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Basics of Financial Management (Chapter 1) PDF
Basics of Financial Management (Chapter 1) PDF
Basics of
Financial
Management
P. de Boer
M.P. Brouwers
W. Koetzier
Second edition
Any comments about this publication or others may be addressed to: Noordhoff
Uitgevers bv, Afdeling Hoger Onderwijs, Antwoordnummer , VB Groningen,
e-mail: info@noordhoff.nl
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ISBN ----
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© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
Preface
In order to make the book more adaptable, we have re-arranged the topics.
Part , Financial Management in Business, now offers a better introduction
to financial management. The characteristics of businesses are explained;
the basic terminology and principles are introduced; the finance and
accounting disciplines and basic financial statements are explained. After
studying the first part, students may study the other parts of the book in any
order. The other parts discuss the topics of finance, management accoun-
ting and financial accounting.
With regard to topic selection, we have been guided by the needs of the
target group. Some topics that were included in the first edition have been
deleted and other topics have been added on the basis of comments made
by users of the book, both students and professors.
In this edition the team of authors has been reinforced by Olaf Leppink.
He is primarily responsible for the Exercises book and digital support resources.
We hope this publication fully meets the needs and wishes of all users.
Any comments or suggestions are warmly welcomed.
The authors
Teteringen, Zwolle
Spring
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
Table of contents
PART 4 18 Inter-corporate
Financial accounting investments
Introduction
Basics of Financial Management covers all the topics that are relevant to
professions in which a basic knowledge of financial management is needed.
The course book is also suitable for students wishing to subsequently
undertake more in-depth study.
The study material has been presented in such a way that students should
be able to learn the theory independently. To aid self-study, numerous
practical examples and test questions have been included in the text, so that
students can assess whether they have understood the material. To illustrate
its practical relevance, newspaper cuttings, parts of annual reports and
photographs with accompanying text have also been included.
Key terms are shown in the margin to emphasise their relevance. Each
chapter is concluded with a glossary and multiple-choice questions.
Answers to the multiple-choice and test questions are included at the back
of the book.
We recommend the testing of your knowledge with the use of the separate
Exercises book and additional exercises from the Basics of Financial
Management website, which is regularly updated and supplemented by
the publisher.
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv 9
1 Businesses and
their role in the
economy
3 Financial 4 The business
statements plan
2 Financial
management
5 Capital
budgeting 11 Costs
15 External
reporting
9 Financial
6 Working capital statement
management 12 Costing
analysis
16 Financial 17 Cash flow
statements statement
10 Financial 13 Cost
7 Equity markets allocation
18 Intercorporate
investments
14 Budgets
8 Liabilities and variance
analysis
PART 1
Financial
management
in business
1 Businesses and their role in the economy 15
2 Financial management 43
3 Financial statements 57
4 The business plan 77
12 PART 1 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN BUSINESS © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
1 1
Businesses and
their role in the
economy
1
Production process
Raw materials
Procurement Fixed assets Sales
market Finished products market
Labour
Cash
EXAMPLE 1.1
A brewery purchases malt, hops and water and processes them into beer. The water, the
malt and the hops are the raw materials used for the end product: beer. In addition to raw
materials, the company also needs fixed assets: business premises, vats in which to
prepare the beer, lorries to transport it, computers, etc. Employees are of course also
a vital chain in the link.
The organizational structure of the business can be formal, setting out the
rights and obligations of the participants: the powers and responsibilities of
shareholders, managers and employees are laid down in the articles of
association and job descriptions. A production organization can, however,
also consist of a group of students starting a courier service and agreeing
only to take turns in answering the phone or delivering products on a
scooter.
1
EXAMPLE 1.2
The brewery in Example 1.1 strives to produce a hectolitre of beer by deploying labour and
assets as efficiently as possible. The business will strive to keep its costs as low as
possible. Cost per unit is therefore a yardstick for efficiency.
The finished product must be of a sufficiently high standard to enable the business to gain
a share of the beer market.
The taste of the beer, the price:quality ratio and brand positioning (through advertising) are
contributory factors. The degree to which the brewery manages to generate sales revenue
determines the effectiveness of the business. The roles played by efficiency and
effectiveness in the production process are shown in Figure 1.2.
Efficiency Effectiveness
easyJet.com
• GE 4,737 4,457
Agriculture,
hunting,
Construction forestry & fishing
6.4% 1.8%
Financial interm.;
Industry real est., rent. &
20.1% bus. activities
28.2%
Manufacturing
Manufacturing businesses create a physical, tangible product, which did not
exist in that form prior to the manufacturing process. We can make a
distinction between mass production and job production.
