Hydraulics II

1.0 Introduction
In Civil Engineering, hydraulics is the study of fluid properties and behaviour in
civil engineering applications, such as flow of water through canals for irrigation,
flow through public supply pipelines and water drainage system.
Civil engineering hydraulics also studies the effect of static fluid, such as, the
pressure and force exerted by water stored in dams on its walls.
History of Hydraulics
Hydraulics is not a new science; it has been studied from centuries.
Hydraulics went through different eras, more additions and developments to get the
shape in which it is studied today.

The earliest attempt of humans to deal with fluids was probably the construction of
canals for irrigation by Egyptians. But they were not interested much in laws or
principles governing fluid motion. Greeks were the first to analyze, the flow and
pressure of fluids. They designed the piston pump, water clock and also the famous
screw pump designed by Archimedes. The Romans were also more practically
oriented. The concepts which emerged, such as, the continuity of flow and frictional
resistance, were mainly the result of observations.

The Italians were the first to observe and analytically study the motion of fluids. They
analyzed the motion of water jets and found that the trajectory of the jet is similar to
that of the projectile, and the efflux velocity of any jet is proportional to the square
root of the pressure generating that jet.
With the development of mathematics fluid motion analysis became mathematic and
the fluid flow velocity and pressure measurements were included in the study.
Equipments were developed to measure pressure and velocity of fluids. Now the flow
patterns were analyzed more accurately. Fluid flow equations through pipes were
developed by Poiseuille.
Henry Darcy developed equations for frictional resistance to fluid flow through pipes.
Reynolds defined different types of flow and also observed the phenomenon of
cavitation in fluid flow. Navier, Stokes and others developed mathematical equations
for fluid flow. But there were large disparities between the practical experimental
behavior of fluid and that as calculated by these mathematical equations.
 Theory of Waves
What is a wave?
A wave is the transport of a disturbance (or energy, or piece of information) in space
not associated with motion of the medium occupying this space as a whole. (Except
that electromagnetic
waves require no medium !!!)
• The transport is at finite speed.
• The shape or form of the disturbance is arbitrary.
• The disturbance moves with respect to the medium.

Two general classes of wave motion are distinguished:

1. longitudinal waves – the disturbance moves parallel to the direction of
propagation. Examples: sound waves, compressional elastic waves (P-waves in
geophysics);
2. transverse waves – the disturbance moves perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Examples: waves on a string or membrane, shear waves (S-waves in
geophysics), water waves, electromagnetic waves.
• reflection – change of wave direction from hitting a reflective surface,
• refraction – change of wave direction from entering a new medium,
• diffraction – wave circular spreading from entering a small hole (of the
• wavelength-comparable size), or wave bending around small obstacles,
• interference – superposition of two waves that come into contact with each
• other,
• dispersion – wave splitting up by frequency,
• rectilinear propagation – the movement of light wave in a straight line.

Standing wave
A standing wave, also known as a stationary wave, is a wave that remains in a
constant position. This phenomenon can occur:
• when the medium is moving in the opposite direction to the wave,
• (in a stationary medium:) as a result of interference between two waves travelling
in opposite directions.
Mathematical description of a harmonic wave

Type equation here.

Traveling waves
Simple wave or traveling wave, sometimes also called progressive wave, is a
disturbance that varies both with time t and distance x in the following way:

𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑥, 𝑡 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 + 𝜃0
𝜋
= 𝐴 𝑥, 𝑡 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 + 𝜃0 ± 2 )

Where A is the amplitude, ω and k denote the angular frequency and wave number,
and 𝜃0 𝜃0 is the initial phase.
 Amplitude A [e.g. m, Pa, V/m] – a measure of the maximum disturbance in the
medium during one wave cycle (the maximum distance from the highest point of
the crest to the equilibrium).
 Phase 𝜃 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜃0 [𝑟𝑎𝑑], where 𝜃0 is the initial phase (shift), often
ambiguously, called the phase.
 Period T[s] - the time for one complete cycle for an oscillation of a wave.
 Frequency ƒ 𝐻𝑧 −the number of periods per unit time.
Frequency and angular frequency
• The frequency f [Hz] represents the number of periods per unit time
1
ƒ= .
𝑇
• The angular frequency ω[Hz] represents the frequency in terms of radians
per second. It is related to the frequency by

𝟐𝝅
ω= = 𝟐𝝅ƒ
𝑻

• The Wavelength λ[m] – the distance between two sequential crests

(or troughs).
Wavenumber and angular wavenumber
The wavenumber is the spatial analogue of frequency, that is, it is the measurement
of the number of repeating units of a propagating wave (the number of times a wave
has the same phase) per unit of space.
Application of a Fourier transformation on data as a function of time yields a
frequency spectrum; application on data as a function of position yields a
wavenumber spectrum.

