Introduction: Aural architecture –balance between visual and acoustic built environment

qualities. Psychological impact of aural architecture on its inhabitants.

PAULINA ALICJA OWCZAREK

ARCH3052_1819_520 Cultural and Contextual Studies

Tutor: Tim Martin

While working on the Design Studio Module project (a Sound Research Centre
connected to a series of spaces dedicated for creating music with the addition of permanent
accommodation units) I have encountered an issue of creating a coherent space that
respects occupants visual and acoustic privacy. A tendency in architectural design leans
towards multipurpose spaces created primarily for their appearance and visual boundaries,
leaving other aspects of space underdeveloped or in extreme cases omitted. Mentioned
other space aspects, introduced and explained further as aural architecture, allow us to
describe holistic space impression and impact on occupying it, people. Lack of balance
between visual and aural space qualities turns a potentially attractive and pleasant
environment into unsustainable and uncomfortable one. Many examples of a built
environment dedicated mostly to a singular purpose, like sound and music, almost
completely disregard visual qualities and focus on adapting its acoustics for predominant
space function. In space where a balance between music and silence is a centrepiece, the
designer should primarily consider acoustic space aspects. However, design studio Sound
Research Centre project consists not only of performance space dedicated to music but also
of multiple, multi-functional spaces as well as housing units and silent meditation spaces.

More and more often touched upon the issue of noise pollution and negative sound
effects on human health and mood, directed me towards a question -what do architects
need to know about aural space properties to propose coherent, sustainable inhabitable
and suitable to work within space? Can visual quality of the space be separated from its
other aspects? Humans possess an ability to perceive sound within the space and use that
skill to navigate and predict hazards. This ability can be also used purely for our
entertainment and pleasure. Architecture deals with space design for eye amusement, it is
an art of creating a suitable and comfortable environment for human beings. We can see
and process visual images almost instantly and subconsciously. The sound however cannot

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be perceived without attention and devotion of time. Space and time are inseparable,
bound together, they create our environment and we cannot perceive them separately – if
we close our eyes, we are still able to hear what is happening around us (Martin 1994, p. 8-
9).

“We live in a culture that readily and pervasively privileges the eye over the ear.”

This essay will analyse basic aspects of aural architecture, trying to answer questions
on how people perceive and are affected by the built environment and what architects can
do to improve the experience of occupants. First two chapters will explain fundamental
properties of sound, approached respectively from a subjective and objective point of view.
Understanding differences and similarities between these approaches will help to determine
which space acoustic qualities are affecting people and should be considered by architects in
the design process. Certain types of sound, classified as noise, after long exposure to them
will cause health issue and irritate space occupants. On the other hand, over the course of
time people learned how to use sound purely for their pleasure – learning from occupied
spaces acoustics human learned how to adjust to the pace itself and to treat it as an
amplification of his voice. Harm and pleasure caused by sound will be explained in chapters
3 and 4. Chapter 5 will portray how discussed laws of science and sound influence on human
psychology can be used within urban and private space. Architects able to notice acoustic
phenomena will have an advantage in perceiving the space. Its visual qualities will no longer
play the key role in space reception- once noticed and understood, aural architecture
became an inseparable element of architecture itself. Architecture has a power to affect
human psychology in both destructive and restorative ways, therefore lack balance between
visual and aural aspects of space can turn architectural masterpiece in an unusable and
uncomfortable for human space. Chapter 6 will continue exploring how the design of space
can affect human wellbeing, psychology and health directly, following by exercise in Chapter
7 demonstrating how gathered knowledge and prosecuted research can be used in practice.
Architects not only shape space around us physically but also along with that they create an
aural environment reflecting sounds, which have a significant impact on humans occupying
given space. This essay is aimed at emphasizing the importance of considering all space
qualities during the design process, considering all space aural qualities, which will allow me
to lay out a set of design guidelines for more sustainable living space.

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 Basic sound definitions. Objective and subjective approach to the sound. Behaviour of
sound in space.

Chapter 1:

Objective approach to the sound.

The objective point of view employs scientific methods to measure and describe the
sound as a physical phenomenon. The sound is produced by motion and contains energy, it
is propagated through a medium required to convey its motion energy from the source to
the listeners’ ear. The medium can consist of gas, liquid or solid, it will also determine the
speed with sound travels, and therefore sound does not travel through a vacuum (Josephs
1967, p.15). Upon a collision of its wavefront with a surface sound can be absorbed,
transmitted or reflected. To understand how we can make use of the sound and acoustics in
the design process, understanding of basic sound physics principles is required.

Diagram 1. Sound perception.

Sound, from Oxford English Dictionary, is described as “the sensation produced in the
organs of hearing when the surrounding air is set in vibration in such a way as to affect
these; also, that which is or may be heard; the external object of audition, or the property of
bodies by which this is produced. Hence also, pressure waves that differ from audible sound

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only in being of a lower or a higher frequency.” (OED Online, Oxford University Press, March
2019)

To precisely describe acoustic phenomenon occurring in spaces following physical sound

properties definitions will be explained and used:

-Sound reflection

-Sound refraction

-Sound diffraction

Sound reflection

Reflected sound changes direction of its wavefronts accordingly to the law of sound
reflection, similarly to light reflection. The incident sound is reflected by a surface, reflection
angle is equal to the angle of incidence and the reflected sound, the incident sound and the
normal sound belong to the same plane. Surface reflecting sound can vary in size and
texture, can be solid or liquid (https://byjus.com/physics/sound-reflection/).

