14.

3 Endocrine System

14.3.1 Introduction to Endocrine system

1. Endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that secrete hormones.

2. A hormone is a chemical substance, released from an endocrine gland.
3. A hormone is carried by the blood, to targeted organ
4. A hormone will alter the physiological activity of one of more specific target organs

14.3.2 Hormones and functions

(A) Fight and flight hormone, alter the metabolic activity in the cells.
• Situation where adrenaline hormone surge: a person is in fear, excited or stress.
• When adrenaline is presence, it alters the physiological activity of:
✓ Cardiac muscle - increased heart beat rate/pulse rate
✓ Respiratory muscle - increased breathing rate
✓ Liver - increased breakdown of glycogen to release more glucose into the blood.
✓ Eye - pupil size dilates to allow more light enters the retina

• The result of the above activity are:

✓ blood supply to muscle and brain increased
✓ more oxygen able to supply to muscle and brain
✓ more glucose available for aerobic respiration at muscle and brain
✓ able to see clearly to determine what is the next point of action.
✓ The muscle will be able to contract faster to prepare to run away or put up a fight.
✓ The brain will be alert of the dangerous situation and can find ways to escape from
the dangerous situation

(B) Sex Hormone

1. Two types of sex hormones :
(i) Male: Testosterone hormone
• Produced by testis, carry by blood to muscle, bone, etc.
• Allowed secondary sexual characteristics development:
❖ Taller, masculine, widen shoulder, enlarged and matured testes, produce sperm

(ii) Female: Oestrogen and Progesterone hormone

• Produced by ovary and carry by blood to hips, breasts.
• Allowed secondary sexual characteristics development:
❖ Hip widen, developed breast, enlarged and matured ovary, produce ovum.

2. Abused of artificial sex hormone as drugs in sport

Hormone Effect on Body Effect on Sporting performance

Anabolic steroids Increase growth of muscle. Increases strength and power:weight ratio,
Reduce fat content of body useful in “explosive” sports such as sprinting
and shot putting.
Cortisone Repair of damaged tissues Allow rapid recovery after intensive training

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 testosterone Stimulates male’s Aggression can be important in contact sports
aggressive behavior like rugby

(c) Pancreatic Hormone – Insulin and Glucagon

• This pair of hormone is responsible to maintain a constant level of blood glucose – carry out
homeostasis.
• Insulin and glucagon are produced by pancreatic cell.
• These hormones will be carried by blood according to blood glucose level (high /low) to targeted
organ – liver.
• Liver cell in response to the hormone will:
➢ If High blood glucose level, liver cell will response to insulin, to decrease blood glucose level back
to normal
➢ If Low blood glucose level, liver cell will response to glucagon, to increase blood glucose level back
to normal.

14.3.3 Comparison of Endocrine system and Nervous System

Nervous system Aspect Endocrine system

Electrical impulse signal Chemical - hormone
neurone Medium carry signal Blood
faster Speed of action Slower
effector Organ that respond One or more organ
Fast and brief Duration of effect Action last longer

14.4 Homeostasis

14.4.1 Introduction to homeostasis

1. Homeostasis:
➢ a process of maintaining a constant internal environment within a set limit by using
negative feedback mechanism
2. Negative feedback –
➢ Negative feedback is a type of regulation in biological systems in which the end product of a
process in turn reduces the stimulus of that same process.

3. Types of homeostasis carried out by the body:

1.Control of body temperature (thermoregulation)
2.Control of blood glucose

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3.Control of blood osmotic pressure (osmoregulation)
4.Fight and flight situation

14.4.2 Hormone and Homeostasis

14.4.2.1 Pancreatic Hormone in regulating blood glucose level

➢ Pancreas is the endocrine gland that secrete insulin and glucagon hormone.
➢ Chemoreceptor detect the changes of the blood sugar level and stimulate the pancreas to release
respective hormone into the blood.

Insulin – β cell of Langerhans Glucagon – α cell of Langerhans

Decrease blood sugar level back to normal Increase blood sugar level back to normal
setpoint
Mechanism : Mechanism :
1.Increase uptake of sugar by muscle and liver 1. Breakdown stored glycogen into glucose
cell to carry out respiration to release and release sugar into blood.
energy.
2.Convert excess glucose into glycogen and
stored it in muscle and liver cell.
3.Excess glucose also converted into fat and
stored in adipose tissue

➢ If the regulating of blood glucose level has failed, this will lead to imbalance of blood glucose.
Level.
➢ When blood glucose level is high, it will lead to Diabetes Mellitus

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 ➢ There are two types of Diabetes Mellitus:
✓ Type I Diabetes Mellitus:
▪ the result of the pancreas failing to secrete enough insulin.
▪ treatment : insulin injection
▪ Symptoms : excessive thirst, hunger or frequent urination, sweet-smelling breath, high
overflow of sugar into urine.
▪ Long term effect if untreated: premature ageing, cataract formation, hardening of arteries,
heart disease.

✓ Type II Diabetes Mellitus:

▪ can be controlled by adjusting diet to reduce fat and sugar intake,
▪ take oral medicine and does not require insulin injections.

➢ How to detect blood sugar level? Clinistix

o A thin strip of plastic with a small pad which contain enzyme and dye.
o If glucose is presence in the urine, the glucose is used to change the dye, therefore the pad
will change colour.

