Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Reviewers
Cameron Baker, BS, MFS
Josh Bryant, MS, MFS
Editors
Peter A. Balaskas
Joanna Hatzopoulos
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY
This text is informational only. The data and information contained herein are based upon information from various published and
unpublished sources that represents training, health, and nutrition literature and practice summarized by the author and publisher.
The publisher of this text makes no warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the currency, completeness, or scientific accuracy of
this information, nor does it warrant the fitness of the information for any particular purpose. The information is not intended for use
in connection with the sale of any product. Any claims or presentations regarding any specific products or brand names are strictly the
responsibility of the product owners or manufacturers. This summary of information from unpublished sources, books, research journals,
and articles is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals. It is not intended to direct their behavior or
replace their independent professional judgment. If you have a problem or concern with your health, or before you embark on any health,
fitness, or sports training programs, seek clearance and guidance from a qualified health care professional.
Contributors
Frederick C. Hatfield, PhD
Sal Arria, DC, MSS
Patrick S. Gamboa, MBA, MSS
Josh Bryant, MS, MFS
Paul O. Davis, PhD, FASCM
Michael Yessis, PhD
James A. Peterson, PhD
Charles Staley, BS, MSS
John Berardi, PhD
Brian St. Pierre, MS, RD
Ryan Andrews, MS, MA, RD
Karl Knopf, EdD
Thomas D. Fahey, EdD
Darin Rell, BS, CFT, AHA, BLS Instructor
Reviewers
Cameron Baker, BS, MFS
Josh Bryant, MS, MFS
Editors
Peter A. Balaskas
Joanna Hatzopoulos
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY
This text is informational only. The data and information contained herein are based upon information from various published and
unpublished sources that represents training, health, and nutrition literature and practice summarized by the author and publisher.
The publisher of this text makes no warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the currency, completeness, or scientific accuracy of
this information, nor does it warrant the fitness of the information for any particular purpose. The information is not intended for use
in connection with the sale of any product. Any claims or presentations regarding any specific products or brand names are strictly the
responsibility of the product owners or manufacturers. This summary of information from unpublished sources, books, research journals,
and articles is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals. It is not intended to direct their behavior or
replace their independent professional judgment. If you have a problem or concern with your health, or before you embark on any health,
fitness, or sports training programs, seek clearance and guidance from a qualified health care professional.
About the Author | iii
SECTION TWO
KINESIOLOGY AND BIOMECHANICS, p. 113
4 Kinesiology of Exercise, p. 115
5 Biomechanics of Exercise, p. 131
6 Musculoskeletal Deviations, p. 149
7 Muscle Mechanics, p. 161
SECTION THREE SECTION SIX
HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS, p. 181 FITNESS FOR ALL
Topics in Fitness for Special Populations , p. 615
8 Strength, p. 183
21 Exercise and Older Adults, p. 617
9 Cardiovascular Training, p. 301
22 Exercise and Adaptive Fitness, p. 627
10 Flexibility Training, p. 333
23 Exercise and Our Youth, p. 635
11 Body Composition, p. 359
24 Exercise and Hypertension, p. 641
SECTION FOUR
25 Exercise and Diabetes, p. 647
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT, p. 381
26 Exercise and Arthritis, p. 653
12 Drawing-In Phase, p. 383
27 Exercise and Coronary
13 Basic Assessment of
Heart Disease, p. 659
Fitness Participants, p. 393
28 Exercise and Pregnancy, p. 665
14 Training Principles, p. 415
29 Exercise and Asthma, p. 671
15 Periodization, p. 459
30 Sports Medicine
16 Determining Training Loads, p. 477
in the Trenches, p. 677
SECTION FIVE 31 Basic First Aid, p. 715
NUTRITION, p. 495
References, p. 725
17 The Big Picture of Nutrition, p. 497
Glossary, p. 737
18 Nutritional Physiology, p. 517
Index, p. 759
19 Nutritional Science, p. 545
20 Nutritional Coaching, p. 575
TOPICS COVERED IN THIS UNIT
Personal Training
Who Wants Personal Training?
What is a Personal Trainer?
Why is Personal Training Necessary?
What Should a Personal Trainer Know?