Diagram 2. Law of light and sound reflection.

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The sound heard after reflection from a rigid surface is called echo. This phenomenon is
used by animals, SONAR radars but also humans to navigate within the space and detect
obstacles.

Diagram 3. Echolocation.

Curved surfaces act like acoustic mirrors, using the echo phenomenon to amplify, focus and
direct soundwave; their functional principle is identical to the law of light reflection.

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 Diagram 4. Functional Principle of Acoustic Mirrors.

Sound refraction

Refraction of the sound occurs when the speed of the waves in the two adjacent media are
not the same. The speed of sound depends on gaseous medium properties like temperature
and gas density. Sound refraction can be observed in nature – when we make a sound over
a frozen lake it can be audible even in a great distance. This is due to the fact, that ice
surface reflects sound upwards. Since air is slightly warmer than ice surface, a sound is
refracted and directed back towards the reflective surface of the iced lake (Josephs 1967,
p.16-17).

Diagram 5. “Echoing” voice over the ice surface – phenomenon of reflection and refraction.

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Sound diffraction

Diffraction occurs when the sound wave is bending around an obstacle without casting a
completely sharp acoustic shadow. It means, that we still can hear the sound from behind
an obstacle, but its intensity will be decreased. Due to the nature of obstacle material, we
may also be able to hear only certain frequencies not absorbed by the obstacle. Bending of
the sound is dependent on wavelength- longer waves have bigger “region of shadow”, in
consequence, we can detect the sound further away from its source behind an obstacle
(Josephs 1967, p. 18).

Diagram 6. Sound diffraction.

Sound diffraction can be also observed in our close environment when we listen to music
from a loudspeaker. Low-pitched sounds with long wavelength are heard far away from the
speaker axis while the high-pitched sound is heard only near the speaker axis. Home cinema
loudspeaker systems employ these laws to create the effect of surrounding sound, using
two different kinds of speakers – long-wavelength woofers and short-wavelength clusters of
speakers (tweeters) arranged in a shape of a fan to spread out the sound throughout the
space evenly (Josephs 1967, p.19).

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 Diagram 7. Sound directionality for different frequencies.

Chapter 2:

Subjective approach to sound. When does sound become noise?

Subjective noise definition requires a subject able to hear, process and judge the
sound. This point of view may be based on individual, social or cultural aspects. Further, it
can be determined, if the sound is expected, desirable or unexpected and annoying
(Thompson, 1987, p. 22-23). A person actively listening to the sound is usually expecting to
receive information contained within the sound to process. If the sound is illegible,
unexpected, unwanted, or does not carry any information whatsoever, the affected listener
will categorise it as a noise (Graham 2004, p.24). The sound is unavoidable, every place has
its own characteristic soundscape. Multiple various sound events build a complex acoustic
personality of the place. Attitude and psychology of the listener, as well as an individual
approach to listenin tog itself, can diametrical change space perception (Torgue, Augoyard
2006, p.4). Sometimes the soundscape contains a sound with an unknown to the listener
source – this phenomenon may make the noise threatening, even more, irritating or
fascinating (Thompson, 1987, p. 29). Low-frequency sounds are especially hard to localize
due to their physical properties – easily diffracted they create a broad acoustic shadow.

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Listener experience irritating sound as he would be immersed in it, without a chance to
escape it (Schafer-Murray 1994, p. 116). The human mind has an ability to recognise
repeating patterns within a soundscape assigning them a meaning. If repeating sounds are
not comparable to each other their meaning will be less significant or even not significant at
all to the listener. It is proven, that the presence of certain patterns in the acoustic
environment help occupants to identify the environment soundscape regardless of its visual
image. The more articulated the sound signal the better space soundscape will be
remembered and associated with certain emotions (Meyer 1956, p. 160).

Sound perception is also depending on the listener’s cultural background. Aural

architecture can cause both positive and negative feelings, like excitement, pleasure,
tranquillity, anxiety or fear. Cultural exposure to a class of sounds predominantly influences
listeners, allowing them to tolerate sounds otherwise irritating and potentially harmful
(Blesser, Salter 2007, p.11,13). Furthermore, regardless of cultural background, people with
musical education belong to a group that is easily affected and more sensitive to sound. In
case of musical training, an untutored listener will be able to distinguish different tones and
intervals less accurately than a musician with professional training, knowledge of music
theory and high awareness of acoustic cues (Pierce 1983, p.80). Acquired sound sensibility
will play a significant role in sound environment perception, it results from the newly
created connections in the brain (Blesser, Salter, 2007, p.36). To the group of individuals
with increased sound sensibility belongs also introverts and people suffering from mental
health issues.

