Architectural Acoustics

ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND IN A ROOM

1. Introduction
2. Physical properties of sound
3. Behaviour of sound in an enclosure
3.1 Reflection
3.2 Absorption
3.3 Refraction 3.4 Diffusion
3.5 Diffraction
3.6 Transmission
3.7 Reverberation and echo
4. Factors that affect the behaviour of sound in an enclosed space.
5. General Requirements for Speech Intelligibility
6. Some standard architectural-acoustical measures
1.Introduction
• Sound?
Sound can be described as a disturbance or turbulence which passes
through a physical medium in the form of longitudinal waves from a
source to a receiver causing a sensation of hearing
2. Physical properties of sound
• Wavelength of sound
• Period
• Frequency
• Velocity of sound
• Amplitude
• Pitch
• Wavelength of sound – This the • Frequency – This is the number
distance between two pressure of oscillations per second. This is
peaks or valleys, measured in represented with ‘f’ and
metres (m) and represented measured in Hertz (Hz).
with the Greek alphabet ‘l’ • Velocity of sound – This is the
(lambda). rate at which a sound wave
• Period – This is the time taken travels from a source through a
for on complete oscillation. This medium to the receiver. The unit
is measured in seconds(s) and is m/s.
represented with the letter ‘T’.
• Amplitude – This is the distance
between a crest (the highest
point) and a valley (the lowest
point)
• Pitch – it is the highness or
lowness of a tone determined by
the rapidity of the oscillations
producing it.
The materials for enclosure may
be classified into two:
• Those that allow sound rays to

pass through
• Those that do not allow sound rays
to pass through.
 Factors for different behaviour
• Reflection
• Absorption
• Refraction
• Diffusion
• Diffraction
• Transmission
3. ACOUSTICAL INTERACTIONS
 Reflection
• Wavelength of a sound wave is
smaller than the surface of an
obstacle.
• Reflects until the sound energy
reduces to zero
• Depends on the Material
• Angle of incidence(i) = Reflected
rays(r) if the reflector is flat.
Absorption
• Some waves are lost through its
transfer to the molecules of the
barrier.
• Depends on the softness and
hardness of enclosure material.
Refraction
• Bending of sound when it travels
from one medium into another
medium.
• The angle of incidence changes
into an angle of refraction as it
travels into the new medium.
Diffusion
• Scattering of waves from a
surface.
• Depends on the texture and
hardness of the obstacle is
comparable to the wavelength
of the sound.
• Sound will be good when it is
heard in all direction at equal
level.
Diffraction
• When the wavelength of a sound
wave is smaller or equal to the
size of the obstacle, the sound
rays tend to bend round the
edge of the obstacle thereby
turning the edge to a sound
source
Transmission
• Sound wave is carried by
molecules of the obstacle
through vibration and reemitted
at the other side irrespective of
the medium.
• It can be structure borne, air
borne or impact sound
TRANSMISSION LOSS (TM) OF SOUND
• When sound is transmitted from
source or origin to the adjoining
room/ area, reduction in sound
intensity takes place. 60 decibels 40 decibels
• This is known as transmission

loss (TM) TM=60-40=20 DECIBELS.
• Measured in decibels (dB)

Reverberation and Echo • Echo - occurs when the
• Reverberation - This is the reverberation time is long
persistence of sound in an enough to cause a distinct
enclosed space as a result of repetition of the direct sound.
continuous reflection or
scattering of sound after the
source has stopped.
• Reverberation time- The time
taken for the sound pressure
level to diminish to 60 dB or
below its initial value
4. FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE BEHAVIOUR OF
SOUND IN AN ENCLOSED SPACE.
• Reduction in its intensity of sound
• Absorption of direct sound by the
audience
• Absorption of direct and reflected
sound by surfaces
• Reflection of sounds from right-
angled corners (Sound focci &
dead spot)
• Dispersion of the sides of an
enclosure
• Edge diffraction of sound
• Sound shadow
• Primary reflection (<i = <r)
• Panel resonance
The two major factors that affect
sound transmissions are:
• Increased weight per unit area
of panel decreases sound
transmission.
• Increased frequency of incident
sound, decreases sound
transmission.
Besides the mass of the panel, Rigid panels - if a rigid panel is
other factors that can affect struck it will continue to vibrate at
sound transmission include: frequencies determined by its
• Panel stiffness - at very low size, shape, and thickness - this is
frequencies the stiffness (i.e. its "natural frequency" (natural
resistance to deformation) may mode of vibration).
have more effect than its weight.
In this part of the frequency
range insulation is termed
stiffness controlled.
4. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD
ACOUSTICS.
Speech level v/s ambient noise
level
• minimize noise due to air
handling systems and outside
interferences
• the noise level should be 25 dB
or greater
Reverberation time
Reverberation time & Noise Criteria curve
• Reverberation time should remain
within limits as per Indian Standard
Code: 2526-1963.
Sr. RECOMMENDED TIME IN ACOUSTICS
No. SECONDS
1 0.50 to 1.50 Excellent
2 1.50 to 2.00 Good
3 2.00 to 3.00 Fairly good
4 3.00 to 5.00 Bad
5 Above 5.0 seconds Very bad
Direct-to-reverberant ratio
• The ratio between the intensities of
the direct sound and reverberation.
• For reverberation times in excess of
1.5 seconds, the clarity of speech is
a function of both reverberation
time and the ratio of direct-to-
reverberant sound.
4. NOISE CLASSIFICATIONS
From the origin point of view

noise may be of two types:-
• Out door noise.
• Indoor noise.
And noise may also be classified as
• Air borne noise/sound
• Structure borne noises/sound
MODULE-3
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS
1. Introduction
2. Sound absorption coefficient
3. sound absorbing materials
4. porous and non- porous materials
5. pre -fabricated units
6. acoustical plasters
7. acoustical tiles
8. acoustical blankets
1.Introduction
• ACOUSTICS?
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of
all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids
including vibration,sound, ultrasound and infrasound
TYPES OF MATERIALS & EFFICIENCY OF SOUND
ABSORBERS
• SOUND ABSORBERS
• SOUND DIFFUSERS
• NOISE BARRIERS
• SOUND REFLECTORS
SOUND ABSORBERS
These sound absorbing acoustical panels and soundproofing materials are used
to eliminate sound reflections to improve speech intelligibility, reduce standing waves.
• TYPES –
 Acoustical foam panels

 White paintable acoustical wall panels
 Fabric wrapped panels
 Acoustical wall coverings
 Ceiling tiles
 Baffles and banners for ceiling
 Fibre glass blankets and roll
• SOUND ABSORBERS
 Acoustical foam panels

These acoustical foam sound absorbers are used in a wide variety of applications
ranging from Recording and Broadcast Studios to Commercial and Industrial Facilities.
Acoustic foam reduces or eliminates echoes and background noises by controlling the reverberation that sound can
make by bouncing off walls. This type of sound absorption is different from soundproofing, which is typically used
to keep sound from escaping or entering a room. Therefore, acoustic foam are installed in large rooms like churches,
synagogues, concert halls.
• SOUND ABSORBERS
• Stackable Foam
Design enables you to increase thickness quickly by nesting layers
• SOUND ABSORBERS
• Anechoic Wedge
(V-BLOCK WEDGES)
These 12"x12" square polyurethane foam panels are ideal for extreme noise
sources,
low bass noise, impact noise, or for anechoic sound chambers.
Available in standard thickness, with custom thicknesses optional.
The ultimate in energy absorption with 100% echo reduction

• SOUND ABSORBERS
• Standard Polyurethane Foam Patterns

Standard patterns include wedge, pyramid, max wedge for low frequency
absorption, ceiling baffles, bermuda triangle traps for corners, sounds cylinders
free standing absorbers
• SOUND ABSORBERS
• Fire Rated Foam
This kind of Foam Foil Insulation Board consists of AL / XPE / AL… etc multi- layers of obstruction material. It is an
environment friendly product which has good heat preservation and insulation properties. Each layer of the product has
good function on abrasion and tearing resistance. The middle layer (XPE) shows strong ability in moisture barrier, oxygen
reduction and sound insulation. The outer layer (aluminum foil) also has the advantages like reflecting light and heat and
preventing the damages caused by ultraviolet radiation.
• SOUND ABSORBERS
White paintable acoustical wall panels

It is a white acoustical wall panel with a soft textured appearance. The two foot
by one foot dimension provides installers flexibility to mount acoustical panels
around existing objects. In addition to reducing echo and reverberation, these
acoustical panels are used to create unique designs and patterns. The glass fiber
core is faced with a paintable covering. This allows you to match or
complement existing wall colors by applying a light coat of flat or matte spray
paint. To customize the look even further, many local printing companies now
have the capability to produce an image directly to the face of these panels.
∞ Quick & Easy acoustical solution
∞ Soft drywall texture appearance
∞ Create unique patterns
∞ Panel size allows for flexible mounting options
∞ Paintable & Printable finish
• SOUND ABSORBERS
White paintable acoustical wall panels

• SOUND ABSORBERS
Fabric wrapped panels

• Wall Panels
• Ceiling Clouds
• Ceiling Baffles
• Ceiling Tiles
• Broadband Absorber
• SOUND ABSORBERS
Acoustical wall coverings

Installation:
• SOUND ABSORBERS •This material is not factory trimmed. It is
necessary for the installer to cut a straight
Acoustical wall coverings vertical edge
• Acoustical wall fabric is a dimensional fabric that offers •Following the ribbed pattern. All edges
excellent acoustical properties, unmatched fade resistance, and must be butt joined. Do not overcut edges.
Cut material to
a fire/smoke retardant class A rating.
•Desired lengths, allowing for top and
bottom trimming. Wall carpet should be
hung
•Straight up. Do not alternately reverse
Features: Applications: strips.
•Lightweight Acoustic Fabric •Conference Rooms •Apply a premixed heavy duty adhesive
•Easy to install •Theaters directly to the wall, allowing it to dry to
•Class A •Hospitals its maximum tackability
•Passes Corner Burn Test •Municipal •Without it being overly dry.
•Available in Many Colors •Office Partitions (Important!!! Adhesives are ready mixed.
•Durable / Abuse Resistant •Schools Do not dilute)
•Improves Speech Intelligibility •Hallways •Adhesive and do not apply adhesive to
•and more... the back of the wall covering).
•Please be sure to follow instructions as
provided by the adhesive manufacturer.
• SOUND ABSORBERS
Ceiling tiles
• SOUND ABSORBERS
 Baffles and banners for ceiling