ISSA Code of Ethics and Standards
Principles and Purpose
Academic Standards
Professional Standards
INTRODUCTION
Consider the ollowing: Each year in the United States, day. Fortunately, with ew exceptions, most people are too
people spend $2.5 trillion on health care. Tis meteoric sensible to ever consider ravaging their health by smoking
figure translates into an expenditure o almost $7,000 or excessively. Unortunately, many o these same people ail
each member o the U.S. population. Regret tably, this to recognize the extraordinary benefits o exercise in the
financial commitment has neither shown signs o abating prevention o medical problems.
nor has it produced satisactory results with regard to
Any listing o the medical problems and health-related
treating a wide variety o chronic health problems.
conditions that can be at least partially treated and
Attempts to identiy the actors that have been major controlled by exercise would be ex tensive. Among
contributions to this virtual epidemic o medical the most significant o these health concerns and the
problems have produced a litany o probable reasons manner in which exercise is thought to help alleviate each
why such a large number o individuals are so apparently condition are the ollowing:
unhealthy, including poor eating habits, sedentary
• Allergies. Exercise is one of the body’s most
liestyle, stress, and poor health habits (e.g., smoking). At
efficient ways to control nasal congestion (and
the same time, a number o studies have been undertaken
the accompanying discomfort of restricted nasal
to identiy what, i anything, can be done to diminish blood flow).
either the number or the severity o medical problems
affecting the public. Tese studies have provided • Angina. Regular aerobic exercise dilates
vessels, increasing blood flow — thereby
considerable evidence that exercise has substantial
improving the body’s ability to extract
medicinal benefits or people o all ages. oxygen from the bloodstream.
wo o the most widely publicized efforts to investigate • Anxiety. Exercise triggers the release of
the possible relationship between exercise and disease mood-altering chemicals in the brain.
were longitudinal studies, each o which involved more
• Arthritis. By forcing a skeletal joint to move,
than 10,000 subjects. In a renowned study o 17,000
exercise induces the manufacture of synovial fluid,
Harvard graduates, Ralph Paffenbarger, MD, ound that helps to distribute it over the cartilage, and forces
men who expended approximately 300 calories a day (the it to circulate throughout the joint space.
equivalent o walking briskly or 45 minutes) reduced
their death rates rom all causes by an extraordinary 28 • Back pain. Exercise helps to strengthen the
abdominal muscles,the lower back extensor
percent and lived an average o more tha n 2 years longer
muscles, and the hamstring muscles.
than their sedentary classmates. Another study conducted
by Steven Blair, PED, o the Institute o Aerobics • Bursitis and tendinitis. Exercise can strengthen
Research in Dallas documented the act that a relatively the tendons — enabling them to handle greater
modest amount o exercise has a significant effect on loads without being injured.
the mortality rate o both men and women. Te higher • Cancer. Exercise helps maintain ideal bodyweight
the fitness level, the lower the death rate (afer the data and helps keep body fat to a minimum.
were adjusted or age differences between subjects in this • Carpal tunnel syndrome. Exercise helps build
8-year investigation o 13,344 individuals). An analysis up the muscles in the wrists and forearms, thereby
o the extensive data yielded by both studies suggests one reducing the stress on arms, elbows, and hands.
inescapable conclusion: Exercise is medicine!
• Cholesterol. Exercise helps to raise HDL (high-
Accepting the premise that regular exercise can play density lipoprotein—the “good” cholesterol)
a key role in reducing your risk o medical problems levels in the blood and lower LDL (low-density
and in decreasing your ultimate costs or health care is lipoprotein—the undesirable cholesterol) levels.
critical. Despite the vast number o individuals who lead a • Constipation. Exercise helps strengthen the
sedentary liestyle, the need or and the value o exercising abdominal muscles, thereby making it easier to
on a regular basis is an irreutable act o lie (and death). pass a stool.
For example, afer a detailed review o the results o his • Depression. Exercise helps speed metabolism
long-term investigation, Dr. Paffenbarger concluded that and deliver more oxygen to the brain; the
not exercising had the equiva lent impact on a person’s improved level of circulation in the brain tends to
health as smoking one and a hal packs o cigarettes a enhance mood.
Are the positive effects that result rom exercising we as personal trainers have an inherent responsibility
regularly worth the required effort? Absolutely. Should to positively influence the health and fitness attitudes
you make exercise an integral part o your daily regimen? o those around us. Individually and collectively, we
O course, you should. In countless ways, your lie may can bring health and fitness to the masses and make the
depend on it. Te meteoric rise o health care and dream o optimal health a reality or all.
health problems makes your success as a personal
trainer predictable.
WHAT SHOULD A PERSONAL
Implications for Certified Fitness TRAINER KNOW?