Perception of the sound is very subjective, as people sense and understand space
empirically, not through scientific definitions and measurement. In order to discuss space
acoustics present in architecture subjective approach to sound will be more relevant.
Scientific sound description will be needed to explain extraordinary acoustic phenomena not
associated or caused by a human factor, it will be also applicable when the designed space
will be given a predominant function associated with music and focused on sound quality
itself.

Concept of the aural architecture and psychological approach to acoustic qualities of

space.

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 Applied acoustic or acoustics designs are related to scientific fields describing how
sound acts in space. The term “aural architecture” was introduced in by Barry Blesser and
Linda-Ruth Salter in their book “Spaces speak, are you listening?” as a description of the
composition of various sonic events taking place in a specific environment. Aural
architecture describes how sounds from different sources interact with space and affect the
listener and his perception of given space (Blesser, Salter 2007, p.2). Humans subconsciously
respond to architecture that they have created. Their mood can be changed accordingly to
their surroundings: impression of sacred, religious space will be different from open fields or
forests- one will create a feeling of intimacy, other will release the feeling of freedom
(Blesser, Salter 2007, p.2). Aural architecture can also determine if space will be social or
private. Choice of materials reflecting sound in a living room may diametrically change the
perception of the room- polished stone tiles will amplify noise made by a person entering a
room, while thick carpet will dampen the sound and create muted and inviting atmosphere.
Aural architecture adds an additional layer to the visual meaning of the space and reinforces
it if it’s mutually supportive. However, a badly adjusted aural experience can create
dissonance between acoustic and visual impression and lead to a feeling of uneasiness and
psychological tension (Blesser, Salter 2007, p.3). Acoustic environment without a population
being able to understand and process sound present within is deprived of its meaning. Loss
of meaning may be caused by listeners’ cultural irrelevance, lower sound awareness and
lack of an ability to notice acoustic cues (Blesser, Salter 2007, p.46).

Along with the term aural architecture, authors of the book “Spaces speak, are you
listening” introduced the concept of sound arenas and sound communities. New terms like
acoustic horizon and acoustic arena describe accordingly a distance between a sonic event
source and its boundary where it no longer can be heard, and an area where the listener can
hear a sound produced by a sonic event. Background noise shapes sizes of acoustic arenas
and horizons – the louder it is, the smaller these arenas are, which determines how well can
listener hear and receive a message carried by sound. Aural architecture is the main factor
determining how big acoustic arenas are – sound insulated and dampened room or thick
walls will expand acoustic arena radius, the same room with reflective, polished surfaces can
also produce echo and reverberation, thereby reducing acoustic arena and making
information carried with sound illegible. If within given area occurs an unexpected sonic

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event which is louder than soundscape of that arena, all acoustic arenas areas will
dynamically change. The aural architecture relies on occupants present in the space,
determining its character through their social interactions, thereby connecting disciplines of
psychology and architecture (Blesser, Salter 2007, p.23, 26).

Members of acoustic communities can easily alter and “escape” sound arenas
affecting them. To achieve aural privacy, no physical or visual boundaries are needed.
Acoustically dead zones occurring in space due to its physical qualities (sound mirrors, sound
dampening) can provide a sense of complete separation and privacy as well as a limit
personal sound horizon. The listener can escape a sound arena through the headphones to
mask other sonic events with a sound of greater volume (Blesser, Salter 2007). Use of
headphones creates the ultimate experience of private space, the listener is completely
excluded from the acoustic environment. Moreover, he becomes able to control to a certain
extent property of his acoustic arena, newly created environment is exclusively available for
him only (Murray-Schafer, 1994, p. 118).

Chapter 3:

Unwanted sound. Noise pollution as an issue of modern cities. Harmful effects caused by
long exposure to irritant acoustic stimuli.

As explained in previous chapters, sound can be defined from a subjective point of view
based on personal preferences or can be objectively measured and scientifically described.
Sound affects a certain individual, who has an ability to classify it as noise. This kind of
unwanted, irritating sound can affect listener mental comfort. Constant exposure to noise
can reduce listener attention to acoustic cues, which may be anticipated and contain
important and desired information (Graham 2004, p.36). Lack of ability to decipher that
information or change the acoustic environment is one of the reasons why noise may be
irritating. Awareness, that one cannot control the sound, escape from it and change it;
especially in spaces where different kind of soundscape was expected; will also cause

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excessive stress. Due to constant technology development, city soundscape and
environmental noise became a major issue of industrial revolution and its consequences are
still visible in our modern cities, causing nowadays many health issues. Sounds generated by
machines and vehicles conceals previously common sounds of nature and human activities
(Graham 2004, p.103). Due to the overwhelming, unavoidable environment noise, we are no
longer able to control sound as easily as before the industrial revolution. Right to silence
became exclusive. Moreover, artificial noise frequencies are unnatural and more irritating
for the human ear, usually also louder than sounds caused by nature and human activities
not employing modern technology. Sound can be used for human pleasure as well as can
cause negative effects like irritation and annoyance- long exposure to unwanted sound may
lead to serious mental health consequences. To categorize sonic events, we can define them
from two different points of view – subjective and objective.

