Solar Photovoltaics

We are on the cusp of a new era of Energy Independence

 Broad Outline
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

PV Technologies and Advancement

Environmental Aspect

Economic Aspect

Indian Scenario

Future Prospects
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Depletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconductor
 Photovoltaic System

Typical output of a module (~30 cells) is 15 V, with 1.5 A current

 Equivalent circuit of a solar cell
IPH ID RS ISG IL
current
source RP RL
UD USG UL

IPH: photocurrent of the solar-cell

ID /UD: current and voltage of the internal p-n diode
RP: shunt resistor due to inhomogeneity of the surface and loss-current
at the solar-cell edges
RS: serial resistor due to resistance of the silicon-bulk and contact
material
ISG/USG: Solar-cell current and voltage
RL/IL/UL: Load-Resistance, current and voltage
ISG = IL, USG = UL
 Solar-cell characteristics

Short-current ISC, I0 or IK:

mostly proportional to irradiation
Increases by 0,07% per Kelvin

Open-voltage U0, UOC or VOC:

This is the voltage along the internal diode
Increases rapidly with initial irradiation
Typical for Silicon: 0,5...0,9V
decreases by 0,4% per Kelvin
 Solar cell characteristics

Power (MPP, Maximum Power Point)

UMPP (0,75 ... 0,9) UOC
IMPP (0,85 ... 0,95) ISC
Power decreases by 0,4% per Kelvin

The nominal power of a cell is measured at

international defined test conditions
(G0 = 1000 W/m2, Tcell = 25C, AM 1,5) in WP (Watt
peak).
 Solar cell characteristics
The fillfactor (FF) of a solar-cell is the relation of
electrical power generated (PMPP) and the product of
short current IK and open-circuit voltage U0

FF = PMPP / U0 IK

The solar-cell efficiency is the relation of the

electrical power generated (PMPP) and the light
irradiance (AGG,g) impinging on the solar-cell :

= PMPP / AGG,g
 Solar-cell characteristics (cSi)
P = 0,88W, (0,18) P = 1,05W, (0,26)

P = 0,98W, (0,29)
Solar-cell characteristics
 PV Technology Classification
Silicon Crystalline Technology Thin Film Technology

Mono Crystalline PV Cells Amorphous Silicon PV Cells

Multi Crystalline PV Cells Poly Crystalline PV Cells

( Non-Silicon based)
 Silicon Crystalline Technology
Currently makes up 86% of PV market
Very stable with module efficiencies 10-16%

Mono crystalline PV Cells Multi Crystalline PV Cells

Made using saw-cut from single Caste from ingot of melted
cylindrical crystal of Si and recrystallised silicon
Operating efficiency up to 15% Cell efficiency ~12%
Accounts for 90% of
crystalline Si market
 Thin Film Technology
Silicon deposited in a continuous on a base material such as glass,
metal or polymers
Thin-film crystalline solar cell consists of layers about 10m thick
compared with 200-300m layers for crystalline silicon cells

PROS
Low cost substrate and
fabrication process

CONS
Not very stable
 Amorphous Silicon PV Cells
The most advanced of thin film technologies
Operating efficiency ~6%
Makes up about 13% of PV market

PROS
Mature manufacturing
technologies available

CONS
Initial 20-40% loss in
efficiency
 Poly Crystalline PV Cells
Non Silicon Based Technology

Copper Indium Diselinide

CIS with band gap 1eV, high
absorption coefficient 105cm-1
High efficiency levels

PROS
18% laboratory efficiency
>11% module efficiency
CONS
Immature manufacturing
process
Slow vacuum process
 Poly Crystalline PV Cells
Non Silicon Based Technology

Cadmium Telluride ( CdTe)

Unlike most other II/IV material
CdTe exhibits direct band gap of
1.4eV and high absorption
coefficient

PROS
16% laboratory efficiency
6-9% module efficiency
CONS
Immature manufacturing process
 Materials
Definition of semiconductor:
This is a matter of electron configuration

Extract of periodic table: Silicon (Si)

IB IIB IIIB IVB VB VIB Germanium (Ge)
13 14 15
Gallium-Arsenide (GaAs)
Al Si P
29 31 32 33 34

Cu Ga Ge As Se Cadmium-Telluride (CdTe)
48 49 51 52

Cd In Sb Te Indium-Phosphorus (InP)

Aluminium-Antimon (AlSb)
Copper, Indium, Gallium, Selenide (CIS)
Semiconductor Material Efficiencies
Semiconductor Material Efficiencies
Maximum Power Current vs Temperature

3.9

3.85

3.8

3.75

3.7
Imp (A)

3.65

3/14/2000 10:30-10:49
3.6 3/14/2000 11:30-11:49

3/14/2000 12:50-13:09

3.55 3/14/00 13:50-14:09

3/14/2000 14:50-15:09

3.5

3.45
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Average Panel Temperature (C)
Short Circuit Current versus Air Mass
Clear Sky Only

1.2
Relative Normalized Short Circuit Current (-)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Absolute Air Mass
Shadow

Its a matter of course, surface of PV cell must be exposed to direct beam

only.