Trainer Professionals As the industry continues to expand its boundaries and
the realm o scientific knowledge concerning the human
Te need or personal training services continues to grow. response and adaptation to exercise continues to g row, it
As uture ISSA fitness proessionals, it is imperative that is essential that personal fitness trainers be competent in
we keep up with the evolving recommendations or health the ollowing:
and physical fitness that have a direct application or
• Exercise programming
fitness programs and exercise recommendations. With
the emergence o the latest technologies, inormation • Exercise physiology
regarding health and fitness is easily accessible. However, • Functional anatomy and biomechanics
because o the nature o the media’s use o vague and
brie headlines in conjunction with radio and television • Assessments and fitness testing
sound bites that provide only limited, conusing, and • Nutrition and weight management
ofen conflicting recommendations, it is important that • Basic emergency procedures and safety
we can help our clients, riends, and amily members put
each new study or report in proper perspective. Personal • Program administration
trainers today are committed to a long-term career in • Human behavior and motivation
health and fitness and are increasing their knowledge
through additional courses in post-rehabilitation, Our ability as fitness proessionals to educate and
corporate wellness, youth fitness, senior fitness, and pre- effectively draw our clients into the fitness liestyle
and postnatal specializations to better serve their clients and optimal health comes rom a plan that is based in
in achieving and living the fitness liestyle. As you can see, the aorementioned areas as well as the knowledge o
muscular, cardiopulmonary, and metabolic adaptations. individual differences, reversibility, periodization, rest,
Tese adaptations are known as the training effect . Te overtraining, and stimulus variability. Te plan requires
training effect is the body’s adaptation to the learned a thorough understanding o the major muscles o the
and expected stress imposed by physical activity. When body and how they work, as well as an understanding
the body experiences the training effect, it begins to o metabolism—how the body converts ood energy
change at the cellular level, allowing more energy to into other orms o energy it can use at rest and during
be released with less oxygen. Te heart and capillaries exercise. In addition, trainers must learn about the
become stronger and more dispersed in order to allow a unction and regulation o the lungs, heart, blood vessels,
more efficient flow o oxygen and nutrients. Te muscles, hormones, brain, and nerves, as well as the weight control
tendons, and bones involved with this activity also and temperature regulation systems at rest and during
strengthen to become more proficient. In time, the body exercise. Once you have the knowledge and support to
releases unnecessary at rom its rame, and stride and develop comprehensive, individualized, and periodized
gait become more efficient. Additionally, resting heat plans that effectively produce the training effect, then
rate and blood pressure drop. Tese adaptations can be you will be able to effectively draw your riends, amily
achieved through an educated trainer who can develop an members, and uture clients into the fitness liestyle and
appropriate fitness and health plan. optimal health.
Te fitness and health plan must account or the basic
principles o fitness training: overload, specificity,
Over a quarter century ago, Dr. Sal Arria and Dr. Fred Hatfield had a vision to pioneer a personal fitness
trainer program that would merge in-gym experience with practical and applied sciences in order to share
the benefits of the fitness lifestyle with the masses. As the profession continues to grow and expand its
boundaries, for the ISSA trainer of today and the ISSA trainer of tomorrow, education and support are vital.
It is the hope and vision of the ISSA that through this course text and the support provided by the entire ISSA
staff, ISSA-certified trainers will continue to be more educated than in the past; they will be well-rounded and
knowledgeable about exercise and how it relates to optimal health and fitness.
Metabolism
Basic Anatomy and Physiology
Musculoskeletal Anatomy and Physiology
TOPICS COVERED IN THIS UNIT
Introduction
Homeostasis
Understanding Metabolism
Metabolic Set Point
Food and Metabolism
Environment and Metabolism
Exercise and Metabolic Responses
Energy Metabolism
ATP Production
Monitoring Metabolism
Conclusion
UNIT 1
METABOLISM
12 | Unit 1
Unit Outline
I. Introduction IV. Energy Metabolism
II. Homeostasis A. ATP Production
III. Understanding Metabolism 1. ATP/CP Energy Pathway
A. Metabolic Set Point 2. Glycolytic Pathway
B. Food and Metabolism 3. Oxidative Pathway
C. Environment and Metabolism 4. How the Systems Interact
D. Exercise and Metabolic Responses 5. Glycogen Depletion and Metabolism
of Fatigue
1. Aerobic System Changes
B. Monitoring Metabolism
2. Anaerobic System Changes
V. Conclusion
Learning Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to do the following:
• Define key terms.
• Understand the role of metabolism in the body and how it relates to exercise.
• Determine the metabolic needs of each of the three energy pathways described,
and apply them in the coming units.
INTRODUCTION
As revealed in the book’s introduction, personal fitness trainers have a tremendous
influence on shaping the health and fitness attitudes and practices o those around
them. Te sphere o influence includes riends, amily members, coworkers, and, o
course, clients. As a fitness proessional, your ability to effectively draw your clients
into the fitness liestyle—including the ability to maintain optimal health—largely
depends on your knowledge o the muscular, cardiopulmonary, and metabolic
training effect: An increase in adaptations to exercise. Tese adaptations are known as the training effect.
functional capacity of muscles
and other bodily tissues as Te training effect impacts the body in several ways. Te body begins to change
a result of increased stress at the cellular level, allowing more energy to be released with less oxygen. Heart
(overload) placed upon them. unction improves and the capillaries prolierate in order to allow a more efficient
homeostasis: The automatic flow o oxygen and nutrients. Te muscles, connective tissues, and bones involved
tendency to maintain a relatively with a particular physical activity strengthen to accommodate improved proficiency
constant internal environment. at perorming the activity. Over time, the body’s composition changes (e.g., at mass
may increase while muscle mass decreases) and movements become more efficient. In
addition, resting heart rate and blood pressure drop. You can help your clients achieve
these adaptations by educating yoursel and learning how to develop appropriate
fitness and health plans or them.