Long-term exposure to environmental noise is also associated with a neurocognitive

function, mood disorder and neurodegenerative disease (S. 50 Dreger et al. / Environmental
Research 143 (2015) 49–54). Research performed in Germany among school children
analysed the correlation between long-term exposure to environmental noise and mental
health problems. The study population consisted of 1185 children questioned aged between
5 and 6 years old (parental questionnaire evaluable), questioned again after 4 years at age
9-10 (parental and child questionnaire evaluable). Research questions applied to
environmental noise caused by road traffic, neighbours, aircraft, construction work, rail
traffic, industry, restaurant, sports facilities and playground, assessed separately for day and
night time (S. 50 Dreger et al. / Environmental Research 143 (2015) 49–54). The study
showed, that children exposed to increased noise levels were more likely to be hyperactive,
have peer-relation, conduct or emotional problems. Among all environmental noise sources,
traffic noise was the main risk factor for children’s incident mental health problems,
followed by neighbour’s noise. Construction work and aircraft noise had an infinitesimal
impact on children’s health, therefore a major role plays noise source, not just the noise
itself (S. 52 Dreger et al. / Environmental Research 143 (2015) 49–54).

Different study regarding negative sound effects of human health, performed by Wolfgang
Babisch, pointed out that excessive noise can affect stress hormones levels if the subject
would be exposed to irritating stimuli for an extended period. Physiological stress is

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associated with prevalence or incidence of diseases (Babisch, 2002). The biggest issue is a
disturbance of concentration, relaxation or sleep. In order to prevent negative effects on
human health and predict how people can be affected by place aural qualities, architects
should not only consider matters like age, gender or occupants cultural background but also
their prospective subjective noise sensibility, illnesses and negative affectivity (Babisch,
2002). It is also significant which hours of the day are intended for tasks requiring increased
focus as well as hours dedicated for recreational activities producing excessive noise. It is
the noise source that causes the most harmful effects, not only the high sound level itself.

Chapter 4:

Sound for human pleasure- background of acoustically extraordinary spaces.

Sound can be the source of irritation as well as the source of pleasure. Importance of
aural space qualities was evolving over time. Winston Churchill in his speech to Parliament
said: “We shape our buildings, and afterwards our buildings shape us” (1934). The history
allows us to see how space primarily adjusted to human needs became the factor changing
its own creators. That space created mostly unconsciously became a factor that drove
humanity forward and became our inspiration.

In prehistoric times acoustically extraordinary spaces were found in nature in various

forms like caves and other enclosed spaces, which further became places used by primordial
people as sacred worship points. Echoing voices reminded them of spirits and ennobled
chanting of shamans, enriching their spiritual experiences. Archaeologists discovered
paintings preserved on Lascaux cave walls that proved that people were aware of these
specific acoustics, recognised and learned how to make use of them. Cave with strong

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echoes, reflecting and amplifying low-frequency sounds was associated with rumbling sound
of animal steps, thus it was decorated with paintings of bison; similarly, caves lacking
prominent reverberation and echo was decorated with drawings of felines (Blesser, Salter
2007, p.75).

Later, ancient buildings devoted to deities were supposed to be visually appealing

and to remind worship places found in nature. The acoustics of enclosed spaces of stone
buildings had similar aural qualities to these in natural caves, reverberation present inside
was creating a spiritual mood for praying visitors. However, it was never intended to create
a space with certain acoustics – sound was considered as something sacred and divine, no
one at the time was able to define it and fully consciously recreate. When people noticed
these space acoustic qualities, they had begun to intentionally recreate that aural
experience in newly built sacred buildings. Priests became more aware of these sound
qualities and have also adapted and learned how to use them in order to affect worshippers
even more significantly (Blesser, Salter 2007, p.92). People started to realise, that
appropriate voice manipulation brings power and can remarkably affect others. Ancient
Greeks through multiple trials and mistakes managed to create large open spaces for
speeches and plays, accommodating thousands of people. At this point, certain space
acoustics became desired to serve strictly for human pleasure.

A few centuries later, in medieval times, perception and expectations of sacred

space changed. Tall, horizontal spaces within churches were meant to bring praying people
closer to their gods. More conscious and intentional space design introduces humanity to
new, earlier unreachable aural space qualities. Acoustic of these spaces were still mostly
accidental and eventuated from the necessity of building out of hard, weatherproof
materials, resistant to very common at that time fires. Long reverberation times caused by
flat stone surfaces worked perfectly with Gregorian chanting and created an unearthly
experience for listeners, which enhanced their spiritual feeling as they would have found
themselves in the earthly house of their deity. Similarly to previous cases, unconsciously and
accidentally created, brand new space acoustics were noticed and started to influence
people who created the building itself. A new purpose of spaces became more popular- a
space designed for music and artistic performance (Blesser, Salter 2007, p.94).

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 Diagram 8. Evolution of space for artistic performances.

