CE 332

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

Lecture 4: Consolidation
Mrs Honoria Homu-Hedziga
Room 116
Consolidation
• Civil Engineers build structures thereby loading the soil
beneath these structures
• This results in increase of stresses resulting in strain leading
to settlement
• Settlement is due to the decrease n volume of soil mass.
When water in the voids and soil particles are assumed as
incompressible in a fully saturated soil system, then
reduction in volume takes place due to the removal of water
from the voids
• Rearrangement of soil particles in air voids is created by the
outflow of water from the voids
• This rearrangement reflects a change in volume leading to
compression of saturated fine grained soils resulting in
settlement
Consolidation
• The rate of volume change is related to the rate at which
pore water moves out of the voids, which in turn depends
on the permeability of the soil
• We can therefore say that the deformation due to increase
in stress depends on the “compressibility of soils”
• As Geotech Engineers, we need to provide answers for
i. Total settlement (volume change)
ii. Time required for the settlement of compressible layer
• The total settlement consists of three components
i. Elastic or Immediate settlement
ii. Primary consolidation settlement
iii. Secondary consolidation settlement (creep settlement)
St = Si + Sc + Ssc
 One-Dimensional Compression &
Consolidation
• The natural loading and unloading of a soil stratum during
deposition and erosion of overlying material generally takes
place under conditions of one-dimensional compression.
Therefore one-dimensional compression has a special
significance in soil mechanics and foundation engineering
• Deformation takes place in only one direction of loading in one-
dimensional compression
• Consolidation is the gradual reduction in volume of a fully
saturated soil of low permeability due to change of effective
stress.
• Consolidation may be a result of drainage of some of the pore
water, the process continuing until the excess pore water pressure
set up by an increase in total stress has completely dissipated
 One-Dimensional Compression &
Consolidation
• Changes in effective stress lead to compression
• If effective stress doesn’t change then there is no change in
volume due to compression
• Effective stress is carried by the soil skeleton – if there is no
change in effective stress, there is no deformation
• Shear loading can cause the volume of soil to increase
(dilate) or to decrease (contract)
How might we load the soil?

•Natural deposition Placement of fill across a large area

•Erosion Construction of buildings
•Change in water table (dewatering)
•Excavations and underground construction
 One-Dimensional Compression &
Consolidation
• We assume that individual soil grains and the pore fluid are
relatively incompressible compared with the soil skeleton
• All volume changes take place as a result of changes in pore
volume rather than compression of the individual components
• Compression of soil happens through rearrangement of soil
grains – water flows out to allow compression
• Consolidation: volume change in saturated soils caused by the
expulsion of pore water from loading
•  causes u to increase immediately
• Sands: pore pressure increase dissipates rapidly due to high
permeability
• Clays: pore pressure dissipates slowly due to low permeability
Fundamentals of Consolidation

•Pore water takes initial change in vertical loading  = u

since water is incompressible
•Soil skeleton does not see initial loading
Fundamentals of Consolidation

•Pore water increase due to initial loading dissipates

•Soil skeleton takes loading as pore pressure decreases
Fundamentals of Consolidation