environment, shivering begins to generate heat and keep the body temperature at that
critical 98.6 degrees F. Other metabolic unctions under homeostatic control include
the ollowing:
• Hormone production and concentration level maintenance
• Maintenance of serum oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels
• pH balance in the blood and cells
• Water content of cells and blood
• Blood glucose levels and other nutrient levels in the cell
• Metabolic rate
Te concept o homeostasis is o special interest to fitness enthusiasts. You are in
equilibrium even with environmental stimuli acting upon you. For example, think
about how your muscles change in response to different training programs. I you
spend most o your time lifing heavy weights, your muscles will grow larger; a shif
in your homeostasis takes place. Te simple action o weight training causes more
metabolism: The total of protein synthesis in the target muscles. Hormone levels change to accommodate this
all the chemical and physical growth. On the other hand, i you choose to run several miles per day, your muscles
processes by which the body will adapt differently. Tey develop a higher endurance capacity, they stimulate the
builds and maintains itself
(anabolism) and by which it
ormation o more at-burning, slow-twitch muscle fibers, and they develop a higher
breaks down its substances capacity to use oxygen in energy production. Nutrient intake can also affect your
for the production of energy homeostatic balance. Eating too much o the wrong oods or too little o the right
(catabolism). oods can cause homeostasis to shif out o balance. Consume too many calories, and
glucose: Principal circulating your body stores at; too little protein, and your muscles break down. I you don’t
sugar in the blood and the consume enough energy-supplying calories, you will eel tired sooner. For optimum
major energy source of the homeostasis and metabolism, eating the right nutrients in the right amounts at the
body. right times is vital.
ketone bodies: Bodies
produced as intermediate
products of fat metabolism. UNDERSTANDING METABOLISM
lactic acid: A by-product Te body sustains itsel and adapts to its environment through metabolism . In order
of glucose and glycogen or metabolism to occur, the body needs both energy and building blocks or growth
metabolism in anaerobic muscle
energetics.
and repair. It gets its energy rom the breakdown o nutrients such as glucose, ketone
bodies, lactic acid, amino acids , and fatty acids. o construct molecules or growth
amino acid: The building and repair, a delicate interplay must exist between anabolism and catabolism.
blocks of protein. There are
24 amino acids, which form Te many biochemical processes that make up the body’s metabolism are categorized
countless number of different into two general phases: anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism and catabolism occur
proteins.
simultaneously—and constantly. However, they differ in magnitude depending on the
fatty acids: Any of a large level o activity or rest and on when the last meal was eaten. When anabolism exceeds
group of monobasic acids, catabolism, net growth occurs. When catabolism exceeds anabolism, the body has a
especially those found in animal net loss o substances and body tissues and may lose weight.
and vegetable fats and oils.
anabolism: The building up in
Anabolism includes the chemical reactions that combine different biomolecules to
the body of complex chemical create larger, more complex ones. Te net result o anabolism is the creation o new
compounds from simpler cellular material, such as enzy mes, proteins, cell membranes, new cells, and growth/
compounds (e.g., proteins from repair o the many tissues. Tat energy is stored as glycogen and/or at and in muscle
amino acids). tissue. Anabolism is necessary or growth, maintenance, and repair o tissues.
catabolism: The breaking
Catabolism includes the chemical reactions that break down complex biomolecules
down in the body of complex
chemical compounds into into simpler ones or energy production, or recycling o molecular components, or
simpler ones (e.g., proteins to or their excretion. Catabolism provides the energy needed or transmitting nerve
amino acids). impulses and muscle contraction.
Metabolism includes only the chemical changes that occur within tissue cells in the
body. It does not include those changes to substances that take place in the digestion
o oods in the gastrointestinal system. For optimal unction, a healthy metabolism
needs many nutrients. A slight deficiency o even one vitamin can slow down
metabolism and cause chaos throughout the body. Te body builds thousands o
enzymes to drive its metabolism in the direction influenced by activity and nutrition.
So, when you are training or engaged in vigorous physical activity several hours a day,
you must ensure that your diet contains the nutrients your body needs in order to
optimize the many metabolic unctions taking place.
ALF = Activity level factor AND ALF HAS THE FOLLOWING VALUES:
Eq. 1.1
16 | Unit 1
Eq. 1.2
Te RQ or carbohydrate is 1.0, whereas the RQ or at is 0.7. Fat has a lower RQ value
oxidation: The chemical act because atty acids require more oxygen or oxidation than the amount o carbon
of combining with oxygen or of dioxide produced. Te RQ or energy production rom protein is about 0.8. Te
removing hydrogen. average person at rest will have an RQ o about 0.8; however, this result is rom using a
mixture o atty acids and carbohydrates, not the protein itsel, or energy production.