A musically trained man was able to notice more subtle acoustic cues and was also
more vulnerable to the soundscape of a given place. It allowed him to analyse and use it as
an extension of his voice in order to create a spiritual ambience. Because of which space
aural quality gained an additional layer of cultural importance, additional meaning, it is a
constant correlation between a human being and space that he created. Space acoustics
and more precisely aural architecture became a very important part of our daily life. Strictly
musical space, however, fulfils a different function than any other space. It was meant to be
an extension of musical instruments or human voice rather than “an independent
manifestation of aural architecture” itself, its acoustics served as a tool for composers and
musicians to enrich the performance. Without music, musical space would be deprived of
the meaning behind its form (Blesser, Salter 2007, p.7). In space strictly dedicated to music,
the interaction between the composer, the performer and the audience creates its aural
exceptional atmosphere. Public, multi-purpose spaces do not have composers or the
performers- the audience takes over the function of composer and performer. Architecture
is reflecting human behaviours, individuals creating the audience are an inseparable part of
the architecture and without them, it would lose its sound and become dead. Humans hear
not only with their ears but with entire bodies. Science explained how different sound
frequencies can literally affect our bodies. It can be witnessed while listening to the place
soundscape – low-pitched sounds can be sensed as vibrations in our bodies while high-
pitched scratching noise can make our skin crawl (Martin, 1994, p. 41).

Aside from music, human pleasure can also draw from lack of sound- a silence.
Opposite to sound, it represents a strong aspect of space acoustics. Silence requires

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collaboration within a community -all space occupants have to remain silent, as even the
weakest sound will end the silence. Besides, it can be used as a powerful tool in politics as a
manifestation of power. Silence is a subjective term. An environment, subjectively peaceful
and quiet may not be silent measured from a scientific point of view – for example, a forest
or an open field away from the city will comprise restorative aural environment for humans,
even if the sound volume is high. This thesis refers to previously mentioned experiments,
that not the sound volume but source matters the most. Moreover, it is proven that the
proximity of nature helps humans to relax and recover quicker than a loud environment
affected by artificial noises.

Silence has a special meaning for humans, it allows us to regenerate our minds and
raise our awareness of our surroundings. “Sanctuaries” of peace hidden in the forest or
mountains, hard to reach places of refuge serve people to renew their energy and spiritual
composure away from problems of their daily life. At the later time, when cities became
bigger and more developed the number of intimate hideouts decreased. They have been
limited to places like churches, libraries or private houses to hide from busy city life.
Nowadays, when the silence was lost we have learned to appreciate it. Over the course of
history, it was sacrificed in the name of technology progress and mechanization. Some
traditions celebrating holy days dedicated to religious and secular traditions encourage
people to decrease the amount of produced sound. For human mind silence, like an empty
canvas, favour calmness and reflection on life (Murray-Schafer, 1994, p. 253-254).

Silence serves also as a tool to commemorate and pay tributes. When an acoustic
community collaborates and remains silent over time, the meaning of any sound
interrupting silence will be increased, becoming powerful and significant. As an example,
ringing church bells during ceremonies will carry an additional layer of aural complexity-
they will no longer serve just as an announcement of upcoming mass or meeting. Unusual
time and purpose of their use will be able to awake deeper emotions shared within given
acoustic community (Murray-Schafer, 1994, p. 255) Silence is a powerful tool that became
diminished over the course of history. In modern city soundscape, consisting of high-
intensity sounds generated by artificial sources, silence is even harder to find. Places of
tranquillity are disappearing from the public realm, people become forced to put a
significant effort into the preservation of acoustic privacy in their homes. This change can be

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noticed through observation of progressing soundproofing material development, which
became easily available for professional as well as commercial use.

To sum up, high levels of sound pollution led us to inconceivable circumstances,

where the possibility of a noisy city becoming suddenly quiet would cause a serious
disturbance. Whole acoustic community belonging to the city’s acoustic arena would notice
that change immediately. It would rise to a variety of powerful feelings, both positive and
negative. Such a sudden change in the soundscape may cause the silence to be perceived as
an oppressive factor whereas usually, it used to be perceived as a sign of freedom. In a
subjectively quiet environment, where background noise was minimised, even the subtlest
sonic event will reach wide acoustic community thus acoustic arenas of its members will
become significantly enlarged. As a result, individuals will be forced to pay more attention
to their acoustic environment and become more conscious and aware of the surroundings,
due to the fact that human hearing is especially sensitive to changes in sound. In an
otherwise loud environment, the same sonic events would remain unnoticed by the
majority of people (Murray-Schafer, 1994, p. 259). If our ability to perceive space visually
becomes limited, we focus our attention on the aural space qualities, thus our sound
perception becomes more space oriented.

How sound is affecting occupants of the space and what consequences it causes?

Changing over time perception of musical sound and architecture affected their
existing definitions, however, the meaning was not completely erased but blurred due to
the course of time. Modern society must learn how to break down cultural barriers created
along with the process of its evolution, separating music audience from architecture
audience. Architecture is a broad subject which weaves and incorporates together various
subjects, each of them is equally important in the perception of the holistic image of given
space. Seamless integration of numerous fields of study ties architecture with art, science
and human psychology. Due to its complexity, created aural environment will affect us and
our mental states regardless of our will (Martin, 1994, p. 9, 11).