1
With job production, a ‘customised’ product is produced. Each product is Job production
tailored to the specific wishes of the customer. The product is ‘made to
order’: it is first sold and then manufactured. In other words, there is no
stock build-up of unsold finished product. A good example of job
production is a shipyard, building pleasure yachts to the customer’s
specifications.
Under the mass production (also called flow production) system, one type of Mass
product is manufactured in large quantities. Specific customers’ wishes are production
not taken into account. Products are manufactured for stock. A good
example is a sugar refinery.
The differences between job production and mass production are
summarized in table ..
Between the two extremes (job and mass production), we can also identify a
‘hybrid’, namely batch production. Batch production is used to produce or Batch
process any product in batches. With batch production, varieties or models production
of one standard product are manufactured. A yacht builder, for example,
could generate considerable cost savings by manufacturing series of hulls,
masts and saloons, enabling the customer to design his own ‘dream boat’
using the available components.
The relevance of each of the three ‘inputs’ (raw materials, fixed assets and
human labour) depends on the type of company.
The costs of an oil refinery comprise mainly raw materials and fixed assets,
while a manufacturer of handmade wooden kitchens will predominantly
incur labour costs. As automation increases, the importance of fixed assets
will increase as a proportion of total costs.
Trading
Trading companies do not manufacture new products. In other words,
there is no transformation or conversion process in the technical sense.
The raison d’être of trading companies is the unequal relation between
production and consumption. The inequality can relate to:
the scale of production and consumption
the composition of production and consumption
the point in time that production and consumption take place
the place of production and consumption.
24 PART 1 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN BUSINESS © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
EXAMPLE 1.3
A Japanese manufacturer of PCs will struggle to sell his computers directly to French
consumers. A computer chain store can purchase computers in bulk in Japan (1),
incorporate the products into its range, which is also of interest to the customer (2), hold
stock so that the customer can purchase the computer at any time (3) and offer his
1
products to consumers who live in the vicinity of the store (4).
Service
Service companies provide a service to their customers, without
manufacturing a new product or transforming an existing product.
This sector can be broken down into a variety of business categories,
including:
• financial services (banks, insurance companies)
• hospitality and catering
• haulage
• ICT services (software firms, computer consulting firms)
• general and technical support services (security, catering, cleaning).
Service companies typically make little (or no) use of raw materials.
However, fixed assets are vitally important to certain service companies, for
example a hotel located in the heart of Brussels, or a shipping company with
a fleet of container ships.
Labour is virtually always an important cost item; the service sector is a
‘people business’: an IT consultancy depends on its IT professionals, a
security company depends on its guards.
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv BUSINESSES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ECONOMY 25
In container shipping, fixed assets cause a large ship. The biggest container ships
large costs. It takes about €150 million to can carry about 14,000 containers. Due to
build a large container ship. Labour costs automation, 13 crew suffices.
are high as well. By using larger ships, The Danish shipping company APM-Maersk
shipping companies try to minimize labour controls most of the container shipping
costs. In principle, a large ship does not market. The company’s ships have a joint
need more crew than a small ship. So, the capacity of more than 2 million containers.
labour costs per container are smaller with
1 2 3
In some legal forms, the business – rather than its owners – is considered
the prevailing party in any commercial legal agreement. In these cases, the
Legal entity business is an independent legal entity or ‘legal person’.
The business hires staff in its own name, concludes sales contracts and
borrows money from the bank. Of course, the business needs people
(‘natural persons’) to conduct these activities on its behalf.
If the business is not the legal person, the agreements will be concluded in
the name of the owner/proprietor.
In the next sections, we will discuss the most commonly used legal forms:
Non-legal entity status:
• sole proprietorship
• partnership
Legal entity status:
• joint-stock company.
Sole proprietorship
In a sole proprietorship there is no separation between the owner and the
manager. A sole proprietorship stands and falls with the entrepreneur; if the
entrepreneur decides to cease operations, the company disappears with
him. In other words, the long-term continuance of the business is uncertain.
If the entrepreneur ceases activity or is unable to continue operating, a
successor must be found, either in his immediate family or elsewhere.
The business can be financed using funds that the owner is prepared to
invest in his company, or through loans. The first finance option is known as
Equity equity, the second as liabilities or debt. A sole proprietorship will typically
Liabilities be small, as the available equity will be modest. When starting up his
business, the owner will need to invest a percentage of his own money
(‘private capital’) in it; he can strengthen the financial position of his
business by retaining profits, i.e. by not using them for private purposes but
retaining them in the business.