•Pore water increase due to initial loading completely

dissipated u = 0
•Soil skeleton has taken loading. Effective stress increase now
equals vertical stress increase ( = ’)
Consolidation
• Consolidation process is often explained with an idealise
system composed of a spring, a container with a hole in its
cover, and water
• The spring represents the compressibility or the structure
itself of the soil, and the water which fills the container
represents the pore water in the soil
• On the next slide, we will now idealise the spring analogy
1.The container is completely
filled with water, and the hole
is closed (fully saturated soil)
2.A load is applied on the
cover while the hole is still
unopened. At this stage, only
the water resists the applied
load (development of
excessive pore water pressure)
3.As soon as the hole is
opened, water starts to drain
out and the spring shortens
(drainage of excessive pore
water)
4.After some time, the
drainage of water no longer
occurs. Now the spring alone
resists the applied load.
Compressibility of Soil
Soil deformation due to vertical stress is called settlement
There are 3 different “types’ of settlement that must be considered
by the geotechnical engineer:
1. Elastic or Immediate Settlement, Si – due to the elastic
distortion of the soil particles. Occurs rapidly, typically during
construction. Primary cause of settlement for coarse-grained
soil
2. Primary Consolidation Settlement, Sc – due to decrease in void
ratio as water is expelled. Rate of this settlement dependent on
hydraulic conductivity and soil thickness, and may require
months to many years to occur. Primary cause of settlement for
fine-grained soils
3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement, Ss – due to long-term
distortion (i.e. plastic creep). May require years to occur after
primary consolidation.
Three types of settlement
1. Elastic or Immediate Settlement (Si)
•Due to the elastic distortion of the soil particles themselves.
If we’re looking at the solids in the soil, and if we load the soil
up, those solids in the soil are going to deform elastically.
•Occurs instantaneously or typically right when we apply the
load, so usually it occurs during construction
•Primary mechanism of settlement for coarse grain soil –
sands and gravels
Immediate (Elastic) Settlement
•Likening Immediate settlement to the compression of a bar.
If I press down on axial direction on a bar, a portion of the
bar will squeeze out laterally as the top squeezes down due to
our load. This elastic or bulging effect is called the “poisson
effect” and is typical with immediate settlement.
•This behaviour is occurring in the individual soil particles
themselves
•Immediate settlement has nothing to do with the void space
of a soil but it has everything to do with the solids in the soil.
• So think of the solids acting like a steel bar that we’re
compressing or loading. There is going to be some amount of
elastic deformation, and if I let the load go, you can imagine
that the particles are going to bounce back and rebound to
where they were before, their original size
Immediate Settlement
•All soils are subject to elastic settlement.
•But engineers typically neglect these type of settlement in fine
grained soils and only consider them in coarse grained soils
•Why? Because primary consolidation settlements govern the
settlement behaviour in fine grained soils typically. So the
primary consolidation settlement dwarfs the elastic settlement
in clays and so usually we lump the elastic settlement into the
calculation of primary consolidation settlement.
•Please be aware that this is a sticky issue for most
geotechnical engineers, and you are bound to see many
different practices in the real world relating to computing
immediate settlements. Don't be alarmed and don't hold it
against them! For this class, only consider immediate
settlements for coarse-grained soils (i.e. sands and gravels).
Three types of settlement
2. Primary Consolidation Settlement Sc
•Has to do more with the void ratio of the soil
•Sponge analogy (squeezing a wet sponge will push water out of it
when it compresses)
•If the soil is going to settle or compress it does so by pushing water
out of the void space and so there is loss of volume in the soil. The
rate that this water gets pushed out depends on the hydraulic
conductivity and the thickness of the soil as well as where the
drainage layers are located relative to this soil layer that is
consolidating
•Depending on these factors, it can require anywhere between
months to years for primary consolidation settlement to occur in a
given soil
•Primary cause of settlement for fine grained soils – clays and some
finer silt
Three types of settlement
3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement Sc
• Occurs constantly over time due to the breakdown or
degradation or decomposition of the soil particles
themselves
• Long-term distortion of the grains and it has the
appearance of a like a plastic creep type deformation
• Can occur years after primary consolidation is finished
• Particularly common in soils that have high liquid limit and
high moisture contents as well as soils that are organic like
peat or other organic type soils where there is alot of
chemical decomposition going on that is changing the
structure of the soil particles themselves
Components of Total Settlement
•During compaction, surface loads from foundations or earth
structures are transmitted to the underlying soil profile. As a result,
stresses increase within the soil mass and the structure undergoes a
time-dependent vertical settlement.
•This time-settlement curve can be represented as shown in the
following figure.
• Total settlement, S is calculated
as the sum of the following
three components:
S = Si + Sc +Ss
• Immediate settlement is
time-dependent and results from
shear strains that occur at
constant volume as load is
applied to the soil.
Components of Total Settlement
•Although this settlement is not elastic, it is generally
calculated using elastic theory for cohesive soils such as clays.
•Consolidation and secondary compression settlement are
time-dependent and result from a reduction of void ratio and
concurrent expulsion of water from the voids of the soil
skeleton.
•For consolidation settlement, the rate of void ratio reduction
is controlled by the rate at which water can escape from the
soil.
•Therefore, during consolidation, pore water pressure exceeds
the steady state condition throughout the depth of the layer.
Over time, the rate of consolidation settlement continuously
decreases as effective stresses increase to approach their
equilibrium values.
Settlement due to consolidation
•Once the consolidation process is completed at time tp,
settlement continues in the form of secondary compression.
• As time passes water comes out of the soil voids and so the
volume of soil decrease, this is the cause of settlement
•Settlement is directly proportional to the decrease in volume
of soil = the volume of squeezed out water
•Settlement is the vertically downward movement of structure
due to the shrinkage in volume of soil due to consolidation
settlement = e/1+eo * H
where e is the change in void ratio, eo is the initial void ratio,
and H is the initial thickness of clay layer
•Consolidation settlement occurs due to the process of
consolidation
Settlement due to consolidation
•Since water flows out in any direction, the process is three
dimensional
•But, soil is confined laterally. Hence, vertical one dimensional
consolidation theory is acceptable
•Spring analogy explains consolidation settlement
•Permeability of soil influences consolidation
•Consolidation settlement will result, for example, if a
structure is built over a layer of saturated clay or if the water
table is lowered permanently in a stratum overlying a clay
layer.
•In contrast, if an excavation is made in a saturated clay layer,
heaving (reverse of settlement) will result in the bottom of the
excavation due to swelling of the clay
Consolidation settlement
•The progress of insitu consolidation is monitored by
installing piezometers to record the change in pore water
pressure with time.
•The magnitude of settlement can be measured by recording
the levels of suitable reference points on a structure or in the
ground
•Cohesive soils have a much lower hydraulic conductivity,
and, as a result, consolidation requires a longer time to
complete.
•Based on the assumption of one-dimensional compression,
the consolidation settlement of a cohesive soil stratum is
generally calculated in two steps:
Consolidation settlement
•Based on the assumption of one-dimensional compression,
the consolidation settlement of a cohesive soil stratum is
generally calculated in two steps:
1. Calculate the total consolidation settlement, Sc,
corresponding to the completion of the consolidation
process
2. Using the theory of one-dimensional consolidation,
calculate the fraction of Sc that will have occurred by the
end of the service life of the structure. This fraction is the
component of consolidation settlement to be used in the
equation S = Si + Sc +Ss
Total consolidation settlement
•A general theory for consolidation, incorporating 3-D flow is
complicated and only applicable to a very limited range of
problems in geotechnical engineering
•To simplify solving consolidation problems, drainage and
deformations are assumed to be only in the vertical direction
•Total one-dimensional consolidation settlement, Sc, results
from a change in void ratio, e, over the depth of the
consolidated layer. The basic equation for calculating the total
consolidation settlement of a single compressible layer is
Sc = e/1+eo * H
where eo is the initial void ratio and Ho is the initial height of the
compressible layer
Calculation of 1-D Consolidation Settlement
Consolidation settlement can be determined knowing:
–Initial void ratio, eo
–Thickness of layer, H
–Change of void ratio, e
•It only requires the evaluation of e