IV curve of PV cell for shaded ratio

Roof

Gable Roof Saw blade Roof Slope Roof

Plat Roof Atrium

Facade

Facade Window sill, Plat Roof

Balcony Conservatory
Shade

Fixed Type Gateway

Movable Type
 Emerging Technologies
Discovering new realms of Photovoltaic Technologies
Electrochemical solar cells
have their active component in
liquid phase

Dye sensitizers are used to

absorb light and create
electron-hole pairs in
nanocrystalline titanium
dioxide semiconductor layer

Cell efficiency ~ 7% Electrochemical solar cells

 Emerging Technologies
Ultra Thin Wafer Solar Cells

Thickness ~ 45m
Cell Efficiency as high as
20.3%

Anti- Reflection Coating

Low cost deposition techniques use a
metalorganic titanium or tantanum mixed
with suitable organic additives
Technology Solar Photovoltaic (PV)

Schematic Diagram of PV Grid Connected System

 Environmental Aspects
Exhaustion of raw materials
CO2 emission during fabrication process
Acidification
Disposal problems of hazardous semiconductor material

In spite of all these environmental concerns,

Solar Photovoltaic is one of the cleanest form of energy
 PVnomics
PV unit : Price per peak watt (Wp)
( Peak watt is the amount of power output a PV module produces at
Standard Test Conditions (STC) of a module operating temperature of 25C
in full noontime sunshine (irradiance) of 1,000 Watts per square meter )

A typical 1kWp System produces approximately

1600-2000 kWh energy in India and Australia

A typical 2000 watt peak (2KWp) solar energy system

costing $8000 (including installation) will correspond to
a price of $4/Wp
 Payback Time
Energy Payback Time:
EPBT is the time necessary for a photovoltaic panel to
generate the energy equivalent to that used to
produce it.
A ratio of total energy used to manufacture a PV
module to average daily energy of a PV system.

At present the Energy payback time for PV systems is

in the range
8 to 11 years, compared with typical system lifetimes
of around 30 years. About 60% of the embodied
energy is due to the silicon wafers.
 Solar PV Costs 1980-2000

There has been almost six fold decline in price per peak watt of PV module
from 1980 to year 2000
Solar electricity prices are today, around 30 cents/kWh, but still 2-5 times
average Residential electricity tariffs
 PVnomics .
Module costs typically represents only 40-60% of
total PV system cost and the rest is accounted by
inverter, PV array support, electrical cabling and
installation

Most PV solar technologies rely on

semiconductor-grade crystalline-silicon wafers,
which are expensive to produce compared with
other energy sources

The high initial cost of the equipment they

require discourages their large-scale
commercialization
 The basic commercialization problem PV
technology has faced for 20 years : markets will
explode when module costs decline, but module
costs can't decline much, until the market grows
much larger
-PV Insider's Report
 The Other Side

Use newer and cheaper materials like amorphous

silicon , CuInSe2 , CdTe.

Thin-film solar cells use less than 1% of the raw

material (silicon) compared to wafer based solar cells,
leading to a significant price drop per kWh.

Incentives may bring down the cost of solar energy

down to 10-12 cents per kilowatt hour - which can
imply a payback of 5 to 7 years.
 However .
If a location is not currently connected to the grid, it is less
expensive to install PV panels than to either extend the grid or set
up small-scale electricity production .

PV : Best suited for remote site applications having moderate/small

power requirements consuming applications even where the grid is
in existence.

Isolated mountaintops and other rural areas are ideal for stand-
alone PV systems where maintenance and power accessibility
makes PV the ideal technology.
 Applications @ PV

Water Pumping: PV powered pumping systems are excellent

,simple ,reliable life 20 yrs
Commercial Lighting: PV powered lighting systems are reliable
and low cost alternative. Security, billboard sign, area, and outdoor
lighting are all viable applications for PV
Consumer electronics: Solar powered watches, calculators, and
cameras are all everyday applications for PV technologies.
Telecommunications
Residential Power: A residence located more than a mile from the
electric grid can install a PV system more inexpensively than
extending the electric grid
(Over 500,000 homes worldwide use PV power as their only source
of electricity)
Main Application Areas Off-grid

Space

Water Telecom
Pumping

Solar Home Systems

 Main Application Areas Grid Connected

Main Application Areas

Grid Connected

Commercial Building
Systems (50 kW)

Residential Home PV Power Plants

Systems (2-8 kW) ( > 100 kW)
 Building Integrated systems

These systems use the existing

grid as a back up, as the PV
output falls or the load rises to
the point where the PV's can no
longer supply enough power

PV arrays can form an attractive

facing on buildings and costs are
equivalent to certain traditional
facing materials such as marble
with the advantage of generating
free electricity.