Power of aural properties of the space is hidden within its ability to “tie a person in
the sound of a room” (Martin, 1994, p. 27). The room itself serves almost as an extension to

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a human body – enclosed space can amplify sounds that we make- footsteps, speech and
sound of breathing might become both even more audible and prominent or dissolve and
disappear, changed by the absorptive finish materials. The connection between human
presence and architecture through an acoustic medium makes a place more humane
thereby allowing us to “experience ourselves” within the space, we create and occupy
(Martin, 1994, p. 27).

Design for the predominant use of space.

An exception to mentioned earlier rules is the case, where space is dedicated strictly
to certain activities. Depending on space predominant function, designers often prioritize
certain space attributes in the design process to accommodate introduced needs. As an
example, a person designing a music venue, or a concert hall will prioritize and focus on
space acoustics design since the designed space is meant to be an extension of musical
instruments, likewise, a garden designer will consider scents as important and valuable as
interesting views.

However, while designing spaces without preliminarily defined functions, designers

depend mostly on its visual aspects and their focus is not directed towards space qualities
affecting all senses- it is visible most often in the case of urban and public spaces designs.
Architects relying heavily on visual balance and aspects of the space, often overlook the fact
that individuals occupying given space are experiencing it through more than one, single
sense (Graham 2004, p.24). People do not experience space only visually, but they perceive
it as an accumulation of various events affecting their senses. Space can be perceived
consciously when the listener is aware of sounds and their sources; or unconsciously, when
the listener senses the space as a whole and treat it as a holistic experience (Blesser, Salter
2007, p.70). An old church will have acoustics with a mystical character, a sound of
Gregorian chanting, reflecting and reverberating will lead praying people into the spiritual
state and enrich their aural experience. Similar acoustic qualities were present in caves,
where echoing sounds, reflected and distorted, appeared to the listener as unfamiliar
voices, later becoming places of prayers and rituals of primordial tribes. In these cases, the
person will not be able to distinguish sounds separately, but rather perceive them as results
of sonic events. The sound will act as a medium transporting information about the event to

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the listener's ear (Blesser, Salter 2007, p.15). To experience the space, we must use all our
senses simultaneously, otherwise, the image is incomplete and may be misleading.

Chapter 5:

Applying rules of acoustics and aural architecture in urban and private space -how type,
volume and frequency of the sound affects listeners psychology directly.

In the urban scale, constructed spaces can also divide acoustic arenas. This dynamic
phenomenon called a “cut out” can be perceived by a listener moving through urban space.
If the listener is passing by an opening to a busy street, he will notice acoustic cue about the
sonic events presents on that street without seeing it. Change in the sound intensity will
allow localizing precisely where the street entrance is located (Torgue, Augoyard 2006, p.
30). Cut-outs to a certain extent create invisibly, but audible boundary in the space. Human
hearing is particularly sensitive to changes in the perceived environment as they raise our
alertness in order to be prepared for the unknown event. That stimuli can help us
remember the city urban landscape better through collective engagement of our senses,
adding another symbolic and effective layer to the urban progression (Torgue, Augoyard
2006, p.34).

Diagram 9. Cut out effect.

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The most extreme case of a cut-out effect is a “dead zone” – a point, where due to the law
of reflection no sound is directed after being reflected by a surface. Sound mirrors can cause
confusion as the sound source may appear to be in a completely different place than it is
originally located.

Diagram 10. Sound reflection – sound mirror phenomena (Barron, 2010, p. 22).

Cut out effect can be reinforced by enclosed space like a narrow street or adjacent to the
opening room. The reverberated sound will create an echo, depending on space properties
it will be audible with a certain delay.

Diagram 11. Reverberation within an enclosed space (Barron 2010, p. 17).

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Materials used within a given space will act like pictured above spaces explaining laws of
sound reflection, but on a smaller scale. Porous, rough materials are more prone to absorb
sound whereas polished, solid, flat surfaces will act as a mirror for light.

Diagram 12A. Acoustically reflective materials: complex and simple object surface.

Diagram 12B. Acoustically absorbent materials: complex and simple object surface.

21
 Diagram 13. Sound reflection and dampening in urban scale.

Another phenomenon present in the urban and industrial acoustic environment is a

constant layer of certain stable pitch called “drone” – dull, continuous sound, usually
produced by mechanical devices or industrial activities. Good examples are a nearby
motorway and hum of cars, manufactures, building ventilation equipment or simply a
turned-on radio. The last example is a change of the background sound, concealing either
silence or another irritating sound. Frequency and volume of these sounds, if exceeded a
certain threshold, may significantly affect mental activities of space occupants. Low
frequencies are often associated with danger, sadness or melancholy. White noise is a type
of an artificial background sound that helps to mask unwanted sound or minimise personal
sound arenas, thereby increasing space privacy (for example background music in a
restaurant, masking conversation of guests sitting next to the adjacent table, maintaining
the intimate experience of dining together). Its characteristic broad-band frequency covers
almost entire audio range; hence it is used nowadays as an “acoustic perfume” in most
occupied by people enclosed public spaces (Murray-Schafer, 1994, p. 135, 146). Similarly, to
cut-outs present in the urban space, humans are sensitive to changes in drone frequency
and can predict what kind of space may create such sounds (Torgue, Augoyard 2006, p. 41-
42).