• SOUND ABSORBERS
 Baffles and banners for ceiling BANNERS:
•Speech intelligibility is greatly
• Baffles and Banners are designed to solve acoustical problems economically in any large improved and sound intensity levels
cubic volume space such as arenas, gymnasiums, theaters, restaurants, and auditoriums. can be simultaneously reduced by 3 to
Reverberation times that range from 4 to 9 seconds can be reduced to 1/2 to 2 seconds. 12 decibels.
Speech intelligibility is greatly improved and sound intensity levels are reduced •Banners are suspended from ceilings,
simultaneously by 3 to 12 decibels. bar joists or pre-engineered
suspension systems. They are designed
to hang in a horizontal or in a
BAFFLES: catenary fashion using edge stiffeners
• Baffles are an economical way to reduce sound pressure levels and lower reverberation or deck mounted flat with washer
times in large spaces such as gymnasiums, theaters, restaurants, health and fitness clubs, etc. plates
Reverberation times can be lowered from a RT60 of 4 - 9 seconds down to a RT60 of 0.5 - 2
seconds. Speech intelligibility is greatly improved and sound intensity levels can
be simultaneously reduced by 3 to 12 decibels.
•These baffles are easily suspended from existing open truss and pre-
engineered suspension systems. They are designed to hang in a
vertical fashion, allowing free flow of air and integrate exceptionally
well with existing sprinklers, lighting and HVAC systems.
• SOUND ABSORBERS
 Fibre glass blankets and roll
Fiberglass Blankets, Rolls & Panel Curtains combine absorption and barrier material
for use in areas that require tough, flexible materials and provide a surface that can
be wiped clean. These can be great for machine and industrial enclosures
SOUND DIFFUSERS
• TYPES –
Quadra Pyramid Diffuser

Pyramidal Diffuser
Double Duty Diffuser
Quadratic Diffuser
These devices reduce the intensity of sound by scattering it over an expanded

area, rather than eliminating the sound reflections as an absorber would.
Traditional spatial diffusers, such as the polycylindrical (barrel) shapes also
double as low frequency traps. Temporal diffusers, such as binary arrays and
quadratics, scatter sound in a manner similar to diffraction of light, where the
timing of reflections from an uneven surface of varying depths causes
interference which spreads the sound.
• SOUND DIFFUSERS
 Quadra Pyramid Diffuser
This diffuser generates a uniform polar response over a broad frequency range using a
pre-rotated pyramidal pattern to create 16 angles of reflection.
• SOUND DIFFUSERS
•This traditional industry workhorse disperses
sound uniformly over a broad frequency range. A
quick solution to reduce flutter echo.
 Pyramidal Diffuser
• SOUND DIFFUSERS
 Double Duty Diffuser
These Polycylindrical Diffusers do twice the work. They scatter sound and function as a
bass trap.
• SOUND DIFFUSERS
 Quadratic Diffuser
A true quadratic residue diffuser designed for uniform broadband scattering and
reducing High-Q reflections.
NOISE BARRIERS
These materials range from dense materials to block the transmission of airborne
sound to devices and compounds used to isolate structures from one another and
reduce impact noise.
TYPES –
• Barriers
• Composites
• Vibration Control
NOISE BARRIERS
BARRIERS
•Sound barrier materials are used to reduce the transmission of airborne sound. The BlockAid® series of
products include the standard one pound per square foot non reinforced barrier, transparent material
when observation or supervision is required, reinforced vinyl to create a hanging barrier partition.
COMPOSITES
•Composite materials are manufactured from combinations of various materials from open and closed
celled foams to quilted fiberglass and barrier. These products are used to block and absorb sound for
machine enclosures as well as blocking airborne sound and impact noise. Some of these products include
Composite Foams, StratiQuilt Blankets and Floor Underlayment.
VIBRATION CONTROL
•Vibration control products are used to absorb vibration energy and prevent structural noise transmission.
These include vibration damping compounds and vibration pads, isolation hangers, and resilient clips. They
improve sound transmission loss.
• NOISE BARRIERS
 Barriers Vibration Control Composites

FABRICS
Acoustical fabrics are typically used to either absorb sound or as a cover for acoustical
panels. Some fabrics can also be used as a speaker grill cloth or as a finish on other
types of materials.
• TYPES
 SOUND CHANNELS WALL FABRICS

GUILFORD OF MAINE
• FABRICS
SOUND CHANNELS WALL FABRICS
•Acoustical wall fabric is a dimensional fabric that offers excellent acoustical properties, unmatched fade
resistance, and a fire/smoke retardant class A rating. Sound channels® is resistant to moisture, mildew, rot,
bacteria, and is non-allergenic. Produced with no voc’s (volatile organic compounds), ods’s (ozone depleting
substances), heavy metals or formaldehyde, it's the perfect acoustic fabric for offices, classrooms, conference
centers or any area where speech intelligibility is a critical factor.
• FABRICS
GUILFORD OF MAINE
Guilford of Maine® Fabric is and acoustically transparent fabric used to
cover many of our products including acoustical wall panels, diffusers, and
corner traps. Fabric is also sold separately as speaker grill cloth, wall
covering and for other field applications.
Sound insulation ( effects of noise)
• It creates discomfort.
• It has adverse effect on blood pressure , sleep and causes muscular
strains.
• It leads to fatigue and decreases the efficiency of a person.
• It takes away essence of music and speech.
• It disturbs concentration.
• Prolonged exposure to noise may result in temporary deafness or
even nervous breakdown.
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Types of sound insulating materials
• Non porous rigid.
• Porous rigid materials.
• Porous flexible materials.
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• Non porous rigid
• Brick masonry plastered on both sides
• Stone masonry structures
• Concrete structures
• RCC Structures
• Porous rigid materials.

• Light weight concrete
• Cellular concrete
• Gypsum board partitions
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• Non rigid porous flexible materials

• Perforated boards
• Compressed fiber boards
• Pulp boards
• Mineral wool boards
• Acoustic tiles /sheets
• Glass wool
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• Non rigid porous flexible materials

• Cobalt quilt
• Wood wool boards
• Curtains
• Foams
• Celotex boards
• Cane fiber etc.
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Sound insulating techniques
There are some construction techniques also
which are adopted for sound insulation.
• Double wall construction.

• Cavity wall construction.
• False ceiling.
• Hollow block construction.
• Double pane windows.
• Baffle blocks, honey combs etc.
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• Double wall construction .
BOARDS WOODEN STUDS
BOARDS
SOUND ABSORBING BLANKET
WOODEN STUDS
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• Cavity wall construction.
EXTERNAL WALL 13MM CELOTEX OR OTHER INSULATING

PLASTERED BOARD
5CM CAVITY
METAL FLY
BRICK WALL 10CM
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• False ceiling.
REINFORCED CONCRETE ROOF
SUSPENDERS
FALSE CEILING
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• Hollow block construction.
HOLLOW
COMPRESSED CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS
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Typical insulation values for different
type of walls
Sr. TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION APPROX. Average
no. WEIGHT IN TL in dB
Kg/sq. m
1 One brick thick wall that is 20 cm. 485-490 50
2 One and half brick thick wall that is 30 cm. 705-710 53
3 Cavity wall having two leaves each of half 485-490 50-53

brick thickness with 5cm cavity.
4 Cavity wall having two 10 cm thick leaves of 310-312 50

clinker block with 5cm cavity.
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Typical insulation values for different
type of walls
Sr. TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION APPROX. Average
no. WEIGHT IN TL in dB
Kg/sq. m
5 Half brick wall with 13mm thick plaster on 268-270 45
both sides.
6 20 cm thick hollow dense concrete block wall 185 45

with 13 mm thick plaster on both sides.
7 Partition wall made with gypsum wall board 60-70 45

fixed on timber frame work.
8 76 mm thick hollow clay block wall with 13 108-110 36