1-D Laboratory Consolidation Test

•1-D field consolidation can be simulated in the laboratory
•Data obtained from lab testing can be used to predict magnitude of
consolidation settlement reasonably, but rate is often poorly
estimated
•The 1-D consolidation test was first suggested by Terzaghi. It is
performed in a consolidometer often referred to as Oedometer.
Calculation of 1-D Consolidation Settlement
•Terzaghi developed a theory based on the assumption that an
increment of load immediately is transferred to the pore water to
create excess pore water pressure
•As the pore water is squeezed out, the excess pore water pressure
relaxes gradually transferring the load to effective stress
•Terzaghi assumed that all drainage of excess pore water is vertical
toward one or two horizontal drainage faces
•Terzaghi based his theory on the following assumptions:
The soil is homogenous
The soil is fully saturated
The solid particles and water are incompressible
Compression and flow are 1-D (vertical)
Darcy’s law is valid at all hydraulic gradients
The coefficient of permeability and coefficient of volume
change remain constant throughout the process
1-D Laboratory Consolidation Test

Oedometers are a standard geotechnical testing device to allow us

to measure the 1-D deformation characteristics of a soil
Definitions
•Preconsolidation stress is the maximum stress the soil has ever
experienced pre = max
•A soil is said to be normally consolidated when the effective stress
is the maximum it has ever experience in its stress history
current = pre
•A soil is said to be over-consolidated if the current effective
stress is less than the preconsolidation stress
current < pre