A sole proprietorship has no legally separate existence from its owner, and
legal agreements are concluded in the owner’s name. The owner is liable for
any debts arising from the operation of his business.
EXAMPLE 1.4
An entrepreneur has invested his savings in a hairdressing business. He borrows the
remainder of the required capital from his bank. The business fails to attract enough
customers. The entrepreneur is struggling to keep up with his payment obligations
(interest and capital). He decides to sell his chairs and equipment, but the proceeds are
minimal. In order to repay the bank loan, the entrepreneur is obliged to use private means.
If necessary, he may be forced to sell his car or house.
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv BUSINESSES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ECONOMY 27
The owner of a sole proprietorship pays income tax on the profit he makes Income tax
from the operation of his business.
The regulations on income tax vary per country. Income tax may be a flat
tax, which means that everyone pays the same percentage of their income
to the government. In most countries, however, income tax is a progressive Progressive tax
1
tax, in which people with higher incomes pay higher percentages. For
example, someone who makes €, per year pays a higher percentage,
called a marginal tax rate, than someone who makes €,. However,
it is important to note that the marginal tax rate does not increase for one’s
entire income, merely for each euro over a certain threshold. Suppose one
pays % of one’s income up to €,, and % thereafter. Someone
making €, does not have to pay % on his entire income, merely on
the € over €,. That is, he owes % of €, and % of the €
over that.
Income tax is calculated on the basis of adjusted gross income: gross income Adjusted gross
less allowed personal and business-related deductions such as alimony income
payments, health-related expenses and pension contributions. In many
countries, incentives in the form of additional deductions are offered to
encourage entrepreneurship.
Sole proprietorships have no obligations to publicly disclose financial
information.
Partnership
In a partnership, two or more people decide to operate a business.
The company is run and managed by the partners. The advantage of a
partnership is that both parties can ‘invest’ their specific expertise, and
reach better decisions through mutual consultation. The flip side of the coin
is that ‘too many cooks may spoil the broth’ because of differences of
opinion. This may of course have implications for the continuity of the
company. On the one hand, the company’s continuance need not be
jeopardised if either party decides to leave the partnership; on the other,
disagreements can result in the premature closure of the business.
Generally speaking, partnerships have more opportunities to acquire equity
than sole proprietorships, as a new partner can ‘buy into’ the partnership.
In a general partnership each partner is, jointly and severally, liable for the
debts of the partnership; in other words, a creditor can oblige both partners
to repay the debt.
EXAMPLE 1.5
Steptoe and Son trade in antiques and curiosities. Father and son each have a 50% stake
in the partnership. The partnership has purchased oriental antiques from an importer for
€30,000. The invoice has not yet been paid.
Due to the economic slowdown, Steptoe and Son only manage to sell this stock for
€18,000. The partnership has no other assets that can be converted into cash.
The importer is entitled to demand that father Steptoe pay the remaining €12,000.
Father Steptoe will now need to find ways to ensure that his son pays him half of the
outstanding debt.
28 PART 1 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN BUSINESS © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
A partnership is transparent for tax purposes: the partners owe income tax
on the share of the profit from the partnership.
A partnership is not obliged to publicly disclose financial statements.
Joint-stock companies
Joint-stock companies are legal entities; as we have seen earlier, they can
conclude agreements in their own name.
We can identify two types of joint-stock company: the limited liability
1
company (LLC or Ltd) and the public limited company (PLC). We shall LLC
discuss the shared characteristics of the two business forms, before PLC
focussing on the differences.
The equity of joint-stock companies is divided into shares. The shareholders Shares
are the owners of the joint-stock company. A board of directors is
responsible for the day-to-day running of the business.
A joint-stock company can increase its equity if the meeting of shareholders
decides not to pay out any profits, but to retain the profit. It may also decide
to issue shares.
This type of business tends to be more secure than the sole proprietorship
and partnership, as ‘management’ and ‘ownership’ are separated.
Shareholders are not personally liable for repaying the debts of the joint-
stock company; their risk is limited to the value of their share holdings.
EXAMPLE 1.6
Joint-stock company A has recorded a profit of €1,000,000. All profit after taxation is paid
out to its shareholders. The rate of corporate tax is 25%, and income tax is 50%.
Within the EU, the imputation system is used in most countries. The
Netherlands uses the classical system.