mm thick plaster on both sides.
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SOUND ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
(1)
The sound absorption coefficient indicates how much
of the sound is absorbed in the actual material. The
absorption coefficient can be expressed as:
α = Ia / Ii
where
Ia = sound intensity absorbed (W/m2)
Ii = incident sound intensity (W/m2)
Absorption coefficient - α
Wall Finishes
Basic Finish Materials
•Finishing can be considered as either interior finishing or exterior finishing, using
materials that may include cladding, doors, windows, exterior trims, paint, and
moldings.
•Exterior finishing may be extended to include sidewalks, patios, decks, parking
areas and even the landscaping that compliments and completes the building.
•While interior finishing will include ceilings, walls, flooring and stairs, it will also
include trim, molding, casing, cabinets, and fixtures that meet the owner’s
requirements and those of the buildings occupants.
Metal Support Assemblies
•Metal support assemblies have more often been found in
commercial applications than residential although this is
rapidly changing as environmental issues influence our
building requirements.
•The cold-formed metal studs are placed at 16” o.c. (on
center) or 24” o.c. to accommodate the width and length
of common sheathing materials often used in the
completion of walls.
•Studs carry the vertical load while sheathing or diagonal
bracing adds strength to the plane of the wall.
•Materials used to finish the wall will determine the fire-
resistance rating of the assembly.
Ceiling Support Systems
•Metal lath is also used to finish ceilings, as furred metal lath
attached to steel joist or as metal lath suspended from steel
joists.
•When using the first method consideration must be given to
the deflection and movement of the structure to prevent
cracking of the plaster ceilings.
•In the second method, the metal lath is supported by framing
channels and furring channels suspended with wire hangers
from the roof.
•The channels are usually spaced up to 4” o.c. perpendicular to
the joists and the lath is attached to the channels.
Lath and Plaster
•Plaster is one of the oldest materials known to be used as a building
material.
•Some tools used to apply plaster include, floats, screeds, trowels,
hawks, scratching tools, hammers, utility knives, nails and lath.
•Long before metal lath became common, wood lath was used.
•Wood lath are narrow pieces of straight-grained wood, usually one
inch wide that are cut into short lengths to suit the distances at
which the studs were placed.
•The lath strips are usually no longer than 4’-5’ because the plaster
needed a break joint to minimize cracking during the curing process.
•Wood laths are butted end to end around the room from floor to
ceiling at 3/8” apart.
Gypsum Plaster
•Gypsum is a sedimentary rock-like material that is
unique in that it can be calcined (heated) to give up
some of its chemically combined powder and water,
then restored to its original form when water is
added.
•Because of this it can be easily formed into nearly
any shape or molded into a form or sheets more
commonly known as gypsum board (drywall) that are
highly fire-resistant and easy to work with.
•Plastering is applied in layers depending on the type
and strength of the base used.
Gypsum Plaster
•The most common form of applying plaster is the three-step
process beginning with the scratch coat.
•The scratch coat is applied directly to the lath between 1/4 to
3/8 inches thick and while still soft is raked so the next coat will
have a surface to adhere.
•The second coat, known as the brown coat is the most
important and tedious of the three steps.
Gypsum Plaster
•Wall screeds, which are narrow strips of plastering, have to be formed, plumbed and leveled in
which to create a form that will be used as a guide that will help achieve a vertical or horizontal
surface in which to apply the second coat.
•Before finishing, the second coat requires a scouring process that consolidates all the materials,
helps harden it and prevents it from cracking.
•Then to achieve perfect adhesion with the third coat, the surface is passed over with a wire
brush or nail float. The third coat is a setting coat, which is about 1/8 inch thick that prepares the
wall for further decorating when completed.
Veneer Plaster
•In some circumstances a veneer plaster, used over
“Blueboard”, a drywall whose paper is a blue-gray in color, may
be formulated as a finish plaster and added to this process.
•Veneer plasters can be used as a thin monolithic base coat
over which another finish plaster is applied.
•Veneering is sometimes used in place of the taping, spackling
and sanding process used by most drywall contractors.
•It reduces material costs but labor costs are greatly increased.
Gypsum Board
•Gypsum plaster is made into several types of boards used for
many different applications. Its major advantage over
plastering is time.
•Gypsum board is highly fire-resistant and sound resistant
when used in walls, ceilings and floors.
•When used in partition walls, it is applied from the floor to
the ceiling or roofline creating barriers around heating
equipment, commercial kitchens and numerous high-risk
areas.
•It is also used as a fire and sound-resistant agent in areas such
as joining walls in restrooms, multi-unit apartment buildings
and hospital rooms.
Gypsum Board
•Some of the many types of gypsum boards are:
•Regular whiteboard---1/4 to3/4 inches thick; used in
residential and commercial applications
•Pre-decorated---board that has the finish applied
•Green board---contains an oil-based additive in the paper that
makes it water-resistant; used in areas such as bathrooms,
showers, locker rooms and kitchens where there are high
levels of humidity present
•Backer board---regular drywall; used where more than one
layer of board is required such as between apartments in a
building or offices and hospital rooms
Gypsum Board
•Core board---1” thick board used in shaft walls to protect electrical, mechanical
and conveying equipment, such as elevators and stairwells
•Linerboard---has a special fire-resistant core enclosed in a moisture-resistant
paper; used in stairwells, corridors, chaseways and shaft walls
•Sound-deadening Board---made from wood fibers; used to suppress noise levels
•Soundproof Board---a laminated drywall made from gypsum, other materials
and dampening polymers
Gypsum Board
• Blueboard---forms a strong bond with finish plastering providing water and
mold resistance
• Mold-resistant Board---paperless drywall; can be used everywhere
• Enviroboard---made from recycles agricultural materials
• Lead-lined Board---used around radiological equipment
• Foil-backed Board---used to control moisture
• Controlled Density (Ceiling Board)---available in only ½” thickness and is
significantly stiffer than regular white board
• Fiberboard---strong enough to support weight plus is more fire, sound and
moisture-resistant; is also stronger than regular gypsum board, resists
impact damage and mildew damage
• Cement Board---made with Portland cement; durable, water and fire-
resistant backer for tile, slate and stone used in showers, saunas, kitchens,
baths, hot tubs and pools
Gypsum Board
•During construction, the job is usually spilt in two.
•The “hangers” come in first to attach the board to the ceilings
and walls and the “tapers” or “mudmen” will complete the job
by finishing the joints and covering the nail heads with drywall
compound and tape.
•To start a job the hanger will mark out the measurements on
the sheet of drywall with a chalk line, cut the board to size by
scoring down the front with a utility knife, breaking it
backwards along the score, scoring down the break line on the
back and finally finishing the break by snapping it forward.
Gypsum Board
•The hangers will attach the sized sheet of drywall to the ceiling or wall, making sure to cut out
holes for outlets, switches, and lighting. It is then attached to the wall or ceiling with drywall
screws.
•Nails will “pop” (come back out of the drywall) from the constant movement that is common to a
structure. Drywall screws support the boards more securely and are less prone to “pop” from the
everyday movements of a building.
•After the boards are attached to the ceiling joists or wall studs, the second crew will conceal the
joints by using joint tape and several coats of joint compound. The compound is allowed to dry
and then sanded until a smooth finish is achieved and the surface is ready to be decorated with
another finish.
Tile
•Tiles have been known to maintain their integrity for
centuries.
•Tiles are hand-made from natural clay or a manufactured
composition made of other ceramic materials, quarry stone or
metal.
•They are relatively thin in relation to their facial area.
•Tiles can be textured, smooth, embossed, patterned,
sculptured, or engraved and are available glazed or unglazed.
•They are available in many types, sizes and shapes and can be
cut into nearly any configuration.
Tile
•Tiles are fired in kilns at very high temperatures that result in a material that is
tough, dense and durable enough to be water-resistant.
•A tile is difficult to stain, easy to clean and its colors rarely fade.
•Tiles are suited to be used in nearly every facet of construction including
residential, commercial, institutional and industrial buildings.
•Interior usage of tile can be found being used on floors, walls, ceilings, fixtures
and furnishings.
Tile
•There are two popular application processes called the thinset
process and the thickset process.
•The thinset process requires the tile to be bonded to a
continuous, stable backing with a thin coat of mortar or an
organic adhesive.
•The backing should be gypsum plaster, gypsum board or
plywood except in wet areas where concrete backerboard
should be used instead.
•If applying to a masonry surface, it should be clean, in good
condition and free of efflorescence.
Tile
•In the thickset process, the tile is applied over a bed of Portland cement mortar.
•Using a thick bed of mortar allows the tile to be accurately sloped toward drains
and away from corners.
•Setting bed is from 1-1/4”-2” thick on floors and ¾”-1” thick on walls.
•Either the thinset or thickset process can be used on floors and walls depending
on the tile being set.
Terrazzo
•Modern day terrazzo is a matrix of mostly marble or granite
chips, Portland cement and water or a synthetic resin.
•It is placed over a concrete underbed, steel decking or wood
sub-floor that is structurally sound.
•After this matrix has hardened but not completely cured the
surface is ground or chemically peeled to expose the
aggregate, then polished to a smooth finish.
•Terrazzo provides a dense, extremely durable, smooth surface
whose coloring is controlled by the size and color of the
aggregates and binder.
Terrazzo
•There are four types of toppings classified by their appearance:
•Standard Terrazzo with small chip sizes
•Venetian Terrazzo, featuring large chips with small chips as fillers
•Palladian, made of random fractured slabs of marble up to 15” in length and small chips as
fillers
•Rustic Terrazzo, a uniformly textured finish in which the matrix is depressed, exposing the
aggregates, but is not ground or polished
Terrazzo
•There are several accepted systems used to create terrazzo
depending on the size of the aggregate chosen for the floor,
the weight that the sub-floor will support per square foot,
control joint strip locations, panel size and divider locations.
• Isolation membranes may be required to prevent the transfer
of stress from the sub-floor to the underbed (Portland cement
or chemical binder) and topping (terrazzo finish).
Terrazzo
•This condition is referred to as being unbonded where a bonded underbed is
rigidly attached to the sub-floor supporting the finished terrazzo.
•Metal reinforcement is required for the underbed in most cases.
•The reinforcement should be corrosion-resistant welded wire fabric at least 16
ga.
•Thick with wires spaced no more than 2” o.c.
Terrazzo
•Because it is expensive to hand assemble the decorative
topping chips for large areas or to create a specific design, the
tesserae (stone, vitreous enamel or marble) is assembled in a
shop and mounted on paper, then placed on top of the matrix
while it is still wet.
•After the paper is removed, joints are grouted and the entire
installation is ground and polished.
•Curing is necessary so that the topping can develop maximum
wear properties.
Terrazzo
•Materials used for this purpose are polyethylene film, non-staining, non-
asphaltic, water-resistant building paper and clean water.
•Spray on curing compounds can be used to help cure surfaces except on slabs
that are going to use a thinset, chemically bonded or monolithic topping because
it may prevent bonding of the underbed and the topping.
•To complete the finish, a penetrating sealer should be used.
Stone Facing
•When stone is used in interior spaces it is usually
applied as a veneer and comes in thicknesses ranging
from 1” to 4”.
•Stones are laid in a bed of mortar and anchored to
walls with corrugated metal ties.
•Larger stones require at least two wedges be laid
under them in each course until the mortar hardens.
•Then they are removed and the holes they created
are filled with mortar to complete the look.
Stone Facing
•Stone with distinctive patterns such as marbles may lend itself
to some specific pattern arrangements.
•The patterns vary depending on whether the marble is cut
with or across its setting bed.
•The Blend pattern allows panels from a variety of stone to be
arranged at random.
•The Sideslip or End-slip pattern uses panels from the same
block of stone placing them side-by-side or end to end.
•The End-match or Book-match pattern rotates each of four
panels around a central pivot point.
Acoustical Treatment
•Controlling sound within a building is critical in the design of
our residential and commercial spaces to help maintain a
healthy, enjoyable environment in which to live and work.
•Acoustics is the science of controlling noise.
•Some of the first applications occurred in the design of old
opera houses and the now highly technical arenas and concert
halls.
•Sound control is critical in hospitals and health care facilities,
recording and broadcast studios, theaters and media rooms.
•More common is the need for acoustical control in multi-unit
dwellings, residences and small businesses.
•Acoustics are analyzed from the exterior envelope of the
building to the interior and back.
•The critical areas of sound transmission come from roofs,
eaves, walls, windows, doors and penetrations through these
areas for venting or any other purpose.
•Sufficient control demands good design considerations based
on building usage and building code.
•Interior spaces can be enhanced with sound absorbing and
reflecting properties used on walls, ceilings and floors.
•Acoustics are analyzed from the exterior envelope of the
building to the interior and back.
•The critical areas of sound transmission come from roofs,
eaves, walls, windows, doors and penetrations through these
areas for venting or any other purpose.
•Sufficient control demands good design considerations based
on building usage and building code.
•Interior spaces can be enhanced with sound absorbing and
reflecting properties used on walls, ceilings and floors.
•Ideal acoustical substrates are those without a face or finish material that
deflects rather than absorbs the sound.
•Covering the acoustical substrate with fabrics will heighten the acoustical
absorption and improve the quality of the surrounding environment in the
process.
•Mineral fiberboard is a common substrate used with fabrics, wood or
acoustical tile to control the acoustics within the room.
•In order to improve and control the acoustics, architects and designers
must use materials that deflect and absorb sound, blocking it with wall
placement and general layout and covering it up with background sound
which is the least disruptive and the most economical.
Acoustical Ceilings
•Acoustics includes the generation, transmission and effects of
sound waves.
•Acoustical materials are used to control these sound waves within a
given area.
•To help isolate an area and reduce the noise level from the
surrounding sounds, the ceiling needs to be built free of any rigid
attachment to the building structure.
•To simplify it, ceilings should be suspended from rather than
attached directly to the roof.
•Ceiling isolation hangers isolate ceilings from noise traveling
through the building.
Acoustical Ceilings
•The hanger wire is then attached to this and to a t-section for a perforated metal
ceiling, to a carrier for a linear metal ceiling or furring channel and to a main
runner for a metal pan ceiling.
•Sound absorption will depend on the amount of batt insulation used above the
metal ceiling.
•More common grid systems will have a hanger attached to a cross T or T-spline
and main runner.
•Then the 2’x2’ or 2’x4’ acoustical panels are slid into the grid system.
Acoustical Ceilings
•Acoustical ceiling tiles are made from soft, sound
absorbing materials like cork, wood fibers, sugarcane
fibers, mineral wool, gypsum, and fiberglass.
•Most ceiling tiles are perforated to allow more sound
absorption and less deflection.
•Another type of ceiling panel is known as a baffle.
•Baffles are acoustical panels hung from the ceiling to
reduce airborne noise that can be generated in a school
gymnasium, auditorium or restaurant.
•Other ceiling tiles are designed to be glued, nailed or
stapled directly to a gypsum board ceiling or to furring
strips attached to the ceiling joists.
Acoustical Ceilings
•Suspended ceilings using a grid system are the most common form of
installing an acoustical ceiling.
•Common suspended ceilings fall into three types; the exposed grid, semi-
exposed grid and concealed grid.
•Exposed grids have the main runner and cross runner exposed.
•This type of grid can enhance the ceiling design depending on the finish
applied to the grid system.
•The semi-exposed system has the main runner exposed but the cross
runner is concealed giving the finished ceiling a very linear look with all the
parallel lines.
•The concealed system has no runners exposed giving the impression that
the ceiling is attached to rather than suspended from the roof or ceiling
joists.
Acoustical Wall Treatment
•The sound absorbing materials and placement of walls
within an area help control the effects of sound waves.
•Acoustical plaster, used to finish walls, is made with
perlite or vermiculite aggregate that is most often sprayed
onto the walls rather than applied by hand.
•Another spray-on material is a bonding agent composed
of cellulosic fibers.
•The advantage of these two materials is that they can
reach and completely seal a wall surface that is curved or
one that is irregularly shaped.
Acoustical Wall Treatment
•Another product that is available in many sound-absorbing
materials is a wall panel.
•Many are made from molded mineral fibers and covered in fabric
that is attached to a standard wall surface.
•These panels can also be fire-resistant and may be seen in
gymnasiums, indoor swimming pools and offices, in the form of
cubicles or pre-fabricated walls, or restaurants as dividers and
backdrops to name just a few of their uses.
•Sculptured acoustical wall units, made from high-density molded
fiberglass bonded to a sound-absorbing glass fiber blanket is used as
decorative sound-absorbing units and can typically be found in many
shapes.
Special Wall Surfaces
•Interior walls and partitions in commercial and residential buildings
are usually non-load bearing and are there to meet the needs and
requirements of the owner and the occupants needs.
•Interior walls and partitions may be load bearing as well and can be
constructed with wood, metal or masonry.
•Many types of finishes can be applied to the framing and that
surface may be finished with another more decorative finish.
•Walls and partitions function is to divide a building into different
areas of usage according to its occupancy and to hide mechanical
and electrical equipment that may run through the cavity.
•In addition, walls and partitions provide sound-control, fire and
smoke protection, insulation, privacy and protection.
Special Wall Surfaces
•Specialty walls include firewalls that are built to restrict the
spread of fire.
•They must extend continuously from the foundation to or
through the roof.
•This height will be specified by code.
•Smoke barriers are fire-resistant continuous membranes that
run from one exterior wall to the next and from the floor slab
to either the roof or the floor slab above.
•Doors in these walls must meet special code requirements
and have automatic closers when smoke is detected.
Wood Flooring
•Wood flooring needs to be installed properly over sub-floors
that may be concrete slabs, OSB (oriented strand board),
plywood, or cellular steel floors with concrete slabs.
•Be aware of the acoustical requirements, building codes, fire-
resistance ratings, heating requirements, traffic loads, color,
textures and finish materials specified by the owner or
occupancy requirements.
•Wood flooring is a finish flooring material made from both
hardwoods and softwoods.
•The associations that control the grading of wood flooring
products specify requirements for kiln drying, grading, control
of moisture levels and establish standard sizes for the flooring.
Wood Flooring
•Wood flooring is available in quartersawed, cut across the
grain and plainsawed, cut with the grain, and is produced in
four basic types: strips, planks, parquet, and solid end-grain
blocks.
•Strips are usually cut to a standard pattern that can be side-
matched or end-matched.
•The top is usually a bit wider than the bottom so when
installed the tops fit snugly and the bottoms are slightly
separated.
•Strips are usually 2-1/4” wide by 25/32” thick and come in
random lengths.
•Planks are made the same as strips but come in widths from
3-1/2” to 8” wide.
Wood Flooring
•Parquet consists of usually small individual strips of wood or blocks that has
been made into a decorative geometric design and is usually installed with
mastic.
•Solid end-grain blocks come in variable sizes with a 9” block being the most
common.
•The unit block is made of short pieces of strip flooring that are joined edgewise
to form square units.
•Laminated blocks use three or more plies of veneer laminated together until the
desired thickness is achieved.
•Slat blocks use narrow slats of wood preassembled into patterns to make blocks
from 9” to 30” in size.
Wood Flooring
•Wood flooring is classified as either solid or engineered.
•Solid wood flooring uses the same wood species throughout
the entire piece and engineered wood flooring is a
combination of a surface veneer that is laminated to one or
more plies of a wood veneer from a less expensive wood
species that provides stability and strength.
•The typical profile is known as tongue-and-groove.
•When wood flooring is laid this allows the various strips,
planks, and parquet or solid-end grain blocks to be aligned
accurately and creates a tight fit with level joints.
Wood Flooring
•Wood floors are sensitive to moisture, an underlayment such as
building paper or a vapor retarder should be laid over the subfloor
first.
•All wood should be brought into the room where it is being
installed, removed from the packaging and allowed to acclimate to
its environment for several days before starting installation.
•To begin installation, contractors will chalk line a starting point
remembering to allow space around the perimeter of the wall to
accommodate the natural movement that the floor will encounter
due to changes in temperature and relative humidity.
•Then the contractor will start laying the wood flooring at a corner
along the chalk line, blind nailing through the tongue that will be
facing into the room away from the wall.
•This allows the individual pieces to be aligned accurately and
creates a tight fit with level joints.
Wood Flooring
•The wood flooring may come packaged in random lengths to allow
staggering of the end seams so that they will be less noticeable as
the floor progresses.
•If not, the contractor will take the cut end piece from the first row
and use it to start the second row, allowing a natural staggering of
the seams.
•The wood flooring may be pre-finished by the manufacturer or
finished on site.
•If already pre-finished, the floor will only have to be cleaned.
•If the wood flooring is unfinished, the contractor will need to sand
the floor to remove any high spots or roughness in the wood, then
clean and stain the wood before applying several coats of a clear
polyurethane finish to protect the floor from abrasion, dirt, wear,
oxidation, and moisture.
Parquet Flooring
•Parquet means pattern and parquet flooring consists of pieces of
wood flooring put together to form a decorative pattern.
•There are many geometric designs including those that use
diamonds, triangles, squares, round and rectangular shapes.
•Most parquet floors are formed into a block as a solid unit or as a
layer of veneer laminated to a plywood base with adhesive.
•Most solid units and laminated blocks are tongued on two adjoining
sides or opposite edges while the other two sides are grooved
assuring alignment with other blocks to form the larger pattern.
•These blocks have the same conditions as any wood flooring. They
must be treated as so and installed properly.
Stone Flooring
•Stone flooring typically consists of limestone, sandstone, polished
marble or granite, and split-face slate.
•When using stone flooring there are many factors to consider.
•The subfloor must be able to support the weight of the stone
because stone is typically ½” thick and weighs about 7.5 psf (pounds
per square foot).
•Other considerations should be given to the color and texture of the
stone finish and its abrasion and slip-resistance.
•The stone can be cut and laid in any number of design patterns
giving it much versatility.
•Stone flooring is laid in Portland cement mortar, the thickset
method, much like ceramic tiles.
Resilient Flooring
•Resilient flooring is commonly used in all types of buildings as
an economical, reliable and long lasting product produced in
tiles or sheets.
•It is a product that springs back into place after being
compressed by being walked on and can easily be cleaned
without the use of chemicals or specialty products.
•Resilient flooring can withstand most permanent
deformations or damage but heavy furniture may cause
damage without the use of adequate protection.
Resilient Flooring
•When considering resilient flooring, physical properties of the product must be
considered.
•Appearance and cost are two factors that play an important part in making this
decision.
•Resilient flooring has a vast variety of patterns, styles, designs, textures, and
colors to choose from in either sheet that commonly come in 6’, 9’, 12’ and 15’
widths or tiles that are available in 12” to 36” squares.
Resilient Flooring
•Resilient flooring is resistant to a number of chemicals, such
as alcohols, oils and grease.
•Because it is a resilient material, it maintains its integrity and
appearance.
•Since resilient flooring comes in varying hardness of finish
materials, from soft to hard, heavy furniture without proper
support under the legs may cause permanent damage to the
flooring if the wrong finish is chosen or poor installation of the
product is done.
•Resilient flooring also has the ability to resist the spread of
fire, static electricity and water that makes it one of the top
two most used floor coverings.
Resilient Flooring
•Resilient tiles are usually made from solid vinyl, a vinyl
composition or rubber.
•Sheets are made from similar materials but provide fewer, if
any, joints in the installation process.
•Both tiles and sheets are installed with an adhesive applied
directly to the clean and level subfloor whether wood or
concrete.
•Since the tiles and sheets are thin, usually 3/32”, all holes and
blemishes in the subfloor must be filled, sanded and leveled
before installation of the flooring.
•Any debris or abrasive left on the surface of the subfloor can
cut through the resilient flooring over time.
Carpet
•Carpet is one of the two most popular floor coverings with
resilient flooring being the second.
•It is widely used in commercial and residential construction
because of cost, maintenance and durability.
•Carpet is available in nearly every color and a wide range of
fibers and textures.
•Because it comes in many widths, it can cover a large area
quickly, add comfort and warmth to an area and provide
soundproofing by reducing noise and sound reflection.
Carpet
•Pile fibers are made from both natural and synthetic materials such
as wool, a natural fiber, and acrylic, modacrylic, nylon, polyester and
polypropylene or olefin, all synthetic fibers.
•Wool is a strong fiber with good resistance to damage caused by
sunlight, aging, abrasion, and is mildew-resistant as well.
•Since most households and businesses replace the carpet within a
5-10 year period, wool is one fiber that with good care can last much
longer and be very cost effective in time.
•The synthetic fibers share many of the same qualities.
•Most are resistant to mildew, fading from the sunlight, aging and
chemicals.
•They are soft, resilient, soil-resistant and quick drying when having
gotten wet.
Carpet
•Carpet construction includes woven carpets using the Axminster,
loomed, velvet and Wilton methods.
•Methods of construction other than weaving are the tufted, knitted,
flocked and fusion bonded construction.
•Although each is somewhat different from the other, what is
common is the terminology used.
•Pile yarns are the exposed top of the carpet that takes the wear and
tear and are made from the fibers previously mentioned.
•The backing yarns are made of weft yarns meaning the yarn runs
the width of the carpet and the warp yarns that run the length of
the carpet.
•Stiffer yarns also run the length of the carpet, adding strength and
stability.
Carpet
•The Axminster construction method is woven on a loom and is cut
pile of an even height.
•This is what is commonly called a plush carpet.
•After a carpet is completed using this method it is so stiff and heavy
that it can only be rolled lengthwise.
•Loomed construction creates a carpet that has a low-loop single
level pile that is bonded to a thick rubber cushion.
•Velvet construction can produce a textured surface or tweed effect
but cannot produce a patterned design.
•The last of the woven carpet methods is the Wilton looms that can
produce embossed textures or sculptured finishes by adjusting and
cutting the pile.
Carpet
•Carpet making methods, other than those woven on looms,
include the tufted construction method that takes the pile and
stitches it, much like a sewing machine, onto a backing
material.
•It is then coated with a latex-bonding agent and attached to a
second backing material like course jute.
•Tufted carpets are available in many different styles.
•Knitted carpeting is made by looping the pile, stitching and
backing into one operation, then spreading latex onto the back
of it to bond it all together and give it added strength.
Carpet
•Flocked construction electrostatically sprays strands of pile onto an adhesive
coated backing.
•As the pile becomes embedded it stands up vertically, then a second backing is
added to the whole thing and it is left to cure.
•The last method is fusion bonded construction where the pile is fed through two
sheets of parallel backing then cut in half and divided into two where a second
backing is added to each piece.
Carpet
• Carpet has to meet specifications established by
the Federal Housing Administration, the ASTM
(American Standard Testing Materials) and the General
Services Administration. These specifications include:
• pile yarn weight (W), which is the average weight of pile
yarn in ounces per square yard without any backing
• pile thickness (t) which is the height of pile tufts above the
backing in inches
• pile density (D) which is the weight of the pile yarn per unit
of volume in the carpet, stated in ounces per cubic yard
Carpet
•Carpet is often installed over a cushion to increase the life of
the carpet, make it softer to walk on, reduce noise and add
insulation.
•Some carpets have a cushion attached to the back of them
made from foam that often adheres to the subfloor when
trying to remove the carpet so it can be replaced.
•Cushions are made of urethane foam, cellular rubber, felted
animal hair or jute and can be installed over nearly any dry,
clean surface including other floor finishes as well as uneven or
irregular surfaces.
Carpet
• Most residential sheet carpeting is cut to size, stretched and installed using
wood tackless strips that have been attached around the perimeter of the room
to hold the carpet tightly in place.
• Carpet can also be bonded directly to the subfloor with mastic or bonded to
the cushion after it has been bonded to the subfloor.
Special Flooring
•Resinous flooring has become more popular as the chemical
technology that it takes to produce it has improved.
•It is applied in its liquid form and when cured provides a