Ideal for situations where peak

electricity demand is during
daytime such as commercial
buildings.
Photovoltaic in the world
 World Largest PV Solar Plants
DC Peak Location Description MWh/year
Power
6.3 MW Mhlhausen, BDR 57,600 solar modules 6,750 MWh
5 MW Brstadt, BDR 30,000 BP solar mods 4,200 MWh
5 MW Espenhain, BDR 33,500 Shell solar mods 5,000 MWh
4.59 MW Springerville, AZ 34,980 BP solar mods 7,750 MWh

4 MW Geiseltalsee, BDR 25,000 BP solar modules 3,400 MWh

4 MW Gottelborn, BDR 50,000 solar modules 8,200 MWh
4 MW Hemau, BDR 32,740 solar modules 3,900 MWh
3.9 MW Rancho Seco, CA, n.a. n.a.
3.3 MW Dingolfing, BDR Solara, Sharp & Kyocera 3,050 Mh
3.3 MW Serre, Italy 60,000 solar modules n.a.
 World Solar Power Production
PV Capacity
Cumulative Installed in 2004
Country Off-grid PV [kW] Grid-connected [kW] Total [kW] Total Grid-tied [kW]
[kW]
Australia 48,640 6,760 52,300 6,670 780
Austria 2,687 16,493 19,180 2,347 1,833
Canada 13,372 512 13,884 2,054 107
France 18,300 8,000 26,300 5,228 4,183
Germany 26,000 768,000 794,000 363,000 360,000
Italy 12,000 18,700 30,700 4,700 4,400
Japan 84,245 1,047,746 1,131,991 272,368 267,016
Korea 5,359 4,533 9,892 3,454 3,106
Mexico 18,172 10 18,182 1,041 0
Netherlands 4,769 44,310 49,079 3,162 3,071
Norway 6,813 75 6,888 273 0
Spain 14,000 23,000 37,000 10,000 8,460
Switzerland 3,100 20,000 23,100 2,100 2,000
United Kingdom 776 7,386 8,164 2,261 2,197
United States 189,600 175,600 365,200 90,000 62,000
Distribution of photovoltaic
 Present PV Scenario in India
In terms of overall installed PV capacity, India comes fourth after
Japan, Germany and U.S.
(With Installed capacity of 110 MW)

In the area of Photovoltaics India today is the second largest

manufacturer in the world of PV panels based on crystalline solar
cells.
(Industrial production in this area has reached a level of 11 MW per
year which is about 10% of the worlds total PV production)

A major drive has also been initiated by the Government to export

Indian PV products, systems, technologies and services
(Solar Photovoltaic plant and equipment has been exported to
countries in the Middle East and Africa)
 Indian PV Era Vision 2012
Arid regions receive plentiful solar radiation, regions like Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Haryana receive sunlight in plenty.
Thus the Potential availability - 20 MW/km2 (source IREDA)

IREDA is planning to electrify 18,000 villages by year 2012 mainly

through solar PV systems

Targets have been set for the large scale utilization of PV technology
by different sectors within the next five years
A Step towards achieving the Vision

The Delhi Government has decided to make use of solar power

compulsory for lighting up hoardings and for street lighting
 By the year 2030, India should achieve
Energy Independence through solar power
and other forms of renewable energy
Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
President of India
Independence Day Speech, 2005
 Global Scenario
Solar Electric Energy demand has grown consistently by 20-25% per
annum over the past 20 years (from 26 MW back in 1980 to 127MW
in 1997)

At present solar photovoltaic is not the prime contributor to the

electrical capacities but the pace at which advancement of PV
technology and with the rising demand of cleaner source of energy
it is expected by 2030 solar PV will have a leading role in electricity
generation

Research is underway for new fabrication techniques, like those

used for microchips. Alternative materials like cadmium sulfide and
gallium arsenide ,thin-film cells are in development
30% increase in global manufacturing of solar cells every year
Expected Future of Solar Electrical Capacities
 Concluding Remarks
The key to successful solar energy installation is to use quality
components that have long lifetimes and require minimal
maintenance.

The future is bright for continued PV technology dissemination.

PV technology fills a significant need in supplying electricity,
creating local jobs and promoting economic development in rural
areas, avoiding the external environmental costs associated with
traditional electrical generation technologies.

Major power policy reforms and tax incentives will play a major role
if all the above said is to be effectively realized.
 The Light at the end of the Tunnel

By 2020 global solar output could be 276 Terawatt hours, which

would equal 30% of Africa's energy needs or 1% of global
demand. This would replace the output of 75 new coal fired
power stations. The global solar infrastructure would have an
investment value of US$75 billion a year. By 2040 global solar
output could be more than 9000 Terawatt hours, or 26% of the
expected global demand

Report European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) and

Greenpeace
 Can technological developments and the
transition to a culture that is more aware
of the need to safeguard the environment
help create a world powered by the Suns
Energy ?