Unit 2

Solar Photovoltaic power generation

By
Prof. Sachin P. Jolhe
 Syllabus
• Solar Photovoltaic power generation:
• Physics of solar cells,
• Characteristic of solar cell,
• series and parallel connection,
• types of solar cell,
• module manufacturing,
• partial shading,
• bypass and blocking diode,
 Contt…
• load calculation,
• different panel calculations and selection
(Monocrystalline, Polycrystalline etc),
• Calculation of Solar rooftop setup (rating):
• stand alone PV system with battery and
• grid connected PV system with Net Metering,
Introduction to MPPT.
 Physics of solar cells
• All electromagnetic radiation, including sunlight,
can be viewed as being composed of particles
called photons which carry specific amounts of
energy determined by the spectral properties of
their source. Photons also exhibit a wavelike
character with the wavelength, λ, being related to
the photon energy Eλ by
• where h is Plank’s constant
• and c is the speed of light
A schematic of a simple conventional solar
cell.

1 ohm

2 2
• The sun has a surface temperature of
approximately 5762K and its radiation spectrum
can be approximated by a black body radiator at
that temperature. Emission of radiation from the
sun, as with all black body radiators, is isotropic.
However, the Earth’s great distance from the
sun (approximately 93 million miles or 150
million kilometers) means that only those
photons emitted directly at the Earth contribute to
the solar spectrum as observed from the Earth.
• Therefore, for most practical purposes, the light
falling on the Earth can be thought of as parallel
streams of photons. Just above the Earth’s
atmosphere, the radiation intensity, or solar
constant, is about 1.353 kW/m2 and the spectral
distribution is referred to as an air mass zero
(AM0) radiation spectrum. The air mass is a
measure of how absorption in the atmosphere
affects the spectral content and intensity of the
solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. The
air mass number is
The air mass number is always greater
than or equal to one at the Earth’s surface.
The Fermi function at various temperatures
Donor and acceptor levels in a semiconductor. The
nonuniform spatial distribution of these states
reinforces the concept that these are localized
states
Light Absorption
Absorption coefficient as a function of photon
energy for Si (indirect bandgap) and GaAs
(direct bandgap) at 300 K. Their bandgaps are
1.12 and 1.42 eV, respectively
Simple solar cell structure used to analyze the
operation of a solar cell.
Equilibrium conditions in a solar cell: (a) energy
bands; (b) electric field; (c) charge density
 SOLAR CELL FUNDAMENTALS
• Solar Cell I –V Characteristic
Current–voltage characteristic calculated for
the silicon solar cell
Si solar cell model parameters
 Properties of Efficient Solar Cells

• Values that affect the efficiency of solar cells are

the band gap of the semiconductor, operating
temperature, incident light, type and purity of the
material, and parasitic resistances.
Temperature
 Light
• Light affects primarily the short circuit current.
Effects to consider in order to increase efficiency
are antireflective coatings (bare silicon is very
reflective), minimization of the surface grid
(shadowing will reduce Io), light trapping, and
the thickness of the semiconductor.
 Type and Purity of Material

Monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous

solids.
 Type and Purity of Material

Monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous

solids.
 Monocrystalline silicon
• Cells are made from an ingot of a single crystal of
silicon, grown in high-tech labs, sliced, then
doped and etched.
• For commercial terrestrial modules, efficiencies
typically range from about 15–20%.
• Modules made of this type of cell are the most
mature on the market. Reliable manufacturers of
this type of PV module offer guarantees of up to
20–25 years at 80% of nameplate rating.
 Polycrystalline silicon
• These cells are made up of various silicon
crystals formed from an ingot. They are also
sliced and then doped and etched.
• They demonstrate conversion efficiencies slightly
lower than those of monocrystalline cells,
generally from 13 to 15%.
• Reliable manufacturers typically guarantee
polycrystalline PV modules for 20 years.
 Amorphous silicon
• The term amorphous refers to the lack of any geometric
cell structure.
• Amorphous modules do not have the ordered pattern
characteristic of crystals as in the case of crystalline
silicon.
• Commercial modules typically have conversion
efficiencies from 5 to 10%. Most product guarantees are
for 10 years, depending on the manufacturer.
• The technology has yet to gain widespread acceptance for
larger power applications largely due to shorter lifetimes
from accelerated cell degradation in sunlight (degradation
to 80% of original output in most cases).
 Contt..
• However, amorphous PV has found wide appeal for use
in consumer devices (e.g., watches and calculators).
• It does have the advantage for some grid-tied or water-
pumping systems in that higher voltage modules can be
produced more cheaply than their crystalline
counterparts.
• Another limiting factor to efficiency is that of traps in
the material. Traps are semiconductor material
impurities in the depletion region and can greatly
increase recombination of electrons and holes.
Recombination reduces Voc, in turn reducing the fill
factor and efficiency.
 Parasitic Resistances
• The model shows
the parasitic series
and shunt
resistance,
depicted as Rs and
Rsh, respectively.