Frequencies of the sound can be modified in order to adjust their character to

occupants needs. For example, frequencies can be filtrated to reinforce or weaken them or
be completely masked by corresponding frequency. Various building and finish materials

22
can absorb or reflect certain frequencies, thus aural qualities of the space can be
determined at a very early stage of the design process (Torgue, Augoyard, 2006, p. 49).
Masking, however, aims to make the soundscape uniform and pleasant for majority space
occupants. Louder sounds naturally mask weaker ones, thus stronger sound becomes the
masker (Pierce 1983, p.120). The more complex existing environment noise, the more
complex masking noise will be required to conceal it due to the fact, that masking frequency
must be similar to the noise source frequency, thus it will require a broad-band masker.
Masking is common technique applied in workspaces -changes in the frequency and
unexpected sonic events are the most disrupting for human hearing, therefore
homogeneous soundscape is desired in spaces to promote productivity and mental comfort
(Torgue, Augoyard 2006, p. 66-67).

Diagram 14. Sound masking with another sound of corresponding frequency.

In enclosed spaces, like buildings, rooms or narrow streets we can observe introduced
phenomena more closely and experience them directly. Knowledge of basic laws of science
gives designers an ability to identify them and understand how their design decisions may
affect aural architecture along with its occupants.

Chapter 6:

23
 Balance between visual and aural aspects of space. Successful and unsuccessful use of
scientific sound properties and aural architecture rules.

The balance between visual and aural space properties is the key to achieve
coherent, sustainable space fully serving its function. This paragraph by the example of
Sydney Opera House and other spaces selected due to their peculiar aural qualities will
illustrate issues that may result from a lack of said balance and improper approach to
architectural and aural design.

Sydney Opera House is considered one of the most significant and iconic buildings
due to the technology used during the design process and construction works. Use of
computer technology to achieve complex shell shaped roofs pushed boundaries of
architecture forward. However, the project was approached with a focus on visual design
ideas like “additive” aspect of building elements or technical construction details, rather
than on holistic project attitude. Concept project for the Sydney Opera House was selected
through anonymous competition. Design from the very beginning was judged accordingly to
its visual qualities appealing the most to the jury. Investors appointing architects do not
have the ability to properly read architectural projects, as most architects do. Moreover,
without basic architectural education and awareness of aural architecture importance,
investor choice is based purely on project visual aspects, deprived of other space
characteristics that are impossible to experience through a two-dimensional drawing.
Design choice based on the visual, incomplete picture of the project may lead to
commissioning an architect that is not able to build his designs, delivering a building that
despite its appearance might not work or choosing something impossible to build (Murray,
2004, “Introduction”).

Consequences eventuating from encountered difficulties during the development

process, financial problems and lack of holistic approach to the design arising from
collaboration issues between architects led to significant flaws of Sydney Opera House. After
completion, despite its iconic status, the building required expensive improvements and
alterations within musical spaces. Acoustic issues and inappropriate reverberance of concert
halls made impossible to achieve acoustics favourable for musicians and their instruments,
thereby decreasing desire to compose and perform for that particular space.

24
 Recording studios are another example of space which due to its function was
deprived of visually appealing qualities. Design of rehearsal or recording rooms is strictly
dictated by laws of physics, any kind of “decoration” would affect sound reflections,
whereby this kind of space can be treated as testing grounds for acoustic equipment
examination and acoustic experiments. If the recording room would change its purpose,
how would it affect people spending time in that room? Considering experiments performed
in the anechoic chamber it can be said that in space deprived of complex aural aspects,
where similarly to recording studios all surfaces are absorbing sound, people will feel
pressure and discomfort after occupying given space for too long. Similar negative impact
on human psychology is shared by both spaces (Blesser, Salter 2007, p. 18).

Figure 1. Anechoic chamber interior (Source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber,
accessed on 19.03.2019)

A w a r e n e s s , t
more
sensitive to aural architecture. Space should be adjusted
to its purpose, occupants needs and preferences and time,
that people will spend within, however lack of balance
between function and visual qualities can result in
unsustainable space which will negatively affect human
wellbeing and change perception of the
environment. Spaces lacking sustainability would be less
eagerly visited and eventually may become
abandoned and derelict, contributing towards a negative
environment image.

Figure 2. Single person recording studio interior (Source: https://sites.google.com/site/yfmrecording/, accessed

on 19.03.2019)

25
 Chapter 7:

Applying aural architecture principles in design studio exercise.