uniform surface that is flexible and seamless.
•
•Although the flooring is thin, it has excellent bonding features,
is strong and is resistant to impacts and abrasion.
•
Special Flooring
• There are three systems:
• Decorative System, where aggregates are combined in an epoxy resin matrix
• General Commercial and Industrial Systems that is similar to the decorative
system, where the aggregates are combined with a thicker and high
performance epoxy
• High Performance or Special-Use Systems that is formulated for specific
environmental exposures
Special Flooring
•Floating floors as laminated hardwood flooring uses a wood
veneer with an acrylic topcoat over pressed board or plywood
that resists scratching and marring of the surface.
•These look so similar to hardwood flooring that it is difficult to
tell the difference without close inspection.
•These floors “float” over a cushioned water-resistant
membrane.
•A unique tongue and groove design allows them to snap
together easily.
•Replacing them is easy when damaged.
•They also come in strips, planks and blocks for a variety of
styles and finishes besides wood.
Special Flooring
•Other floors include cushioned hardwood floors used for
gymnasiums, auditoriums and dance studios.
•The base is usually concrete covered with a 6-mil vapor
barrier, rubber pads on top of the vapor barrier and wood
sleepers lay on top of the pads.
•To complete the floor, place strip hardwood flooring on top of
the wood sleepers.
Special Flooring
•Access floors are included in this category.
•These floors consist of modular floor panels placed on top of metal adjustable
pedestals.
•This allows room for mechanical equipment to run underneath the floor as well
as overhead.
•There are also brick floors, great for sunrooms, kitchens, recreation areas, and
rubber floors, used around swimming pools and athletic locker rooms.
Paints, Coatings, and Stains
•Many types of paints, coatings and stains exist including oil-
based and water-based paints, varnishes, lacquers and special
purpose coatings, and oil-based and water-based stains.
•There are opaque finishes, transparent finishes, and special
purpose coatings that include high-performance coatings,
graffiti resistant coatings, fire-retardant coatings, and
elastomeric coatings.
•Paint is an opaque coating made from a mixture of solid pigment and a liquid
medium.
•The liquid medium consists of a volatile solvent (thinner) and a binder that
bonds it all together during the drying process.
•Applying an opaque coating will hide the grain and texture of the substrate. Roll,
brush or spray paint onto the substrate.
• Primer is an opaque coating that must be applied to the bare
surfaces of the substrate (wood, drywall, plaster).
• The primer soaks into the substrate so that subsequent coatings will
bind to its surface allowing for better coverage and durability.
• The intermediate coat is applied over the primer and the top coat
finishes the three-step application of paint.
• Depending on the color, the condition of the substrate and the
amount of pigment in the paint that is chosen more than one top
coat may be required.
• In the case of smoke or water damage to the substrate, a sealer that
will eliminate the odor from the smoke or the stain that water
damage creates can be used before or after the primer coat is
applied thereby keeping the odor and stain from bleeding through
the final top coat.
•Paint and other coatings are regulated by the 1992 Residential
Lead-Based Paint hazard Reduction Act and the 1970 Clean Air
Act.
•Lead, found to be hazardous to children and animals, is no
longer allowed to be used in paints.
•Homes must be inspected for lead paint and contractors who
are exposed to lead paint must wear respiratory protection
and protective clothes.
•The 1970 Clean Air Act regulates the emissions from products
that produce volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which include
paint and other coatings.
•VOCs are any substance that evaporates from paint or other
coatings as they dry except for water.
•To have consistency in a coating, the paint must be applied at
a uniform thickness called the minimum wet film (MWF).
•The MWF varies due to the spreading rate per gallon of paint.
•On the other side, the minimum dry film (MDF) determines
how much protection will be provided to the substrate.
• Many paints can be selected when determining the conditions of the
substrate:
• oil-based paints that harden to form a tough elastic film
• alkyd paints that have an alkyd resin added to them
• latex paints that have a binder of acrylic resin
• epoxy paints that have an epoxy resin that acts as a resistor to chemicals,
corrosion or abrasion
• rust-inhibiting paints with anticorrosion pigments
• fire-retardant paints with silicone, polyvinyl chloride or other substance
• intumescent coatings that when heated turns into a thick layer of inert foam that
slows the spread of flame and silicone resin used in areas exposed to high
temperatures
•Another coating is varnish made from a natural resin dissolved
in alcohol (spirit varnish) or oil (oil varnish).
•New varnishes available are made from synthetic resins
(plastic) like alkyds, polyurethane, silicone, epoxy, acrylics and
phenolics.
•Natural varnishes fall into three basic types; linseed oil
varnishes, tung oil varnishes and spirit varnishes or shellac.
•Turpentine, mineral spirits, naphtha and benzene are used as
a solvent for varnish.
•Varnishes are usually dark in color and can be brushed, rolled
or hand-rubbed onto a wood substrate.
•Lacquer is another synthetic coating that dries with a very high gloss finish.
•Most lacquers are sprayed on and many coats are required.