Remember, proteins (broken down into amino acids) are not usually used or energy.
In a normal diet containing carbohydrate, at, and protein, about 40to 45 percent o
the energy is derived rom atty acids, 40 to 45 percent rom carbohydrates, and 10 to
15 percent rom protein. However, this rate o energy production varies based on diet,
physical activity, and level o physical training.
Research indicates that when the diet is high in carbohydrates, the RQ is higher,
thereore more energy is being produced rom carbohydrates. When the diet is low in
carbohydrates and high in at, more energy is produced rom at. Interestingly, recent
studies published in academic journals suggest that more efficient body at reduction
occurs with a high-at diet than with a high-carbohydrate diet (on a calorie-per-
calorie basis).
In addition, training intensity affects the energy source during exercise. For example,
•
a training intensity below 60 percent o maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) results maximal oxygen uptake
•
in a RQ o about 0.8, indicating an equal portion o energy derived rom atty acids (VO2 max): The highest rate of
•
and carbohydrate. As training intensity increases above 60 percent o VO2 max, more oxygen consumption which a
•
carbohydrate is used or energy. Exercise intensity at 100 percent VO2 max (which can person is capable.
only be sustained or minutes) yields a RQ o 1. Keep in mind that amino acids, in branched-chain amino
particular the branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs, which aid in recovery), are also acids (BCAAs): The amino
being used or energy during exercise and at rest, perhaps as much as 10 percent or acids L-leucine, L-isoleucine and
L-valine, which have a particular
more during exercise.
molecular structure that gives
In general, physical conditioning lowers the RQ, which means more energy is being them their name and comprises
obtained rom atty acids in the trained individual. However, more energy is also 35 percent of muscle tissue. The
BCAAs, particularly L-leucine,
being obtained rom protein in the trained individual. Carbohydrate is always being help increase work capacity
used or energy. For example, in a study comparing the RQ o untrained versus by stimulating production of
trained individuals during exercise, the RQ o the untrained individuals was 0.95 and insulin, the hormone that opens
the RQ o the trained individuals was 0.9. Tis means that while both groups were muscle cells to glucose. BCAAs
using mostly carbohydrate or uel during exercise, the trained individuals were using are burned as fuel during highly
a higher amount o atty acids or energy. At rest, atty acids are the predominant intense training and at the end
of long-distance events when
energy source in most people; as exercise begins, carbohydrate utilization increases. the body recruits protein for
High-intensity exercise uses more carbohydrate, while low- to moderate-intensity as much as 20 percent of its
exercise uses atty acids and carbohydrate or energy. O course, these ratios change energy needs.
when one consumes only ats and proteins and no carbohydrates as uel.
While this discussion o RQ is very brie, you can see that the energy substrate
utilization o the body is quite varied, and both composition o the diet and intensity
o physical activity determine which energy substrates are used. Tereore, it is easy to
see why different sports require different dietary considerations.
ENVIRONMENT
AND METABOLISM
Te body’s environment also influences its metabolic
rate. When you are exposed to a progressively colder
climate, your body will increase its metabolic rate to keep
the body temperature constant and to prevent shivering.
Shivering is invoked when the core temperature o the
body begins to drop rom being in the cold. Shivering is
actually a series o involuntary muscle contractions that
are triggered to create heat in the body, like turning on
a urnace. When exposed to higher-than-average cold
conditions or a ew days, the body actually increases its
basal metabolic rate; its goal is to run hotter than average
in order to compensate or being in a colder climate.
When conditions begin to warm up, even a 60-degree-
Fahrenheit (F) day can seem extremely hot, because the
body’s metabolic rate is already run ning ast. Afer several
days o acclimating to the hot climate, the metabolic rate Te magnitude o these changes is driven primarily by
decreases and 80 degrees F eels as hot as the 60 degrees F whether the exercise is anaerobic or aerobic. Te type and
did a ew months earlier. duration o exercise dictates the primar y energy mix used.
High-intensity exercise simulates development o ast-
twitch muscle fibers, while low-intensity exercise results
EXERCISE AND in development o slow-twitch muscle fibers.
METABOLIC RESPONSES In addition, a series o hormonal changes occur during
exercise and non-exercise periods. Tese changes also
Exercise stimulates a series o metabolic responses
are benefited and acilitated with a nutrient profile that
that affect the body’s anatomy, physiology, and
matches the type o metabolic fluctuation.
biochemical makeup.