14.4.2.2 Thermoregulation

1. Importance of thermoregulation:
✓ Many biological and physical processes are affected by temperature.
✓ Examples: enzymes, cell membranes, diffusion rate of substances, liquids like blood become more
viscous when temperature drops.
✓ Endothermic animal maintains an ideal body temperature by balancing heat losses and heat gains.
✓ Hypothalamus is the temperature controlling centre in the brain, which balance heat production
against heat loss in an endotherm.

2. Skin carry out thermoregulation.

3. Anatomy of skin

4. When the surrounding temperature increase above normal setpoint, corrective mechanism:
✓ Thermoreceptor at the hypothalamus detect the increase temperature.
✓ Impulse send to integrating centre to make decision to increase heat loss.
✓ Increase heat loss:
▪ Sweat gland is being stimulated to release sweat. When sweat evaporated, this provide cooling
effect.
▪ Vasodilation, more blood flow near to the skin. More heat able to lost to the surrounding by
radiation.

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 ▪ Shunt vessel contract to stop blood flow through capillaries. Thus, more blood able to flow to
blood vessel to allow more heat lost to the surrounding.
▪ No adrenaline hormone, muscle is not stimulated to contract. No extra heat is generated from
muscle or liver
▪ Relaxation of hair erector muscles, so that the hair follicle lies flat. This will trap a thin layer of
air. More heat loss to the surroundings by convection.
5. When the surrounding temperature drop and cause our body temperature drop below setpoint,
corrective mechanism is carried out to increase body temperature back to normal.
✓ Thermoreceptor at the skin detect the decrease of temperature.
✓ Impulse send to integrating centre to make decision to keep body warm.
✓ Decrease heat loss, gain heat :
▪ Sweat gland is not stimulated. No sweat is released. Less heat lost to the surroundings by
evaporation.
▪ Muscle contract more frequently – shivering occur to generate heat.
▪ Erector muscle contract, to raise the hair up. This will trap a thicker layer of air. Air is a heat
insulator. This prevent heat loss to the surrounding.
▪ Vasoconstriction of arterioles leading to surface capillaries shunts blood away from skin.

14.5 Tropic Response in plant

14.5.1 Introduction of Plant response

1. Three types :

2. Tropism - A growth response carried out by a plant in response to the direction of a stimulus.
3. A positive response is a growth movement towards the stimulus
4. A negative response is a growth movement away from the stimulus

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 5. Gravitropism is defined as a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from gravity
6. Phototropism is defined as a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the
direction from which light is coming
7. The response of shoot and roots toward gravity and light is different.
8. Shoot has positive phototropism towards light while root has positive gravitropism towards gravity.

14.5.2 Tropism in shoot vs Auxin

1. Auxin is a protein substance synthesize at the tip of the shoot (meristematic tissue).
2. Auxin can diffuse from the tip of the shoot to other regions to cause cell elongation - growth.
3. At the shoot, higher concentration of auxin will cause more cell elongation.
4. Auxin is able to detect light. It will diffuse away from the source of light.
5. Phototropism, unidirectional light and auxin

6. If the light is shine in uniform direction, then the shoot will grow straight upwards due to equal
distribution of auxin concentration at the shoot.
7. If the light is shine in one direction, then the auxin diffuse away from light. Thus, accumulate at the
side away from light. High concentration of auxin will cause the cells at the shaded region elongate
faster than the cells at region facing light – unequal growth rate.
8. Thus, the shoot will bend towards the light and show phototropism.

9. Opaque cap, light cannot pass through, therefore, auxin distribution is even. Shoot grow straight
upwards.

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 10. Transparent cap, light pass through and reach the tip of shoot. Thus, auxin will move and accumulate
away from light. More cell elongate at the shaded region than the region facing light. Thus, it grow
bending towards the light.
11. Gelatine block allowed the auxin formed to diffuse downward and allow the normal cell growth to
occur.
12. Mica will block the diffusion of auxin from reaching the lower region of the shoot. Thus, cell
elongation will not occur.

14.5.3 Gravitropism – shoot and root vs auxin

1. Plant roots grow downwards in the direction of the pull of gravity

2. High concentration of auxin at root will inhibit the elongation of root.
3. When the root/radicle is growing, the auxin produced will diffuse and accumulate at the lower side
of the root due to the pull of gravity.
4. High concentration of auxin will inhibit elongation of the root cells at the base of root but the cells on
the topside of the root is growing normally. Thus, the root will bend downwards.

14.5.3 Uses of plant hormone

(1) Hormone rooting powder – promote root growth in plant cuttings.

(2) Parthenocarpy – seedless fruit is produced, flower produced fruit without undergoes fertilisation. This
reduces the grower’s dependene on pollinating agent.
(3) Weedkillers – synthetic plant hormone 2,4-D
✓ Specifically effective to kill broad-leaved weeds because it will be absorbed but not narrow-leaved
grasses and cereal crops where they absorb less.
✓ Hormones cause the weeds to grow so quickly that they wither and die, and the crop of cereals can
grow better without competition.
(4) Synchronised fruiting – spraying ethylene hormone onto fruits can make them develop at the same rate.
This allows efficient picking of the crop by machine.