Current monitoring
Power Storage
• POWER STORAGE
• On-board secondary 're-chargable' batteries provide power to
spacecraft sub-systems during eclipse periods and in response to peak
demand in excess of the solar array capability
• Geostationary satellites experience
• two eclipse 'seasons' in Spring and Autumn
• total of 90 eclipses per year lasting up to 72 minutes each
• Low Earth Orbit satellites experience
• more eclipses than geo
• dependent on orbit configuration
• eg:
• 550 km polar sun-synchronous 12 am-pm
• 15 eclipses each day
• 30 minutes duration
• 5500 eclipses each year
Satellite Eclipse (GEO-winter)
Satellite Eclipse (GEO-Autumn)
Power Estimation
• The power to mass ratio for most scientific spacecraft is usually
between 0.5 and 1.0 watt per kilogram
• This is a useful guide to determine whether an initial power
and mass estimate is reasonable.
Power Subsystem
Electrical Power Supply
Spacecraft Power subsystem

• Power Consumption - few watts to a few hundred

watts
• Primary sources
• Solar cells
• Batteries
• Radioisotopes
• Short- term missions can use batteries alone
Spacecraft Power subsystem

• Solar flux near Earth surface

• 1370 Wm -2
• Around Jupiter drops to about 50 Wm-2
• Radioactive sources ( Radio-isotope Thermoelectric
Generators RTGs )
• Auxiliary batteries
• used for short periods of time during the vital parts of the
mission
Solar flux
Planet Solar Power, W/m2

Mercury 9150

Venus 2620

Earth 1371

Mars 590

Jupiter 50.6

Saturn 15.1

Uranus 3.7

Neptune 1.5

Pluto 0.9
Solar Cells

• Materials derived from silicon, germanium, gallium

and indium exhibit photovoltaic effects
• Silicon is popular and widely used
• Advance development techniques
• Low cost
• High performance per unit cost
• Thus Silicon ( Si) has been used almost exclusively for
solar cells (recent past)
• gallium arsenide and indium phosphide
• Current Technologies
Solar cell construction
• P type wafer
• 200 microns thick
• N type impurity diffused into it to a
depth of about one micron
• forming a shallow PN junction one
micron below the surface
• This dimension is important
• solar photons striking the cell will
generate hole-electron pairs at the
point of absorption
• If this point occurs more than a few
diffusion lengths away from the
depletion region of the junction
then recombination will occur
• but if it occurs close to this region
then the electric field, due to the
junction, will cause the electrons to
drift to the N region and the holes
to the P region where they can be
collected to do external work.
Solar cell construction

• the relationship V and I across the PN junctions

under conditions of no illumination is

• where I0 represents the opposing drift and diffusion

currents that flow in the diode under zero bias
conditions
• e is the electronic charge 1.6x10- 19 C
• k is Boltzmann‘s constant 1.38 X 10- 23
• T is the absolute temperature in K
Solar cells conversion efficiency

• Maximum conversion efficiency Si solar cells

• 18% in terms of the flux reaching the active area of the
cell
• Small losses occur due to
• surface reflections
• Aggravated by the cover glass for protection
• Anti-reflective coatings
• shadowing caused power pick off conductors
• Internal resistances
Solar cells conversion efficiency

• Cover glasses cause further problems

• Electrically insulating material ( glass or silica )
• Charge can be build up on them
• Damaging discharging can occur
• Extreme noise
• Destructive for sensitive components
• Mitigation
• Use transparent conductive coating
• Radiation resistant
• Indium Tin Oxide
• Expensive process
Solar cells conversion efficiency

• Final power conversion efficiency for an

undegraded silicon solar cell (BOL)
• ~14%
• A typical silicon cell is 2 cm x 4 cm (8cm x 8cm also
available)
• In a low Earth orbit produce
• 160 m W of electrical power at its optimum operating
voltage of about 0.53 V
• providing a current of about 300 mA
• Mass ~ 1 g
• including ~ 0.5 g for the mass of the cover glass
Solar cells conversion efficiency
• Cell efficiency is defined as the peak power output of cell
divided by the incident solar power, at a given set of
condition
Pout
hc =
Pinc
Solar cell conversion efficiency