Endurance exercise stimulates the following changes:
• Increased muscle glycogen storage capacity
Aerobic System Changes
• Increased muscle mitochondrial density Aerobic training greatly increases the body’s unctional
capacity to transport and use oxygen and to burn atty
• Increased resting adenosine triphosphate (ATP) acids during exercise. Recent research shows that long,
content in muscles
slow distance training is not as efficient as interval
• Increased resting creatine phosphate (CP) training in acilitating this unctional capacity. Some o
content in muscles the major changes measured as a result o aerobic exercise
• Increased resting creatine content in muscles (especially interval training) include the ollowing:
adenosine triphosphate
Anaerobic System Changes (ATP): An organic compound
Anaerobic training greatly increases the body’s unctional capacity or development o found in muscle which,
upon being broken down
explosive strength and maximization o short-term energy systems. Some o the major
enzymatically, yields energy for
changes measured as a result o anaerobic exercise include the ollowing: muscle contraction.
• Increased size and number of fast-twitch muscle fibers creatine phosphate (CP):
A high-energy phosphate
• Increased tolerance to higher levels of blood lactate
molecule that is stored in cells
• Increases in enzymes involved in the anaerobic phase of glucose and can be used to immediately
breakdown (glycolysis) resynthesize ATP.
• Increased muscle resting levels of ATP, CP, creatine, and glycogen content
• Increased levels of growth hormone and testosterone after short bouts (45 to
75 min) of high-intensity weight training
ENERGY METABOLISM
Energy metabolism is a series o chemical reactions that result in the breakdown o
oodstuffs (carbohydrate, at, protein) by which energy is produced, used, and given
off as heat. Roughly, the body is about 20 percent efficient at trapping energy released.
About 80 percent is released as heat, which explains why your body heats up quickly
when you exercise. A closer look at muscle anatomy reveals that the mode o energy
storage and energy systems used is related to physical activity.
Physical activities can be classified into these our basic groups, based on the energy
systems that are used to support these activities:
• Strength/power: Energy coming from immediate ATP stores. Examples
include shot put, powerlift, high jump, golf swing, tennis serve, and a throw.
Activities last about 0 to 3 seconds of maximal effort.
• Sustained power: Energy coming from immediate ATP and CP stores. Exam-
ples include sprints, fast breaks, football lineman. Activities last about 0 to 10
seconds of near-maximal effort.
• Anaerobic power/endurance: Energy coming from ATP, CP, and lactic
acid. Examples include 200- to 400-meter dash and 100-yard swim. Activities
lasting about 1 to 2 minutes.
• Aerobic endurance: Energy coming from the oxidative pathway. Activities
last over 2 minutes.
In power events, which last a ew seconds or less at maximal effort, the muscles
depend on the immediate energy system, namely AP and CP reserves. In speed
events, the immediate and non-oxidative (glycolytic) energy sources are utilized. In
endurance events, the immediate and non-oxidative energy sources are used, and the
oxidative energy mechanisms become a more important source o energy. AP and
CP are replenished rom energy derived rom complete breakdown o glucose, atty
acids, and some proteins.
ATP PRODUCTION
Adenosine triphosphate (AP) is the molecule that stores energy in a orm that can
be used or muscle contractions. Energy production then revolves around rebuilding
AP molecules afer they are broken down or energy utilization. Muscle cells store a
limited amount o AP. During exercise the body requires a constant supply o AP in
order to provide the energy needed or muscular contraction. Tereore, to maintain
a constant supply o energy, metabolic pathways must exist in the cell with the ability
to produce AP rapidly. Muscle cells can produce AP by any one o or a combination
o three metabolic pathways: the AP/CP pathway, the glycolytic pathway, and the
oxidative pathway.
myosin ATPase
ATP ADP + Pi + Energy
ADP + Pi is
resynthesized into
Pi
ATP
CP from muscle
lends a phosphate
(Pi) to ADP
ADP
ATP losses
phosphate to
release energy
Energy for
muscle contraction
Like AP, CP is stored in small amounts (16 mmols/kg o muscle). As seen in Figure
1.3, CP stores all rapidly afer 10 seconds o maximal activity and are usually
completely depleted in under 60 seconds.
Whether or not you can increase your resting levels o AP through training has not
widely been studied or understood. Research has suggested that it is possible through
both weight training and aerobic training. However, this possibility is mainly because
o fiber hypertrophy (increase in size), thus more AP can be stored in type II than in type II muscle fibers
type I muscle fibers (considering the size and growth potential o type II fibers). (fast twitch): Muscle fiber
type that contracts quickly and
Perhaps an even bigger question than “how much?” or “can you increase?” is “how is used mostly in intensive,
quickly can AP and CP stores be replenished?” Although individual differences exist, short-duration exercises.
research has shown that AP stores can be ully restored within 3.5 minutes and CP type I muscle fibers
stores can be ully replenished within 8 minutes. (slow twitch): A muscle
fiber characterized by its slow
speed of contraction and a high
capacity for aerobic glycolysis.