Major components of series resistance are the bulk resistance of the

semiconductor material, bulk resistance of the metallic contacts and
interconnections, and the contact resistance between the metallic
contacts and the semiconductor.
Shunt resistance is caused by leakage across the p–n junction caused
by crystal defects and foreign impurities in the junction region.
 The p–n Junction
• The most common solar cells are basically large p–
n (thought of as positive–negative) junction diodes
that use light energy (photons) to produce DC
electricity. No voltage is applied across the
junction; rather, a current is produced in the
connected load when the cells are illuminated.
• A diode is an electronic device that permits
unidirectional current. The solar cell is fabricated
by havingn- and p-layers, which make up a
junction
p–n junction in a simple circuit
PV cell formed by n- and p-layers
Example of a PV silicon cell. The horizontal and
vertical lines are thin metal conductors.
Mono-crystalline Solar Modules
 Polycrystalline Solar Modules
Thin-film Solar Modules
Amorphous silicon
Solar Cell Type Efficiency Rate Advantages Disadvantages
High efficiency
Monocrystalline rate; optimised for
Solar Panels ~20% commercial use; Expensive
(Mono-SI) high life-time
value
Sensitive to high
temperatures;
Polycrystalline
~15% Lower price lower lifespan &
Solar Panels (p-Si)
slightly less space
efficiency
Thin-Film:
Relatively low
Amorphous Silicon shorter warranties
~7-10% costs; easy to
Solar Panels (A- & lifespan
produce & flexible
SI)
Solar tracker &
Very high cooling system
Concentrated PV
~41% performance & needed (to reach
Cell (CVP)
efficiency rate high efficiency
rate)
Aerospace product with flexible thin-film
solar PV from United Solar Ovonic
flexible module from the Nuon Helianthos
company
 PV Electrical Characteristics
• In order to generate usable power, PV cells are connected
together in series and parallel electrical arrangements to
provide the required current or voltage to operate electrical
loads.
• PV cells are connected in series, grouped, laminated, and
packaged between sheets of plastic and glass, thus forming
a PV module.
• The module has a frame (usually aluminum) that gives it
rigidity and allows for ease of handling and installation.
• Junction boxes, where conductor connections are made to
transfer power from the modules to loads, are found on the
backs of the PV modules.
 Common PV Terminology
• Solar cell:
• PV module
• PV array.
• Peak Watt (Wp).
 I-V Curves

Typical I-V and power curves for a crystalline PV module

operating at 1,000 W/m2 (STC).
• Short-circuit current (Isc) is the maximum current
generated by a cell or module and is measured when an
external circuit with no resistance is connected (i.e., the
cell is shorted).
• Maximum power operating current (Imp) is the
maximum current specified in Amperes and generated by
a cell or module corresponding to the maximum power
point on the array’s current–voltage (I-V) curve.
• Nameplate current production is given for a PV cell or
module at standard reporting condition (SRC) as
specified by ASTM
• Open-circuit voltage (Voc) is the maximum
voltage generated by the cell. This voltage is
measured when no external circuit is connected to
the cell.
• Rated maximum power voltage (Vmp)
corresponds to the maximum power point on the
array’s current–voltage (I-V) curve.
• Maximum power (Pmp) is the maximum power
available from a PV cell or module and occurs at
the maximum power point on the I-V curve.
PV module current diminishes with
decreasing solar irradiance
PV module voltage drops with temperature,
as does power.
Analogy of a series connection using a
hydraulic and an electrical system
Hydraulic analogy of a parallel electrical connection,
which is analogous to increasing flow of electrons.
PV system schematic incorporating a stand-
alone inverter to meet AC loads.
Typical utility interactive PV system
components.
 PV System Safety
This requires the following:
• good work habits;
• awareness of potential hazards;
• proper tools and hardware;
• safe PV systems; and
• working in pairs (buddy system).
Electric Shock Hazards
 Photovoltaic System Sizing and Design