• For maximum conversion efficiency

• spectral response curve of the solar cell should cover the
spectral distribution of energy from the Sun
Solar cell-Temperature effect
• Solar cells can undergo large temperature changes
• Full sunlight to total eclipse
• Not a problem for a spinning spacecraft
• Solar cells are mounted on the cylindrical surface
• Well thermally coupled to the spacecraft structure
• thermal time constant of the structure prevents any large
temperature fluctuations
• Cells mounted on paddles have poor thermal contact with
the structure and when the spacecraft passes from full
sunlight to total eclipse, the cells' temperature may drop by
150°C
• Thus both the cells and the adhesive used to fasten them to the
spacecraft's panels have to withstand this rapid change in
temperature.
Solar cell-Temperature effect

• The variation of the voltage-current characteristic curve of

a cell, and hence its power production, with temperature
Temperature Effect

• Peak power efficiency of solar cells are measured at

a standard temperature, usually 250C. The power
loss is a linear function of temperature for silicon
cells and is approximately 0.1%/ 0C; thus,
P2 = P1[ 1 - 0.001 (T2 - T1)
Where P1 and P2 are the power levels for a cell (or a
solar array) at T1 and T2, respectively.
Temperature Effect
Solar cells-Radiation

• Radiation – Solar cell efficiency decreases

• Generally power decay at a rate of e-0.04t ( t is the
time)
GaAs solar cells

• Gallium Arsenide ( GaAs)

• less susceptible to radiation damage
• Produces a higher voltage per cell than silicon
• Voc ~ 1V vs 0.6v (Si)
• Gallium arsenide is more efficient than silicon at
converting solar flux to electrical power and
• ~ 30%
• Expensive
• Difficult to Fabricate
GaAs (Triple Junction)
Solar cells conversion efficiency
Solar Array

• Assembly of many thousand individual solar

cells, connected in a suitable way to provide
levels from a few watts to tens of kilowatts
Solar arrays

• The location and shape of the solar cell array is

entirely dependent on
• Type of spacecraft
• Its attitude control system
Solar Arrays
 Solar strings

• Consider a rotating spacecraft

with a fixed solar array, then some
cells will be fully illuminated and
some will be totally eclipsed
• Series diodes can prevent the
dark chain acting as a load to the
illuminated chain
• If only part of a series chain is
illuminated a darkened cell can be
reverse biased in excess of its
Zener breakdown voltage Vz
• In this case the power dissipated
in the darkened cell could raise its
temperature sufficiently high to
cause permanent damage
• This can be overcome by the
introduction of parallel diodes
Array Configurations

• There are three primary array configuration

• Body –mounted array
• Rigid planer array
• Flexible array
• Body-mounted array:- They are used primarily with
spinning spacecraft and were the first type of arrays
used.
• Rigid array. The advantage of this configuration are
that:
• The array can be actively pointed at the sun so that the area
of the panel is used efficiently
• Area is not constrained, thus large power demands can be
met
Array Configurations

• The disadvantage are that:

• The panels must be stowed at launch and deployed after separation
• The panels must be articulated
• Power must be brought out of the panel through the articulation
mechanism, which requires a slip joint or a cable wrap.
• Flexible arrays are a relative newcomer to spacecraft design,
although the desirability of a flexible, roll-up array was recognized
very early. The major advantages this design offers are
• Reduction of substrate weight
• Flexible stowage.
• The resulting array opens the door for very high-power arrays.
Example-1

Solar array area estimation

• Calculate the area of silicon solar cells required on
the 3-axis stabilized spacecraft in a low Earth orbit
with its solar panels always pointing to the Sun to
produce 100 W of power continuously
• Solar cells efficiency 15% @ 25 oC
Example-2

Solar array area estimation

• Calculate the area of silicon solar cells required on
the 3-axis stabilized spacecraft in a low Earth orbit
with its solar panels always pointing to the Sun to
produce 100 W of power continuously (BOL to EOL)
• Solar cells efficiency 15% @ 25 oC
• Spacecraft Life 5 years
• Maximum expected temperature 100 oC
Radioisotope thermoelectric
generators (RTG)

Isotope Fuel form Decay Power density

(W/g)
Polonium 210 GdPo α 82

Plutonium 238 PuO2 α 0.41

Curium 242 Cm2O3 α 98

Strontium SrO b 0.24

Radioactive sources

• Power generating density of RTG

• High
• Only viable where the power density for solar array has
dropped significantly
• Jupiter and beyond
• Advantages for other orbits
• Insensitivity to attitude
• external particle
• photon radiation
• eclipses
Radiostope Thermoelectric
Generators
• The disadvantages of RTGs are as follows
• Cost of the units, particularly the cost of isotope
• Cost of labor involved in demonstrating compliance with safety
requirements;
• Cost of safety provisions for ground crew
• Power decreases with time because of radiation damage to the
units as well as nuclear decay
• Neither the power output nor the heat output can be turned
off
 Fuel Cells