1
The angular wavenumber 𝑘 , 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 ′𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 −
𝑚
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 ′ , 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠
2𝜋
𝑘=
λ

There are two velocities that are associated with waves:

1. Phase velocity – the rate at which the wave propagates:
ω
𝑐 = 𝑘 =λƒ
2 Group velocity – the velocity at which variations in the shape of the wave’s
amplitude (known as the modulation or envelope of the wave) propagate through
space:
𝑑ω
𝑐𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘
This is (in most cases) the signal velocity of the waveform, that is, the rate at which
information or energy is transmitted by the wave. However, if the wave is travelling
through an absorptive medium, this does not always hold.

WATER WAVES
• Surface waves on deep water
• Dispersion and the group velocity
• Capillary waves
• Shallow-water finite-amplitude waves
Surface waves on deep water
• Consider two-dimensional water waves:
u = [u(x; y; t); v(x; y; t); 0]

• Suppose that the flow is irrotational:

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
− =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
• Therefore, there exists a velocity potential ϕ(x; y; t) so that

𝜕ϕ 𝜕ϕ
𝑢= , 𝑣=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
• The fluid is incompressible, so by the virtue of the incompressibility condition, 𝛻. u
= 0, the velocity potential ϕ will satisfy Laplace’s equation

𝜕2ϕ 𝜕2ϕ
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Free surface
The fluid motion arises from a deformation of the water surface. The equation of this
free surface is denoted by

y = ƞ (x, t)
Kinematic condition at the free surface:
Fluid particles on the surface must remain on the surface.

The kinematic condition entails that F(x, y, t) = y - ƞ(x, t) remains constant (in fact,
zero) for any particular particle on the free surface which means that

𝐷𝐹 𝜕𝐹
= + 𝑢. 𝛻 𝐹 = 0 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = ƞ(x,t),
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
and this is equivalent to

𝜕ƞ 𝜕ƞ
+𝑢 = 𝑣 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = ƞ(x,t) .
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
Pressure condition at the free surface:
The fluid is inviscid (by assumption), so the condition at the free surface is simply that
the pressure there is equal to the atmospheric pressure 𝑝0 :

𝑝 = 𝑝0 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = ƞ(x,t) .

Bernoulli’s equation for unsteady irrotational flow

If the flow is irrotational (so u = 𝛻 ϕ and 𝛻 × 𝑢 = 0), then, by integrating (over the
space domain) the Euler’s momentum equation:

𝜕𝛻ϕ 𝑝 1 2
= −𝛻 + 𝑢 +𝑥 ,
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 2
The Bernoulli’s equation is obtained

𝜕ϕ 𝑝 1 2
+ + 𝑢 +𝑥 =𝐺 𝑡 .
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 2
Here, 𝑥 is the gravity potential (in the present context 𝑥 = gy where g is the gravity
acceleration) and 𝐺 𝑡 is an arbitrary function of time alone (a constant of
integration).
𝜕ϕ 𝑝 1 2
+ + 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑦 = 𝐺 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 2

𝑝0
Now, by choosing 𝐺 𝑡 in a convenient manner, 𝐺 𝑡 = , the pressure condition
𝜌
may be written as:
𝜕ϕ 1 2 2
+ (𝑢 +𝑣 ) + 𝑔ƞ = 0 on 𝑦 = ƞ(x,t) .
𝜕𝑡 2
Small amplitude waves: the linearized surface conditions
Small-amplitude waves
The free surface displacement ƞ(x,t) and the fluid velocities u, v are small.
 Linearization of the kinematic condition
𝝏ƞ 𝝏ƞ 𝝏ƞ
𝒗= +𝒖 → 𝒗(𝒙, ƞ, t) =
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒕

𝜕𝑣 𝝏ƞ
→ 𝑻𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒗 𝒙, 𝟎, 𝒕 + ƞ 𝑥, 0, 𝑡 + ⋯ =
𝜕𝑦 𝝏𝒕

𝝏ƞ 𝝏ϕ 𝝏ϕ 𝝏ƞ
→ 𝒗 𝒙, 𝟎, 𝒕 = →𝒗= → = 𝒐𝒏 𝒚 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒕
 Linearization of the pressure condition
𝝏ϕ 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝝏ϕ
+ 𝒖 + 𝒗 + 𝒈ƞ = 0 → + 𝒈ƞ = 0 on y = 0
𝝏𝒕 𝟐 𝝏𝒕
_________
↓
Small

Dispersion relation and travelling wave solution

A sinusoidal travelling wave solution
The free surface is of the form