• energy demand on a per-day basis

• the proposed use of the energy (24 hours/day, 7
days/week?)
 Solar Trajectory

Irradiance and insolation expressed as peak solar

hours (i.e., 6 sun-hours = 6 kWh/m2).
 System Sizing Considerations
• The main factors affecting the amount of insolation
incident upon a solar surface are orientation,
mounting angle with respect to horizontal, and
climatic conditions.
• In areas where cloudy days are relatively frequent,
average insolation is less.
• At latitudes of greater than the tropics (i.e., >20°),
winter days are significantly shorter than summer
days. This results in a greater average insolation
during the summer.
 Contt…
• For instance, in rainy areas of the tropics near the
equator such as the rainforests of southern
Mexico, insolation upon the horizontal plane
reaches 4 kWh/m2 per day in the winter, 5.2
kWh/m2 per day in the summer, and 4.5 kWh/ m 2
per day as an annual average.
 Solar Energy System Sizing
• PV modules installed on structures anchored to the ground
operate at approximately 55°C during the day during the
summer; some desert climates may be hotter yet. This is 30°
above standard test conditions (25°C). This means that the real
capacity of the array is approximately 15% less than the
nominal power rating. The effective capacity, then, is 85% of
the nominal capacity.
• Expected electrical energy (kiloWatt-hours) is the product of the
real capacity of the array (kiloWatt-hours) and insolation (peak
sun hours) at the angle of elevation of the array. Generated PV
energy varies seasonally, as do the levels of insolation.
• If an azimuth-adjusting tracker is used, annual energy production
can increase up to ~25% in temperate climates.
PV DC System Sizing
 Sizing Inverters
• Power output is usually the main factor. An
inverter needs to meet two needs: peak, or surge,
power and continuous power:
• Surge is the maximum power that the inverter can
supply, usually for only a short time.
• Continuous is the power that the inverter has to
supply on a steady basis
• Inverters are rated by their continuous wattage
output. The larger they are, the more they cost.
 example
• Assume sizing for loads where there is a 19-inch
TV (80 W), blender (350 W), and one fluorescent
light at 20 W, and two fluorescent lights at 11 W
each, for a total of 472 W.
• An inverter that can supply a least 472 W
continuously will be chosen.
• Normally, a small motor like the one the blender
has will surge for a split second at twice the
amount of power it normally uses—in this case,
350 doubled equals about a 700 W surge.
 Technical Specifications
for an inverter at 500 W with a surge capacity rating of 1,000 W,
which is more than sufficient to handle the blender surge.
• Nominal system operating voltage (input V ): 12 V DC
(10.8–15.5 V)
• Output voltage: 120 V AC, 60 Hz sinewave
• Continuous output: 500 W
• Surge capacity power: 1,000 W
• Standby power: 3 W
• Average efficiency: 90% at full rated power
• Recommended input fuse: 75 A (500 W/10.8 V * 0.8 *1.25)
• DC wire size minimum: 8 AWG
• Availability of system status (light indicator): yes
 Load Estimation

Total Watt-hour/day requirement: (80 + 132 +

352 + 193) Wh = 757 Wh/day
 Battery Storage Requirement
• Battery size is a design variable and is generally
based on the desired autonomy period, depth of
discharge (e.g., 50%), and derating for round-trip
efficiency (e.g., 75%). Here, the autonomy desired is
3 days of storage; maximum allowable depth of
discharge (DOD) for deep cycle battery is 50%.
• Total daily load Ah requirement = daily energy Watt-
hours/system nominal voltage.
• This is a 12 V DC for lighting systems:
• 757 Wh/12 V = 63 Ah/day
 Contt…
• Required battery bank capacity = (days of autonomy * daily load
Ampere-hours)/(battery DOD)
• = (3 days * 63 Ah/day)/(0.75 * 0.5)
• = 504 Ah
• Average daily depth of discharge = (total daily load Ampere-hours)/(total
battery bank capacity)
• = 63 Ah/295 Ah
• = 12.5% daily
• For lead-acid batteries, generally one wants to design for 10–15% daily
DOD. Battery selection would comprise 12 V DC at 100 Ah capacity
each.
• Series/parallel configuration for the battery bank would be number of
batteries in series = 12 V/12 V = one battery; and number of batteries in
parallel = 504 Ah/100 Ah = five batteries.
• This would yield a configuration total of five batteries at 500 Ah capacity.
 Array Estimation
• Estimating the size of the PV array for a PV
lighting system is based on providing adequate
energy to meet the load during the period with the
highest average daily load and lowest solar
insolation on the surface.
 Contt…

• Design month is December at 5.4 h (Oaxaca).