A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from

a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen
or another oxidizing agent
Fuel Cells

• The hydrogen/ oxygen fuel cell been used for space

applications, as product of the reaction being
water. This is clearly useful for manned missions.
This technology has also been proposed for lunar
rover missions.
Power Subsystem
Electrical Power Supply
Storage cells

• Storage cells are required

• Peak loads
• Operation during solar eclipses
• For a typical LEO at 550 km altitude
• Orbital period ~90 minutes
• Eclipses for ~30 minutes
• timing depend on the spacecraft's orbit relative to the equator
• ~ 5800 eclipses per year
• 5800 charge-discharge cycles for the storage cells
every year!
SECONDARY BATTERIES

SECONDARY BATTERIES (re-chargeable)

• A secondary cell converts electrical energy into
chemical potential energy which can be stored until
needed and then converted back into electrical
energy
• There is always some loss of energy(efficiency)
associated with the charge/discharge process
• Different battery types exhibit different electrical
properties and should be selected according to
mission characteristics
Types of cells and their
applications

• Most commonly used electrode materials in

storage cells
• Nickel & Cadmium (NiCd)
• Silver & Cadmium (AgCd)
• Silver & Zinc (AgZn)
• Nickel & Hydrogen ( NiH2 )
• Different chemistries have different
• storage energy to mass ratios
• numbers of charge-discharge cycles for a given storage
efficiency
• Obviously cost J
SECONDARY BATTERIES

• Battery Selection Criteria

• Cycle Lifetime
• Depth Of Discharge (DOD)
• Mass, Energy Density (WHr/Kg)
• Terminal Voltage
• Temperature Range
• Storage Capacity (Ampere-Hours, A.Hr)
• Charge Method Used
• Battery Protection
Depth of Discharge

• The percentage of energy removed from the

battery in a discharge cycle is called the depth of
discharge (DOD). By definition DOD is

Eb
DOD =
EBcap
Cycle Life

• Depth of discharge and temperature determine the

cycle life of a battery.

• Conversely, the required cycle life of a battery

determines the maximum allowable DOD.
Battery
• Capacity is the amount of charge the battery can supply (Amp-
hour)
• Specific energy is a measure of electrical energy stored for
every kilogram of battery mass. (Wh/kg)
• Energy density is the amount of electrical energy stored per
cubic meter of battery volume. (Wh/m3)
• Specific power is the amount of power obtained per kilogram
of battery (W/kg).
• Energy efficiency is the ratio of electrical energy supplied to
the amount of energy required to return it to the state before
discharge. Energy efficiency of a battery is in the range of 55 –
75 %.
• Depth of Discharge (DOD) is the percentage of battery
capacity to which the battery is discharged.
 Storage Cells - LEO

• In LEO spacecraft
• storage cells undergo
many thousands of charge
- discharge cycles
• the most common
compromise between
battery size and cell cycle
life results in a maximum
Depth of Discharge (DoD)
of around 25%
• Battery capacity four times
the spacecraft's nominal
requirement.
Storage Cells - DoD

• Table shows the general properties of the four main

types of cell and how the DoD effects their cycle
life.
Storage Cells - GEO

• For geosynchronous orbits

• an equatorial orbit with an altitude of 36,000 Km
• The eclipse season occurs twice a year
• About 90 eclipses per year
• These eclipses occur when the Earth, Sun and
spacecraft are almost in the same plane
• Batteries are only required for three months each year
• Even then their energy storage requirements are less
than 10% of that required by the spacecraft during the
sunlit part of its orbit.
Storage Cells - GEO

• Geostationary spacecraft
• undergo less than 100 charge- discharge cycles per year
• DoDs between 40 and 75% have been specified requiring the
total cell capacity to be between 1.3 and 2.5 times the
nominal
• To preserve battery life it is usual to specify an absolute
maximum DoD
• When that limit is reached, all non- essential loads are
removed
• Essential systems are normally
• telemetry receiver
• attitude sensing and control
• The basic power and housekeeping circuitry
SECONDARY BATTERIES-charging

• Battery Charge Methods

• Constant Current (C/10, C/100)
• Constant Voltage (Taper Charged)
• Pressure Buildup Sensing (NiCd)
Storage Cells - Charging

• Charging a cell to its maximum storage capability without

significant overcharging is an important feature of the charge
control electronics
• Once fully charged, further charging causes the evolution of gas
• loss of electrolyte and hence of cell capacity
• It is difficult to determine when the cell is fully charged
• cell voltage is dependent on
• charging current
• state of charge and temperature
• At a given charging current the voltage difference between a cell
which has been charged to 75% of its maximum capacity and a
fully charged cell may only be 70 m V in 1.4 V and this difference
could also be caused by 10°C temperature change
• Thus monitoring the cell's temperature and incorporating this
information into its charging algorithm is essential.
 Storage Cells - Charging
• Due to the temperature
dependence of the cells'
electrochemical reactions
• they are charged at a rate
dependent on temperature
• At a given temperature the
charging efficiency is maximum
at the highest charge rate
specified at that temperature
Storage Cells - Efficiency

• The overall efficiency of NiCd cells is about 75%.