In my personal design studio exercise, aural architecture and noise pollution issues
must be carefully considered. The project site is situated in Kulturforum, Berlin, Germany,
next to the main road which is gradually becoming busier due to the increasing density of
developments. This area is dedicated to the establishment of cultural developments in the
western part of the city. Majority of Berlin was destroyed during World War II and rebuilt
with a modern city concept in mind- inhumane scale buildings and wide streets adapted to
increasing numbers of cars negatively affected its inhabitants and resulted in irritating aural
qualities of space. The aim of the design studio exercise is to create new public and private
places with restorative qualities. The city centre is lacking green spaces that would allow
citizens to rest and relax. Allowing oneself to take a break from irritating stimuli will benefit
from improving the state of its mental health.

Inspired by adjacent to site neglected sculpture garden and church proposed design
intends to create a sustainable sound barrier fencing existing facilities. Project philosophy is
aiming to highlight the presence of St. Matthews Church which is the only construction
survived World War II, a forgotten genius loci of Kulturforum. Moreover, it is also a
significant landmark retaining vanished aural qualities that allowed visitors to slow down,
pray or contemplate and experience tranquillity.

26
Diagram 15. Kulturforum site allocation. Increasing traffic on Potsdamer Strasse is raising environmental noise
levels. Kulturforum area is dedicated to arts and performance thereby decreasing background noise level
should be architect priority as it will enrich site features. Enlarged acoustic arenas and acoustic horizons of
people participating in cultural events will positively affect sonic events reception.

27
Diagram 16. Proposed building layout – two layers of housing units enclosing private atrium thereby reducing
the amount of sound reaching garden and the church.

Diagram 17. Simplified diagram showing allocation of flats for two different groups of occupants. Circulation
areas like corridors facing sound source are additionally soundproofing living spaces. Possibility to choose
preferred acoustic environment may help to reduce negative sound influence.

28
 Design studio exercise allowed me to test gathered knowledge about aural
architecture and test how it would work in a given environment. Proposed Sound Research
Centre is dedicated to people with increased sound sensitivity – musicians, church
community members with musical background and creators of musical instruments.
Defining the community at the beginning of the design development allowed me to organise
space accordingly to predicted needs of occupants. Accommodating needs of a wider
community with members with no shared interests or common preferences may be
impossible and could result in an unsustainable environment oppressing certain groups
within the community.

Chapter 8:

Conclusions

Conducted research study primarily aiming to discuss noise pollution impact on

human psychology led me to concepts of aural architecture and allowed me to understand
the big picture of the issue. Inexperienced architects and architecture students are often
unaware of how their design decisions can affect people moreover without them
architecture would lose its meaning and purpose. The issue of unsuitable space acoustics
and high sound pollution derives from our very basic ability to notice and respond to
changes in surrounding our environment. However, if the change is happening over time,
we may be not able to notice it immediately, nevertheless our bodies still subconsciously
respond to it. Our wellbeing and psychology are thoroughly affected by the environment
which we dwell. To understand why and how we are affected by the space and buildings
surrounding us is to know how phenomenology of aural space works. Cultural context,
psychical design, social and personal meaning are one of the most important factors
changing the perception of the environment (Blesser, Salter 2007, p. 11). Many people are
not able to determine real reasons behind issues like anxiety, depression or increased
irritation, which became more common in the last few decades. Architects should consider
these issues in the design process. Architecture is not only a tool allowing us to create a
visually pleasing image but can also affect us directly through intangible factors. The human

29
ability to perceive spatial characteristics is very complex and it is significantly affected by
aural architecture. To understand surrounding our environment we should approach it a
holistic manner. Aural architecture must be considered as important as visual space
qualities. Basic laws of sound behaviour in space helps to understand sound scientific
aspects and from there we can observe how these phenomena affect us directly. Ability to
change physical space acoustics gives more control over aural architecture. Lack of balance
between these aspects portrayed in Chapter 6 should bring the issue to architects and
architecture student attention- knowledge eventuating from understanding how human
psychology functions provides an opportunity to deliberately tailor the environment to
accommodate needs of a very specific community.

The balance between visually appealing space and space that accommodates other
aural properties is the key to achieve a sustainable environment. Without the necessary
knowledge and awareness of aural architecture issues designed spaces may negatively
affect human wellbeing and psychology. If the wider community would be aware of spatial
complexity and how particular environment elements contribute to holistic impression and
atmosphere of the space, newly created public and private spaces could provide neutral or
even restorative areas within public city realm. Architecture should serve humanity and its
welfare- no matter how appealing our built environment would be, without people, it would
lose its purpose completely.

30
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BARRON, M., 2010. Introduction, Sounds and rooms, Acoustics for the symphony concert hall.
Auditorium Acoustics and Architectural Design. 2010 edn. London: Routledge, pp. 1.

BLESSER, B. and SALTER, L., 2007. Spaces speak, are you listening? experiencing aural architecture.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: London: MIT.

DREGER Stefanie, MEYER Nicole, FROMME Hermann, BOLTE Gabriele. Environmental noise and
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GRAHAM, C., 2004. Designing landscapes for psychological restoration: adding considerations of
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JOSEPHS, J.J., 1967. The physics of musical sound. Princeton; London: Van Nostrand, published for
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MURRAY, P. (2004) The Saga of Sydney Opera House : The Dramatic Story of the Design and
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PIERCE, J.R., 1983. The Science of musical sound. USA: Scientific American Books.

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