•It is widely used on cabinets, casework and furniture as a finish.
•Special purpose coatings are those formulated to meet a special need such
as bituminous, asphalt, reflective and fire-retardant coatings.
•
•Bituminous coatings mix up natural bitumens in an organic solvent that
can be used to coat roofs because it is water-resistant.
•
•Asphalt coatings, made from petroleum, have good water-resistance and
are often used on driveways and exterior foundation walls.
•Coatings on signage, stairs and walkways use reflective coatings that absorb light and
reflect it back.
•Pigmented and intumescent fire-retardant coatings are applied to any type of wood-
based substrates and delays contact between the flames and the substrate-giving
occupants more time to evacuate.
•Stains provide color to wood substrates.
•They are blends of oil, driers, resins, a wood preservative, mildewcide, water-repellant,
and coloring pigment.
•Stains are available as oil based or water based.
•Stains can be applied with brushes, rollers or hand-rubbed.
•Stains do not raise the wood grain.
Wall Coverings
•Wall coverings may include different styles of paneling finished in wood
veneer, natural finishes, like marble and granite, leather, or synthetic
finishes designed to be used in a variety of usages.
•Water-resistant panels can be used in commercial and residential
situations.
•Wallpaper is another type of wall covering used in both commercial and
residential applications.
•Wallpaper can be applied to practically any substrate when properly
prepared.
•Rolls of wallpaper come with the pattern pre-printed on one side and are
pre-pasted on the other side.
•It is made from many different grades of paper or cloth and the finishes
can be anything from a single pattern that does not need to be matched to
extremely detailed finishes using natural materials like leaves or dried
flowers.
SOUND ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
Sound Absorption
Material Coefficient
-α-
Acoustic belt, 12 mm 0.5
Acoustic tiles 0.4 - 0.8
Asbestos, sprayed 25 mm 0.6 - 0.7
Brickwork, painted 0.01 - 0.02
Brickwork, unpainted 0.02 - 0.05
Cork sheet, 6 mm 0.1 - 0.2
Fiberboard on battens, 12 mm 0.3 - 0.4
Hardwood 0.3
Mineral wool, 100 mm 0.65
Persons, each 2.0 - 5.0
Plaster walls 0.01 - 0.03
Plywood panel, 3 mm 0.01 - 0.02
Polystyrene, expanded on 50mm battens 0.35
Polystyrene, expanded rigid backing 0.15

Polyurethane foam, flexible 0.95
Rubber sheet, 6 mm porous 0.1 - 0.2
Slag wool or glass silk, 50 mm 0.8 - 0.9
Snow 0.75
Wood wool cement on battens, 25 mm 0.6 - 0.07
ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
• Reverberation.
• Formations of echoes.
• Sound foci.
• Dead spots.
• Insufficient loudness.
• Exterior noises.
ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
• Reverberation
 Reverberation is the persistence of sound in the enclosed space , after the source of
sound has stopped.
 Reverberant sound is the reflected sound , as a result of improper absorption.
 Reverberation may results in confusion with the sound created next.

ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
• Reverberation
 Reverberation is the persistence of

sound in the enclosed space , after
the source of sound has stopped.
 Reverberant sound is the reflected

sound , as a result of improper
absorption.
 Reverberation may results in

confusion with the sound created
next.
ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
FORMATION OF ECHOES
Not all sound that hits matter is absorbed. Some
of it is reflected. That means sound bounces off the
solid matter the way a tennis ball bounces off a
wall. Sound reflected back to its source is an echo.
• An echo is produced when the reflected sound

wave reaches the ear just when the original
sound from the same source has been already
heard.Thus there is repetition of sound.
• The sensation of sound persists for 1/10th of a

second after the source has stopped.Thus an
echo must reach after 1/10th second of the
direct sound
ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
SOUND FOCI
 Some times shape of the hall makes sound waves to concentrate in some
particular areas of hall creating a sound of large quality.These spots are called
sound foci.
 This defect can be removed by :

Geometrical design shapes of the interior faces.
Providing highly absorbent materials on critical areas (curved spaces).
ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
DEAD SPOTS.
• This defect is the outcome of formation of sound foci.Because of high

concentration of reflected sound at sound foci , there is deficiency of related
sound at some other points.
• These spots are known as dead spots where sound intensity is so low that it is
insufficient for hearing.
• This defect can be removed by suitably placing diffusers and reflectors.
• Right proportions of internal spaces.

ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
EXTERNAL NOISE.
• External noises from vehicles , traffic engines , factories , machines etc, may
enter the hall either through the openings or even through walls and other
structural elements having improper sound insulation.
• This defect can be removed by proper planning of the hall with respect to its
surroundings and by proper sound insulation of external walls.
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Example : Acoustical design of halls

• The initial sound from the source should be of adequate intensity so that it can be heard
throughout the hall .
• For halls of big sizes suitable sound amplification system should be installed.
• The sound produced should be evenly distributed so that there is no dead spots and sound
foci.
• The boundary surface should be so designed that there are no echoes or near echoes.
• Desired reverberation time should be achieved by proper placement of absorbents on wall.
• The out side noise should be eliminated.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR HALLS
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Example : Acoustical design of halls

• The initial sound from the source should be of adequate intensity so that it can be heard
throughout the hall .
• For halls of big sizes suitable sound amplification system should be installed.
• The sound produced should be evenly distributed so that there is no dead spots and sound
foci.
• The boundary surface should be so designed that there are no echoes or near echoes.
• Desired reverberation time should be achieved by proper placement of absorbents on wall.
• The out side noise should be eliminated.
OPEN THEATER
• Reverberation
The action of sound when confined in an enclosure is
much more complex as compared to its action in free
air. In free air, only the direct sound from the source
can be heard. In a room, however, the sound one
hears is composed of both the direct and the
reflected waves.
• The effect of reverberation is to cause blurred speech
and music, due to the overlapping of the successive
syllables in speech. Up to a certain point this
overlapping is apparently beneficial because it
increases the loudness of sound, but beyond this
optimum point overlapping of successive syllables is
detrimental. Thus, there is a period of reverberation,
depending on the size of the auditorium, which will
give optimum results.
• Echo
Whenever there is a time lag greater than one-
twentieth of a second between two successive and
similar sounds, echo becomes perceptible and
annoying, particularly when the echo comes from a
curved surface which concentrates the sound at the
listening point. Translating this time interval in terms
of the path difference between the two sounds, that
is, the difference between the total lengths of their
paths in traveling from source to listening point, the
path difference should not be greater than 56 feet
Long term acoustic studies conducted in outdoor
spaces have shown that the basic principles of
design includes:
• Minimisation of external noise ( noise protection)

• Harmonic development of the functional elements
of the theatrical space within the limits of the
human vocal and acoustic scale.
• Sufficient emergence of directly propagated sound
and its reinforcement through early positive sound
reflections ( from natural loudspeakers response of
the space)
• Control of late sound reflections ( limitation of the
reverberation time, elimination of echoes)
In order to optimise the positive advantages of
acoustic design the following guidelines are to be
followed:
• Limitation of capacity (700 to 1000) and axial span.

• Forwarding of the proscenium space into the
orchestra area(covering Half or a third of the radius)
• Creation of a closed space plan (from the seating area
and stage building with limitation of the lateral
openings at the side entrances)
• Harmonic development of the scenery (position,
height, length) and proper formation of its lateral
ends ( in order to nuteralise any harmful, lateral
sound reflections)
• In outdoor noise protection, it is good use of the
phenomenon of acoustic diffraction by inserting
natural or manmade sound barriers between the
noise source and the protected area.
• The extent and the critical frequency of the acoustic
shadow, according to the Hygens-Fresnal theory,
depends on the position and effective height of the
sound barrier.
Building Acoustics : Ancient Greek Theater
The Greek theatre history began with festivals honoring their gods. Actors were
allowed to perform in each play. the chorus evolved into a very active part of
Greek theatre. Music was often played during the chorus' delivery of its lines.
Greek Theatre buildings were called a theatron. The theaters were large, open-
air structures constructed on the slopes of hills. They consisted of three main
elements: the orchestra, the skene, and the audience. For communicating to
the crowds. (Both audio wise & vision wise communications) this became a
very important design feature for theater building in the open air
environments. As during those times no loud speakers were there. The seating
visual angles for the arena area was very important. The actors had to use loud
voices to become more effective communicators ( see fig below) with focused
blow of sound for attention of audience.
Skene: A large rectangular building situated behind the orchestra, used as a

backstage. Actors could change their costumes and masks. Earlier the skene
was a tent or hut, later it became a permanent stone structure. These
structures were sometimes painted to serve as backdrops behind all action
sceenarios. A proscenium (is the area of a theatre surrounding the stage
opening
167
Building Acoustics ; Ancient Roman Theater’s
The Greeks were already an established culture in southern Italy
when Rome was created Greece strongly influenced Rome in many
different ways. Rome's ideas on many things were borrowed from
the Greeks, things ranging from its Gods Plays to Theatre
construction. Later on however, Theatres were began to be built
on hillsides (hill provided extra support and is easier to build on).
All over the Roman Empire theatres were erected to entertain the
masses.
The large stone theatres seated tens of thousands of Romans.

There wasn't a front curtain nor were there performances done in
the orchastra pit (unlike Greek plays)
The Roman Coliseum structure, was the realization of an

amphitheatre concept in Rome built on a flat ground with spaces
for officers of roman kingdom, located just below the seating
space for the audience of the open theater above many activity
spaces.
Thus emerged theROMAN definition of the architecture of
structure:
In it most purest form : 'Architecture is the coherent set of
constructive, operative and decorative concepts of a structure.'
In a more practical form it is the coherent (intensively consistent)
set of constructive, operative and decorative concepts that is or
will be applied onto structure.‘
168
Room acoustics
• The physics of the propagation of sound is immensely complicated, and when the assortment of materials that make up
the walls, floors and ceiling (plus any windows, doors and furniture) are added to the equation, it's very difficult to predict what
will happen to sound waves once they've left their source. What's more, every room is different, and it's not just the
dimensions that will dictate how the room will sound. "acoustic design “is the science that restores a neutral sound balance”.
Applying that science means interfering with the path of sound to control the sound energy.
• The speed of sound is not constant, The speed of sound varies because of environmental conditions such as air pressure
and humidity. An extremely loud sound of over 130 decibels can damage hearing right away. Sounds of 85 decibels or more
can cause damage if there is exposure over a period of time
An Introductory to speech intelligibility;
The fundamental purpose of an airspace with or without a sound reinforcement system is to deliver clear intelligible
speech to the listener at a comfortable volume level.
• A surprising number of spaces fail to achieve this basic goal. There can be many reasons for this, ranging from inadequate
signal to noise ratio to poor room acoustics or inappropriate choice or location of loudspeaker.
• It is the job of the acoustic and sound system designer to take these factors into account when designing a room layout /
shape / sound system and selecting devices to provide the degree of intelligibility required
• Flutter Echo ; A multiple echo in which the reflections rapidly follow each other. If two opposing reflective surfaces of a room
(parallel wall to parallel wall or floor to ceiling) there is always a possibility of flutter echoes. Successive, repetitive reflections,
equally spaced in time, can produce a perception of a pitch or timbre coloration of music and a reduction in the speech
intelligibility within the room. Flutter echo can be reduced in one of two ways, with the use of sound absorption or
sound diffusion
Room modes are the collection of resonances that exist in a room when the
room is excited by an acoustic source such as a loudspeaker / Radio etc,.
Most rooms have their fundamental resonances in the 20 Hz to 200 Hz
region, each frequency being related to one or more of the room's
dimension's or a divisor thereof. There are three types of modes in a room:
axial, tangential, and oblique
Modifying and canceling sound field by electro-acoustical approaches is called active noise control.
There are two methods for active control. First by utilizing the actuators as an acoustic source to
produce completely out of phase signals to eliminate the disturbances. second method is to use
flexible and vibro-elastic materials to radiate a sound field interfering with the disturbances and
minimize the overall intensity. The latter method is called active structural acoustic control (ASAC)
room.
169
Reflection of sound is one of the important consideration in any acoustical design problem. If
SOUND & SURFACE reflected sound reaches the audience after 1/15 of a sec after the direct sound from the speaker,
an ECHO is heard. If the time lap becomes less than 0.05 sec, a beneficial effect called
INTERACTIONS reinforcement of sound results . If reflected sound reaches later than 0.05 sec then the direct
sound will have a blurred effect of sound.
Shapes of Auditorium plans.
170
When dealing with audible frequencies, the human ear
cannot distinguish an echo from the original sound if the
Dynamics of sound delay is less than 1/15 of a second. Thus, since the
velocity of sound is approximately 343 m/s at a normal
room temperature of about 25 °C, the reflecting object
must be more than 11.3 m from the sound source at this
temperature for an echo to be heard by a person at the
source.
The strength of an echo is frequently measured
in dB sound pressure level SPL relative to the directly
transmitted wave. Echoes may be desirable in ship
navigation(as in sonar) to estimate depth
IN Gol Gumbaz of Bijapur, India: Any whisper, clap or
... how sound will travel to them in a performance or speech. This is just a simple sound gets echoed repeatedly near the dome & also in the
example of the math and thought put into the design of a stage, theater,
Whispering Gallery of St Paul's Cathedral, London. Due to
multiple reflections
Sound-absorbing treatment Acoustically transparent material (e.g., spaced wood