• During discharge about 15% of the available power is lost
in heat and 5% in pressure related effects
• During charge a further 5% is lost in similar ways
• This fact becomes very significant when the
spacecraft power requirements are in the kW range
as hundreds of watts of-heat must be dissipated
either into the spacecraft's structure or via radiator
panels to ensure the battery temperature does not
exceed 40°C
Power Subsystem
Electrical Power Supply
Power Control

• POWER CONTROL, REGULATION & DISTRIBUTION

• WHY DO WE NEED IT?
• The power from the solar array fluctuates dependent
upon illumination angle and eclipse
• The battery voltage fluctuates dependent upon state of
charge
• The spacecraft sub-systems and payloads generally
require stable voltages and to be isolated from the
effects of other systems
• It is necessary to monitor and switch ON/OFF the
spacecraft loads
Power Distribution

• Topologies
• Regulated Bus
• Simple or no subsystem regulators required
• Unregulated Bus
• Subsystem requires local regulators that can cope with
variable input voltage.
Power Distribution
Power Distribution
Power Control

• POWER CONTROL, REGULATION & DISTRIBUTION

• Power system topologies for spacecraft fall into one of
three categories:
1) Centralized Power Conditioning
• where the raw, unregulated power from the arrays and battery is
converted to stabilized supplies and then distributed to
subsystems
2) Distributed Power Conditioning
• where the unregulated power bus is distributed to each of the
subsystems which individually regulate according to their needs.
3) Hybrid Power Conditioning
• a mixture of (1) & (2) above when there are several subsystems or
pay loads with very different loads.
DISTRIBUTED POWER SUBSYSTEM
Regulation- WHY?

• Immediately after launch there is the problem of

coping with excess power production
• Particularly true when the spacecraft has just come out of
eclipse, is cold
• Solar cells are at their highest efficiency
• Although good for immediately charging batteries
• Problems the end of the sunlit period of the orbit when the
storage cells are fully charged
• What to do with the current available in excess of
requirement
• Dissipative systems
• Non-Dissipative systems
Regulators

• Regulators
• Linear Regulators » Inefficient
• Only Step down
• Switch Mode Regulators » Efficient
• Step up, and Step down, Polarity reversal (SWPS)
Regulators - BUCK
Regulator-BOOST
Regulator-BUCK / BOOST
Power System Design
SPACE CRAFT POWER SYSTEMS

• Steps in the preliminary design of a power

system:-
1) Select the power source
2) Establish the power requirements
a) Determine power consumption for each mission mode.
b) Prepare an energy balance for each mode
c) Set the requirements for the power source, usually solar
arrays
d) Set the battery System
SPACE CRAFT POWER SYSTEMS

3) Size the solar arrays or RTGs

4) Size the battery system
5) Establish requirements for power distribution and
control
6) Prepare mass and power estimates for the power
system
7) Conduct trade studies in search of design
improvements, and refine the power requirements
Mission Modes

• Subsystem power allocations and reserves must be

made for each mission mode. Every spacecraft has
at least four mission modes:
• Launch
• Post-separation
• Daytime
• Night time
Example

• A spacecraft has planned to launch in a Low Earth

Orbit. The orbital period of the spacecraft is 98 minutes
with eclipse duration of 38 minutes. The satellite
requires a continuous power of 4.62W. Assume that the
battery is being charged at C/2 and DOD is 35%
• Estimate the battery size (capacity) required (to provide
power during eclipse)
• Also find the time required to charge that battery
• If the battery has energy density of 50Wh/Kg, find the
mass of the required battery
• The available batteries have 7.4v with 1100mAh
Example

• Calculate the area of the solar cells required to

produce 100W of power for a cylindrical spin
stabilized spacecraft such that the spin axis is
normal to the solar flux.
• Also calculate the size of the batteries required to
provide power during eclipse period
• The orbital period is 90 min and the eclipse
duration is 30 min