CP-Splitting
Glycolysis
Oxidation
y
l
p
p
u
S
y
g
r
e
n
E
f
o
t
n
e
c
r
e
P
Time in Seconds
Glycolytic Pathway
glycolytic pathway: A Like the AP/CP pathway, the glycolytic pathway is anaerobic. Once it has depleted
metabolic process in which
the readily available AP/CP stores, the body must break down carbohydrates to
glucose is broken down to
produce energy anaerobically. produce more AP. Tis process uses either glycogen (which is stored in the muscle
cells) or glucose (which is ound in the blood) to convert ADP back into AP; the
gluconeogenesis: Chemical waste product is lactic acid (see Equation 1.5).
process that converts lactate
and pyruvate back into glucose.
When glycogen (sugar stored
in muscles) stores are low,
glucose for emergency energy Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2NAD+ 2 lactic acid + 2ATP + 2NAD
is synthesized from protein
and the glycerol portion of fat Eq. 1.5
molecules. This is one important
reason that ATP/CP athletes and
glycolytic athletes are warned to Tis lactic acid eventually builds more quickly than it can be flushed out o the muscle
stay away from undue aerobic to the point o the anaerobic threshold, otherwise known as muscular atigue. At this
exercise: It’s muscle-wasting.
point, the body must either stop or slow down until the lactic acid is removed. Lactic
anaerobic threshold: The acid is converted to a less toxic orm, called lactate, which is used either as an energy
point where increasing energy substrate or to produce more glucose (a process called gluconeogenesis). Getting
demands of exercise cannot be
rid o lactic acid is not as important as it is how efficiently the body can use it. I you
met by the use of oxygen, and
an oxygen debt begins to be produce lactic acid aster than you can use it, therein lies the problem. Stored sugars
incurred. are rarely ever depleted (and are never depleted in the glycolytic pathway). However,
this is not the limiting actor; the limiting actor is the accumulation o lactic acid.
oxidative pathway: A
metabolic process in which Generally, the glycolytic pathway ends under maximal conditions at around 80
oxygen combines with lactic seconds beore the oxidative pathway (and lower levels o activity) takes over.
acid, resynthesizing glycogen to
How well muscles function in the glycolytic pathway is determined by three
produce energy aerobically.
related factors:
Krebs cycle: Citric acid cycle;
a set of 8 reactions, arranged in • How quickly the body can utilize the lactic acid
a cycle, in which free energy is • How well the body can tolerate the pain caused by the accumulation
recovered in the form of ATP. of lactic acid
electron transport chain: • How far the body can go before it becomes vital to clear the lactic acid in
The passing of electrons over a
order for work to continue. This is called the anaerobic threshold.
membrane, aiding in a reaction
to recover free energy for the Blood lactate levels usually return to normal within a n hour afer activity. Research
synthesis of ATP. shows that training can increase the rate in which lactic acid is utilized or removed as
pyruvate: A byproduct of well as push back the anaerobic threshold. As or the ability to tolerate the pain, it
glycolysis. comes with personal experience.
beta oxidation: A series of
reactions in which fatty acids are
broken down. Oxidative Pathway
Te oxidative pathway is a system that is aerobic, which means it uses oxygen to
produce AP by way o the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain. Ultimately,
more AP is produced through this pathway than through the other two; however,
it takes much longer. Pyruvate, which is produced through glycolysis, undergoes
a long trip through the Krebs cycle to convert several coenzymes that have lost an
electron back into their original state. It is in the electron transport chain where these
coenzymes undergo oxidation to convert ADP back into AP. In the end, up to 38
molecules o AP can be produced through the oxidative pathway.
It is only in this pathway that at can be used or energy. Breaking down at or energy
is also a long process (called beta oxidation), which does not direct ly produce AP.
Contraction
Blood
Relaxation
Amino acids
Glycogen
Glucose Glycolysis Oxidative Proteins
phosphorylation
Oxygen
Fatty
acids
MUSCLE FIBER
atom. In this way, the immediately available AP stores pyruvate molecules. In general, these pyruvate molecules
are depleted very rapidly, in the first ew seconds o a are immediately converted to lactic acid molecules. Te
maximal muscle contraction. amount o ree glucose is generally low in the cells, so
Te second immediate source o cellular energy is creatine glucose is derived rom the breakdown o glycogen.
phosphate (CP). Te cell contains several more times Fast-twitch muscle fibers (those associated with strength
CP molecules than AP molecules. Creatine phosphate and size) are also reerred to as ast glycolytic muscle
serves to instantaneously regenerate AP molecules. fibers, because they house the metabolic machinery to get
Tereore, the AP that is broken down to ADP during quick energy through ast glycolysis pathways. Te ast-
muscle contraction is restored to the high-energy AP by twitch fibers have a low capacity or oxidative metabolism
CP. Te third immediate energy system enables the cell to and are instead set up to ru n glucose through their ast
regenerate AP rom two ADP molecules, resulting in one glycolysis pathways. Lactic acid then builds up because it
AP and one adenosine monophosphate (AMP) molecule. is being produced too rapidly to enter into the oxidative
Tis immediate energy source is depleted in a matter pathways. Lactic acid is then cleared rom the muscle, ed
o seconds under conditions o all-out effort (maximal into the bloodstream, taken to the liver, and there made
muscle contractions). into glucose and glycogen. Glycolysis takes place in the
Te storage capacity o AP and CP in a cell is quickly cytoplasm o the cell.