slats or open metal grille) conceals actual enclosure, which can be treated with
deep sound-absorbing material to reduce reflected sound energy and creep
echoes
171
Behavior of sound in enclosed spaces
• Although people have gathered in large auditoriums and places of worship since the advent of civilization, architectural acoustics did not exist on a
scientific basis until a young professor of physics at Harvard University in 1895 to correct the abominable acoustics of the newly constructed Fogg
Lecture Hall.
• He defined a reverberation time T as the number of seconds required for the intensity of the sound to drop from a level of audibility 60 dB above the
threshold of hearing to the threshold of inaudibility. To this day reverberation time still constitutes the most important parameter for gauging the
acoustical quality of a room
• The distribution of acoustic energy, whether originating from a single or multiple sound sources in an enclosure, depends on the room size and
geometry and on the combined effects of reflection, diffraction, and absorption. From a point source the sound waves will be spherical, and the
intensity will approximate the inverse square law. Neither reflection nor diffraction occurs to interfere with the waves emanating from the source.
Because of the interaction of sound with the room boundaries and with objects within the room, the free field will be of very limited extent. If one is
close to a sound source in a large room having considerably absorbent surfaces, the sound energy will be detected predominantly from the sound
source and not from the multiple reflections from surroundings. The degree of diffusivity will be increased if the room surfaces are not parallel so there
is no preferred direction for sound propagation. Concave surfaces with radii of curvature comparable to sound wavelengths tend to cause focusing, but
convex surfaces will promote diffusion. Multiple speakers in amplifying systems auditoriums are used to achieved better diffusion, and special baffles
may be hung from ceilings to deflect sound in the appropriate directions
• Sound reflected from walls generates a reverberant field that is time dependent. When the source suddenly ceases, a sound field persists for a finite
interval as the result of multiple reflections and the low velocity of sound propagation. This residual acoustic energy constitutes the reverberant field.
The amount of acoustic energy reaching the listener’s ear by any single reflected path will be less than that of the direct sound because the reflected
path is longer than the direct source–listener distance, which results in greater divergence; and all reflected sound undergo an energy decrease due to
the absorption of even the most ideal reflectors. But indirect sound that a listener hears comes from a great number of reflection paths. Consequently,
the contribution of reflected sound to the total intensity at the listener’s ear can exceed the contribution of direct sound particularly if the room
surfaces are highly reflective.
• Every noise is different in respect of sound pressure level and frequency at which it is generated. So a thorough noise survey is conducted with 1/3
octave analysis and data evaluated to assess the annoying frequency. Great care is taken while designing the Acoustic Enclosure, not to hamper other
parameters.
Sound diffusion resulting from multiple reflections in plan & Section.
172
standing waves ; A standing wave is a sound wave that is the product of continuously
reflected back & forth sound wave between two parallel walls/surfaces whereby the incident
wave and the reflected wave are in phase. Sound reflections create standing waves that
produce natural resonances that can be heard as a pleasant sensation or an annoying one.
waves', where the physical length of the wave is a multiple of the room dimensions. The result is
increased volume at frequencies where the wavelengths match room dimensions, and deep
troughs or dead spots in places where the room dimension is an even factor (such as a half or
quarter) of the wavelength. Standing waves are more apparent in smaller rooms; and square and
cubeoid rooms, or rooms where one dimension is an exact multiple of another, are the worst
culprits. The wavelength of open 'E' on a guitar is around 14 feet (just over 4m), so if you've
converted a single garage into a studio, your longest wall will probably be almost exactly the
length of a waveform at that frequency. Sound Recording rooms any recordings you make of
acoustic instruments will bear all the hallmarks of the space in which you record them. Untreated
rooms have an uneven frequency response, which means that any mixing decisions you make are
being based on a sound that is 'coloured', because you can't accurately hear what's being played.
In short, you can't possibly tell how your mix will sound when played back anywhere else. It isn't
just an issue for mixing. The first thing to grasp is the outcome you want to achieve. It's
a common misconception that acoustic treatment should kill all reverberation. and that you want
a room covered floor-to-ceiling with foam tiles: this isn't what you're aiming for. You also need to
bear in mind the limitations imposed by space and budget: most home music studios are small in
comparison & don't have the FUNDS for treatment solutions.
Sound Absorption & Diffusion : Some time down the road you will probably want to add some diffusion to your room setup.
The difference between trapping and diffusion is that trapping absorbs, and diffusors scatter. Both types of treatment can
correct the same problem, To achieve the right balance, Materials that have absorptive properties include foam and rigid
mineral-wool (see the 'DIY & Rockwool' box), and they 'soak up' the sound energy, turning it into heat, through friction.
Most effective on high-frequencies, absorption is essential for reducing flutter echoes and for taming bright-sounding or
'ringy' rooms.
Bass trapping is also a type of absorption, but is specifically designed to absorb low-frequency energy. A clever combination
of soft, hard, thick and thin materials, including air, is used to make the most efficient bass trap, and an empty gap between
the wall and the back of the trap helps to make it even more effective.
Diffusion is the scattering of sound energy using multi-faceted surfaces. Diffusers are commonly made of wood, plastic, or
even polystyrene. Jorge Castro explains: "diffusion helps in energy control and improves the sound quality in frequencies
throughout the middle and high range of the spectrum, and also improves sweet-spot image.” The 'sweet spot' is the place
between the speakers where you should be sitting to get the best stereo image
173
Acoustics & Building Design Criteria's
STAGE ISSUES Acoustics and Design
What is covered:
Site
Rural or industrial - planning •Basic acoustic terminology.
regulations •Noise sources, design criteria for different buildings and spaces, assessment of noise
Transportation noise - levels, and noise control.
roads/rail/aircraft (prediction •Design issues associated with acoustic performance inside buildings due to internal or
of future levels) external noise sources.
Industrial noise sources What is not covered:
•Buildings where there are special acoustic constraints e.g. auditoria.
Airborne noise and/or
•Factories (and buildings where there is 24 hour work, e.g. hospitals) where it may be
vibration
important to assess the effect of noise generated on adjacent dwellings.
•Sound systems in buildings. These may be required for emergency warning (e.g. fire
Building form Site planning and screening alarm), paging system, lecture and conference rooms, sports stadia, railway stations etc.
Examples
Ventilation - natural or •External environment: buildings adjacent to motorways where there may be a need for a
mechanical sealed building with mechanical ventilation; How noisy can it be before a building cannot be
Location of plant rooms naturally ventilated?
•Internal environment: Office space within factories next to noisy process plant. How can
sound levels in offices be made acceptable?
Detaile design Room-to-room noise Acoustic assessments through the design process: stages of design
Outside-to-inside noise Assessment of Room Sound Level

HVAC noise To find the total sound pressure levels in a room: define individual noise sources and their
PWL, include the modifying characteristics of the transmission paths (e.g. SRI), apply the
Room acoustics
acoustic properties of the receiving room (amount of acoustic absorption), and sum.
Sound insulation Outside Noise Environment
Sound systems This is important, as it has implications for ventilation, and possibly glazing/constructions
e.g. near airports or busy roads. Considerations include:
Supervision Quality of construction external barriers around site - height is critical: note the potential impact on shading;
magnitude of noise sources by measurement, or in case of traffic, calculation based on
Compare actual noise levels vehicle flow rates, speed, ratio of heavy/light vehicles, road surface, gradient, distance from
Commissioning to intended levels and road to building, screening correction.
criteria distance is important: with vegetation and <4m reception point, as high as 7dBA for doubling
of distance; with a hard surface or water only 3dBA for a doubling of distance.
Retrofit Remedial action
174
Acoustical design considerations
Auditoriums
Important feature is the geometry of the room ie,. Space Acoustics in schools;
(volume) , Shape &Sound Absorption Class room Satisfactory size for 40 students is 8.5x7
A Concert hall should have more volume for RT of 1.5 to 2 m Acceptable noise level 40 db.
sec Theaters must have comparatively lesser volume & a RT in class room is dependent on purpose for which
lesser RT of 1.3 sec. it is used, capacity & age group.
The shape of auditorium is a very important feature as we In kindergarten schools more sound absorptive
usually use sound reinforcing system which makes it a much materials is necessary comparatively.
more difficult factor for acoustics. In Lecture halls of higher schools the volume should
be kept as small as possible ie,. About 12 cum / seat.
•Concave walls –have concentration of sound Racking may be suggested for seating & ceiling
•To control reflections from walls, solid convex segments should be designed to give beneficial reflections of
may be added in the wall areas. sound. A ratio of length to width of 1.2 : 1.0 is ideal.
•Sounding boards on platforms of speech helps in reducing Rooms for music should have higher ceilings than
ECHO effects as they produce parallel waves ordinary class rooms & some sound diffusers are to
•The audience during program shall absorb nearly 70 to 80 be used. Sound lock rooms may also act effectively to
percent of the sound produced & cushioned seats have a rehearsal rooms.
greater advantage. The school library areas ceilings may be made
•Fan shaped Auditorium plan with converging side walls absorptive and walls are usually lined with book
are considered best for acoustical reasons with proportions racks which provide absorptive surfaces. The flooring
of1;2;3 for height, width & length is advisable. can be with carpets to avoid movement noises.
•The rear wall should be made sound absorbent to prevent
Echos.
•Some important design considerations for Multy purpose halls are a) No deep under
Balcony spaces b) No… Domed ceilings c) No Curved Walls d) acoustical Doors to
Lobbies e) well isolated Mechanical equipments & Stage Scenery Stores. F) Fabric
upholstered seats for stable RT characteristics' 175
Classrooms and educational facilities
Now days, many children seem to have learning disabilities, language
learning problems, behaviour problems, auditory processing disorders,
reduced cognition skills etc. It is therefore imperative that the
classroom they are learning in does not hinder their learning ability
but allows clear listening and communication.
Considerations:
• Volume per seat ratio
• Placement and choice of sound reinforcement materials
• Distance between speaker and rear of audience
• Path difference between reflected and direct sound
• Good sight lines and reduce audience attenuation
• Teacher/lecturers voice needs to be 15dB louder than background
noise
• Background noise levels should be below 34dBA
• Overall sound levels should not exceed 79dBA
• Reverberation time less than 0.6 seconds
• Design and placement of sound reinforcement system
Good projection of
Long enough reverberation
sound to the rear of
time.
the enclosure.
Good clarity and Desirable acoustic RReverberation time not