• Assume PV array temperature derate averages 15% of
daily requirement.
• Assume inverter losses at 10% of daily requirement.
• Assume fuses/disconnect losses at 1%.
• Assume wiring losses at 3%.
• Assume battery losses at 25%.
• Total system losses are then 0.85 * 0.90 *0.99 * 0.97 *
0.75 = 55%
• Adjusted system load requirement = 63 Ah/day/0.55 =
114 Ah/day.
 Contt…
• Selection of the PV module for use in design (the module
derating factor is usually 80–90%) is for a rated peak current
of 3.55 A and rated peak voltage of 16.9 V at 60 W.
• The number of parallel modules = the adjusted load Ampere-
hour requirement/module peak current output * peak sun-
hours.
• Note that we have already adjusted for module derate in the
load requirement: = 114 Ah/day/(3.55A * 5.4 h) = 5.95,
rounded to six modules in parallel.
• The number of series modules = nominal system
voltage/module peak voltage output * voltage temperature
derate = 12 V/(16.9 V * 85%) = 0.84, rounded to one module
in series. Thus, the total PV array is 1s × 6p, totaling 360 W.
System Summary
 MPPT Techniques
• 1. Perturb and Observe (hill climbing method).
• 2. Incremental Conductance method.
• 3. Fractional short circuit current.
• 4. Fractional open circuit voltage.
• 5. Fuzzy logic.
• 6. Neural networks.
• 7. Ripple Correlation Control.
• 8. Current Sweep.
• 9. DC-link capacitor droop control.
• 10. Load current or load voltage maximization.
• 11. dP/dV or dP/dI Feedback control.
Perturb and Observe
Incremental Conductance
blocking diode
 bypass diode
• The hot-spots in the Solar PV module can be
avoided by having diodes across each cell and
that is called as bypass diodes. Practically a solar
PV module consists of one bypass diode for 18
cells to mitigate the effects of local cell hot-spots.
bypass and blocking diode
partial shading
Shading pattern
used for the
experiment:
(a) 10% of
shaded PV cells,
(b) 25% of
shaded PV cells,
(c) 50% of
shaded PV cells,
and (d) 75% of
shaded PV cells.
 Net Metering
• Net metering or net energy billing is where the utility meter,
which runs forward and backward, is read at the end of a
specified time period.
• The time period can vary from a month to a year. The
customer pays the utility for net energy purchased and if
more energy is produced than is used, then the utility pays
the customer the avoided cost.
• When energy produced on site is not being used at that
specific time but offsets energy from the utility company at
a later time, that energy is worth the retail rate. If there is
net metering by year, then the customer receives the retail
rate during seasons of low renewable energy production
 Contt…
• Net metering is allowed in a majority of U.S. states. It
permits customer-connected power-generating
equipment without changing the existing meter.
• The meter may rotate backward when power
generated by the customer is being delivered to the
utility.
• The customer should wire the PV system and utility
interconnections safely according to NEC and local
codes; install equipment that conforms to
applicable IEEE standards of design and
operation; and install equipment that is UL listed
for safety.
 Before connecting to the utility system, be
sure to
• request permission from the local electric utility;
• request technical rules for interconnecting;
•request rates for installation of metering equipment
and cost of service;
•be prepared to provide full details and
documentation of the proposed PV installation,
including sell-back methods if desired; and
• learn the details before installing the system.
 Electrical Codes for PV System Design

• The National Electrical Code (NEC) has been in

use for over a century in the United States, while
in Europe the IEC codes are widely applied.
• Japan, with some of the highest quality PV
installations, has its own set of simple electric
codes
Stand-Alone PV Lighting Design
 Grid-Tied PV
• Lower costs.
• No energy storage
• Peak shaving