The following should be noted with regard to taxation:
• Most countries try to strike a ‘tax burden balance’ between companies
that are not run as legal entities and those that are. This harmonization is
achieved ‘automatically’ under the imputation system.
• We can also identify a third type of tax levied on joint-stock companies:
dividend taxation. This does not increase the tax burden, as it is treated as
an ‘advance levy’ in respect of income tax. In other words, the sharehol-
ders can offset any dividend tax against their income tax.
Belgium 33.99
Denmark 25
France 33
Germany 15
Greece 20/25
Ireland 12.5/25
Italy 3.9/27.5
Luxembourg 21
Netherlands 20/23/25.5
Norway 28
Portugal 20/25
Spain 30
Sweden 26.3
Switzerland 8.5
United Kingdom 28
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv BUSINESSES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ECONOMY 31
LLC PLC
Netherlands Besloten vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid (BV) Naamloze vennootschap (NV)
Germany Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH) Aktiengesellschaft (AG)
France Société à responsabilité limitée (SARL) Société anonyme (SA)
Spain Sociedad Limitada (S.L.) Sociedad Anónima (S.A.)
Italy Societa a responsabilita limitata (Srl) Societa per Azioni (SpA)
Denmark Anpartsselskab (ApS) Aktieselskab (A/S)
USA Limited liability Company (LLC or Co. Ltd) Corporation (Corp.) or Incorporated
(Inc.)
Japan Godo kaisha (G.K.) Kabushiki kaisha (K.K.)
EXAMPLE 1.7
Company X extracts raw material and uses it to manufacture a product. The total costs of
the product are €100 per unit. Company X sells the product to a wholesale trader for €150
per unit. The wholesale trader sells the product to a retailer at a price of €170 per unit and
in turn the retailer sells the product to consumers at a price of €200 per unit.
The percentage of VAT is 19%.
When company X sells one product to the wholesale trader VAT at 19% of €150 has to be
paid. The selling price including VAT is therefore 1.19 × €150 = €178.50. Company X pays
19% × €150 = €28.50 to the tax authorities.
The selling price of the wholesale trader is €170. At the sale of the product by the
wholesale trader to the retailer the selling price including VAT amounts to 1.19 × €170 =
€202.30. The wholesale trader owes the tax authorities the difference between the
received VAT and the paid VAT per unit: €32.30 – €28.50 = €3.80.
The selling price of the retailer is €200. Including VAT the selling price is 1.19 × €200 =
€238. The retailer has to pay €38 – €32.30 = €5.70 to the tax authorities.
Special situations
• Reduced rate
A reduced rate of VAT is levied on the sale of some goods and services,
including some food products, medicines, and theatre and sports tickets.
• Exemptions
A number of goods and services are exempt from VAT, including
educational, medical and cultural services. Organizations in these lines
of business face two consequences:
They do not need to raise the selling price with VAT and therefore do
not pay VAT to the tax authorities.
They cannot reclaim paid VAT to suppliers.
EXAMPLE 1.8
A company called Living specializes in organizing cultural events. In April a customer is
charged €500 and Living receives a bill for €1,500 plus €285 VAT for repairs to its
building.
Cultural services are exempted from VAT, so Living does not have to include VAT in its
selling prices. The customer just pays the net amount of €500. Living cannot reclaim the
VAT amount of €285 it paid to its supplier.
• Export
Value added tax is a consumption tax and is therefore levied in the
country where the customer lives. So, sales of services to other
businesses or private customers are charged VAT where the customer is
based, not where the supplier is established.
EXAMPLE 1.9
Dutch trading company ‘Golden Oak’ buys wooden furniture from Dutch manufacturers and
exports them to Germany. Golden Oak buys furniture at €10,000 plus €1,900 VAT.
A German customer is charged €10,000.
Golden Oak can reclaim the paid €1,900 VAT from the Dutch tax authorities. The delivery of
goods to the German customer is charged a net selling price excluding VAT. The German
customer has to pay VAT to the German tax authorities.
34 PART 1 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN BUSINESS © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
Backward Forward
Dairy Farming
Primary Cooperative
In the oil business the big five oil companies (BP, Chevron, Conoco-
Phillips, ExxonMobil and Shell) control all stages of the production
process, from nodding donkey to gas station.
Acquirer and target operate at the same stage of the production process
but in different industries, e.g. a confectionery manufacturer taking over
1
a soft drinks manufacturer. This is called horizontal integration. Horizontal
Acquirer and target operate in different lines of business. This is called integration
conglomerate acquisition. In the past, many conglomerate companies Conglomerate
were formed, operating at different stages in different industries. acquisition
The objective of these companies was risk reduction. Nowadays, such
conglomerate businesses are no longer popular, because they turned out
to be very hard to control by one centralized management. The present
trend is to go back to core business: companies focus on core activities
and sell non-corresponding departments.