reached or a particular muscle size. In order to increase For physical activities lasting more than 2 minutes, the
the amount o AP and CP on hand, the muscle fibers oxidative metabolic pathways produce the majority
must increase in size. Tis is why power athletes get big o energy to maintain muscle contractions. Potential
muscles. Te workload demands that more AP and CP be oxidative energy sources include glucose, glycogen, ats,
available. o meet this demand, the muscle fibers increase and amino acids. Oxidative energy production takes
in size, causing the entire muscle to get big. When you place in the mitochondria o the cells. Far more energy
train, different energy systems are conditioned to work is produced when glucose is completely broken down
best at the particular workload imposed on the muscles. in the mitochondria. Glucose is still first split in hal
As the immediate energy supply is quickly depleted by glycolysis. Te pyruvate molecules then enter into
through high-intensity physical activity, the non-oxidative the mitochondria, where they are completely broken
energy source kicks in. Te non-oxidative system is a down. Te oxidative pathways are the Krebs cycle and
major contributor o energy during 4 to 50 seconds o electron transport. Fatty acids, which come rom at,
effort. Non-oxidative metabolism (glycolysis) involves the are a major energy source during endurance events. Te
breakdown o glucose to regenerate A DP into AP. Muscle processes o at utilization are activated more slowly than
tissue is densely packed with non-oxidative enzyme carbohydrate metabolism and proceed at a lower rate.
systems. What happens chemically is that the glucose Fatty acids are activated and combined with the molecule
molecule is split in hal and energy is released. Tis energy carnitine, which enables them to then be transported into
is enough to regenerate 2 AP molecules and leave two the mitochondria.
ratio is high, anabolism is prevailing. However, when cortisol levels are high and the
ratio is lowered, it is an indication o overtraining. esting testosterone/cortisol ratio
helps you determine whether the body is in a state o overtraining or not. In this way,
you can determine how hard to train, whether to take a ew days off, or i tra ining
intensity should increase.
In addition, in the medical field and in many fitness centers, handheld portable
•
indirect calorimeters are used that measure oxygen consumption ( VO2) and
resting metabolic rate determine resting metabolic rate (RMR). As discussed earlier in this unit, the
(RMR): The amount of energy rate o oxidation or the burning o the calories is different or at, carbohydrate, and
(calories) required to efficiently protein. Te ood you eat can either be burned to liberate energy, converted into body
perform vital bodily functions
weight, or be excreted. I you light a candle and then place a dome over the candle,
such as respiration, organ
function and heart rate while the cutting off the fire’s source o oxygen, the fire will go out. In the same way the body’s
body is awake, but at rest. ability to undergo oxidation is contingent on oxygen. I the body is getting more
oxygen, it should be burning more calories.
Nutrition monitoring plays a vital role in the care o patients with diabetes, heart
disease, high blood pressure, and obesity, as well as conditions that place patients
at risk or malnutrition, such as cancer, burns, trauma, inection, obstructive lung
disease, and HIV. Indirect calorimeters can be used in acute care, long-term care,
home care, and clinic-based care settings such as physician offices, rehabilitation
centers, ambulatory surgery centers, and fitness-based acilities.
CONCLUSION
In order to maintain its many chemical and physical activities, the body needs energy.
Earth’s energy originates rom the sun. Plants use solar energy to perorm chemical
reactions to orm carbohydrates, at, and protein. Humans, like other animals,
consume plants and other animals to obtain the energy required to maintain cellular
activities. Tese cellular activities, k nown as metabolism, are maintained under
homeostatic controls. Te many chemical reactions occurring in the body must be
regulated in order to maintain a balance between the trillions o cells in the body.
Tese cells maintain balance through an intricate organization system. We will now
discuss this intricate organized system known as the body.
Key Terms
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) electron transport chain metabolism
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) fatty acids oxidation
amino acid gluconeogenesis oxidative pathway
anabolism glucose pyruvate
anaerobic threshold glycolytic pathway respiratory quotient (RQ)
ATP/CP pathway homeostasis resting metabolic rate (RMR)
basal metabolic rate (BMR) ketone bodies thermic effect
beta oxidation kilocalorie (kcal) training effect
branched-chain amino acids Krebs cycle type I muscle fibers
(BCAAs) (slow twitch)
lactic acid
calorie • type II muscle fibers
maximal oxygen uptake ( VO2 max)
(fast twitch)
catabolism
metabolic set point
creatine phosphate (CP)