Franchising
Under the franchising formula, a sole proprietor affiliates with a chain and
is granted access to certain facilities such as the company name, purchasing
system, marketing operation and store design and layout services.
For the franchiser, it is particularly important that the sole proprietor knows
the local market well. The franchisee, meanwhile, remains a sole proprietor,
although ‘the outside world’ perceives the franchisee as a branch manager.
The franchisee pays a fee – usually in the form of a percentage of sales – to
the franchiser for the facilities placed at his disposal.
36 PART 1 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN BUSINESS © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
In 1940 the brothers Dick and Mac McDonald’s operates more than 31,000
McDonald opened McDonald’s Bar-b-que restaurants worldwide. Each restaurant is
restaurant on Fourteenth and E streets in run by a private owner under a franchising
San Bernardino, California. After WWII the formula. If you want to own a McDonald’s
introduction of the Speedee Service System you will need private savings of at least
1
established the principles of the modern €250,000. In exchange, you can use the
McDonald’s formula. Ray Kroc, a milkshake McDonald’s name, logo and recipes. You will
machine representative, advised the have to pay a percentage of your sales
brothers to open more restaurants. Today, revenue to McDonald’s.
Cartelization
Under cartelization, independent companies draw up agreements that are
designed to restrict competition. The opportunity to make such agreements
is dependent on the market in which the businesses operate.
Competitive In a competitive market, there are a multitude of companies offering a
market standardized product to a multitude of customers. This is an intensely
Monopoly competitive environment. At the other extreme is the monopoly: there is
only one market player, and no competition.
Neither of these market forms provides an ideal basis for cartelization.
Oligopoly An oligopoly is defined as a market dominated by a few large suppliers.
A good example is the road construction industry. In an oligopoly,
businesses can be tempted to make agreements on selling prices.
They may even go as far as to ‘distribute the market amongst themselves’.
This is a classic case of cartelization. As cartelization tends to disadvantage
consumers, the European Union has identified the counteracting of any
cartelization tendencies as a key priority.
Glossary
1
Classical tax system Tax system in which corporate tax and income tax are levied
separately.
Efficiency of the Manufacturing a certain good or service with the least possible
production process costs.
Imputation tax system Tax system in which corporate tax is treated as a prepayment
for income tax.
Job production Products are tailored to the specific wishes of the customer.
Joint-stock company Legal entity in which equity is dividend in shares; can be either
a limited liability company or a public limited company.
Limited partner Partner in a partnership who is not liable for the debts of the
partnership; (s)he is not allowed to participate in the
management.
Value added tax A tax levied at each stage in the production of a good or service
that results in value being added to the product.
Wholesale trader Purchases from the manufacturer and sells to the retailer.
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv 39
Multiple-choice
questions 1
1.10 The Torville & Dean partnership has failed to repay a bank loan of €,.
Torville has a % share, Dean a % share in the partnership.
The bank is entitled to demand that Torville pays:
a nothing
b €,
c €,
d €,
1.11 A partnership has two general partners and one limited partner. General
partner A has invested €, in the partnership, general partner B
€, and limited partner C €,. The partnership has a total debt of
€ million. Partner A is liable for:
a €,
b €,
c €,
d € million
1.13 XYZ Ltd records a profit of €, and distributes half of its profit after
taxation to shareholders. The rate of corporate tax is % and the rate
of income tax is %.
Under the classical system, the total amount in taxes paid is:
a €,
1
b €,
c €,
d €,
1.15 A Dutch wholesale trader purchases , radios at a unit price of €
excluding % VAT. The trader sells radios to Dutch retailers at a selling
price of € excluding % VAT and radios to a Belgian wholesaler at a
selling price of €.
The Dutch wholesale trader pays the Dutch tax authorities an amount of:
a €
b €,
c €,
d €,
1.17 The owner of a do-it-yourself shop affiliates with a chain, thereby being
allowed to call his shop Hobby Plus.
The owner pays a fee on the basis of his turnover. This is:
a franchising
b a merger
c a takeover
d cartelization
1.18 When businesses enter into a cartel agreement, their aim is:
a to start a new joint-stock company
b to buy out competitors
c to have a stronger bargaining position with regard to the trade unions
d to restrict competition