articulation too long.
properties of the
Good balance of low Reverb time for low freq.
and high frequencies.
auditorium can be longer than for highs.
contributed by its
Even dispersion of
sound. Absence of architecture. The No large reflective surfaces
desired properties at or focusing of sound.
annoying echoes . left are correlated
with the measurable
parameters at right.
A feeling of "intimacy" Short delay between direct
or "presence". and first reflected sound.
176
Design criteria for multipurpose auditoriums
A good auditorium will accomplish effective projection of the sound to the rear of the
auditorium so that those distant listeners will not experience the extreme loss of sound CONSIDERATIONS
level caused by the inverse square law. That projection is normally achieved by having a
sufficiently long reverberation time. Another significant contributor will be a high, • Background noise levels
reflective ceiling to reflect sound to the back of the auditorium. People seem to prefer • Correct use of space
diff Reverberation times for diff types of musical performance. 1.3 sec for general music • Placement of buffer areas to reduce
1.5 to 2.1 Sec . for Symphony Orchestra etc,. background noise levels
in order to have the best sound quality, all noise has been controlled. To avoid any • Treat noisy areas with the absorption to
possible interference with the noise of the city, rubber joints have been interposed control noise build up
between the floating part of the ceiling and the fixed one. The stage is also built • Ensure volume per seating ratio is
separately, such that it is completely unplugged from the real floor. correct
• Good sight lines
• Visual and seating considerations should
not be the only consideration when
determining the shape.
• Determine desired reverberation times
at various frequencies
• Ceilings and side walls should provide
useful sound reflections.
• Choice of carpet and placement.
• The HVAC system should not exceed
preferred noise criteria
• Stage enclosure should provide good
distribution of strong early reflections
• Correct positioning and set up of sound
reinforcement system if required
• Correct placement of control console
177
Architectural Acoustics
Question Bank
Draw sketches wherever necessary
1. (a) What is Sound ? Explain its difference with human Voice 04

(b) Explain the difference between Pitch & Frequency of sound 06
2. (a) How sound is produced in the human body 04
(b) Explain the concept of Sound Wave & Amplitude 06
3. (a) What do you understand by “DECIBEL” of sound, 04
(b) Differentiate between Audible /infrasonic & Ultrasonic sounds 06
4. (a) On what factors the speed of sound is determined 04
(b) What is “Attenuation of sound & Quality of sound 06
5. (a) Differentiate between Sound Pressure & Sound power 04
(b) Explain the fundamental characteristics of sound in detail 06
6. (a) Explain Threshold of Hearing & Threshold of Pain 04
(b) What is- Inverse Square Law 06
7. (a) Explain with sketches the features of the Ancient Greek Theater 04
(b) Explain the Operative concepts of Roman Theater Acoustics 06
8 (a) Explain with sketches the sound & surface interactions in buildings 04
(b) Explain the acoustic consideration in the work spaces 06
9. (a) What do you know about Sabine formula ? 04
(b) Explain the Ambient Noise & Reverberation issues 06
10(a) What causes Echo in Buildings 04
(b) Explain the importance of Reverberation time in the halls for music 06
11. Discuss the behavior of sound in enclosed spaces & its solutions 10
12. Explain the sound Reinforcing & Insulations methods 10
13. Discuss about i) Speech intelligibility ii) Room modes 10
14. Explain Good Acoustic design, What factors affect the basic goal 10
15. Describe the methods adopted for noise control in buildings 10
16. Briefly explain the following (answer any two) 10
a.) Standing waves b)Bass Traps c.) Sound Absorbing Materials
d.) sound masking purpose e.) Time delay mechanism
e.) Audio spot lighting
178
• The auditorium is a central and important space used for all types of formal
assembly: lectures, award ceremonies, dramatic plays, musical theatre productions,
concert performances of orchestra, band, chorus, jazz band, battles of the bands,
dance competitions and so on. These varied events place a range of demands on the
room.
• For all events, it is essential that everyone in the room hear,
clearly and enjoyably, everything that is presented. This is
the goal of acoustical design for auditorium spaces.
• Auditorium spaces are designed to accommodate large

audiences. As such, they tend to have wide spans and are
multiple-stories high in order to accommodate seating,
sightline, and acoustical requirements.
ACOUSTICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• Liveness
• Intimacy
• Fullness
• Clarity
• Warmth
• Brilliance
• Texture
• Blend
• Ensemble
• Liveness: A room is said to be “live” when the reverberation time is longer than
the average for similar rooms.
• Intimacy: Refers to how close the performing group sounds to the listener.
Intimacy is achieved whenever the first reflected sound reaches the listener less
than about 20 ms after the direct sound.
• Fullness: Refers to the amount of reflected sound intensity relative to the

intensity of direct sound. “The more the reflected sound, the more full the hall
would be.”
• Clarity: Greater clarity is required for listening to speech & is particularly
important when performing music (especially fast numbers).
• Warmth: This is obtained when the reverberation time for low frequency
sounds is somewhat greater to that of higher frequencies.
• Brilliance: It is the opposite of warmth. This exists if the reverberation time for
high frequency is slightly greater than that of lower frequency because of the
absorption of low frequency due to walls, floors & ceilings. If reverberation time
for high frequency is excessively long , there a high pitched ringing sound may
be heard.
• Texture: It refers to the temporal pattern of reflections reaching the listener. is the
dynamic pattern of sound reflections. Good texture is a smoothly decreasing function of
time due to many small echoes. Bad texture contains spikes from strong single echoes.
• Blend: It refers to the mixing of the sound from all the instruments of the orchestra
or ensemble throughout the audience. Proper blend is achieved by mixing the sound
from various instruments and voices on the stage before distributing to the audience.
• Ensemble: It refers to the ability of the members of the performing group to hear
each other during performance, enhancing the ability of the players to play together
effectively.
• General Characteristics For A Good General Purpose Auditorium Are
Indicated:
1. Good clarity & articulation.

2. Good projection of sound to the rear of the enclosure.
3. Good balance of low & high frequencies.
4. Even dispersion of sound. Absence of annoying echoes.
5. A feeling of intimacy or presence.
6. Long enough reverberation time.
7. Reverberation time not too long.
8. Reverb time for low freq. longer than for highs.
9. No large reflective surfaces or focusing of sound.
10. Short delay between direct and first reflected sound.
ROOM CHARACTERISTICS
• The following room characteristics must be considered to determine the

appropriate acoustic auditorium solution:
 Auditorium size: Height, width and length of the room
 Built in features: Windows, hardwood floors, seating, lectures, and other hard,
flat, and bare surfaces will cause sound waves to bounce and echo.
 The space’s intended use: Teaching, musical performance, lectures, audio visual
presentations, etc. All require a unique acoustic treatment.
 Room layout and décor: Door openings, window placement, posts, leather
seating, etc. all come into play when planning for proper acoustics in a space.
• The shape of the room: A square room, for example, is most likely to
cause an acoustic problem because the sound waves will bounce back at
themselves whereas a fan shaped auditorium with a balcony is desirable to
ensure a free flow of direct sound waves to listeners.
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR AN AUDITORIUM WITH GOOD
ACOUSTICS
• Site consideration: Plan the auditorium on quiet exposure, far away from high ways,
flight path, and railway stations.
• Location within the building: Use corridors and quiet buffer spaces to isolate the
auditorium. Treat corridors and lobbies with sound absorbing materials. All doors
should be solid and bracketed around their entire perimeter.
• Volume: The auditorium is so shaped that the audience is as close to the sound source as
possible. A fan shaped auditorium with a balcony is desirable to ensure a free flow of
direct sound waves to listeners. Seating geometry is arranged to give all the audience good
sight lines and at the shortest distance from the stage.
• Purpose: Depending on the purpose a good frequency response sound system will be
required.
• Reverberation time: Sabine’s formula for reverberation time is used for suitable acoustic
treatment. Where ‘V’ is the volume of the hall, ‘A’ is the surface area and ‘a’ is the
absorbing coefficient & ‘T’ is the reverb. time
Sabine's formula can be written as:
T = 0.16V
∑aA
• In designing an auditorium to its acoustics demands, the control of reverberation
time is the most important factor. Due to multiple reflections of sound waves from
the ceiling, floor, walls of the enclosures, the sound waves persist for a certain time
even after the sound has stopped. This persistence of sound is called the
reverberation time.
• The optimum value of the reverberation time varies according to the different types
of sounds like music, speeches, drama, cinema, lecture etc., If the reverberation
exceeds its optimum value, then the speech will be completely unintelligible, and if
the reverberation is lower than the optimum value the auditorium will be somewhat
dead.
• So the auditorium must be designed in such a way that it could have the
optimum reverberation time.To have optimum reverberation time the
auditorium must be furnished with good acoustical finishes, occupants,
room furniture, curtains etc., Since the audience provide most of the
absorption, the auditorium is vacant or partially vacant the hearing
condition will not be satisfactory.
• So to make the hearing conditions satisfactory, when the hall is full or
partially full, upholstered seats with the bottom of the seats with
absorbing materials are provided so that the absence or presence of
audience does not affect the reverberation time.
• In an auditorium reverberation time can also be maintained by eliminating unwanted
echoes, focusing effects of curved surfaces, flatter echoes etc., Echoes, long delayed
reflections and flatter echoes can be prevented by fixing sound absorbing materials
upon the defect producing reflective surfaces. Large unbroken concave surfaces should
be avoided or treated with good sound absorbing materials.
• Ceiling: Central area of the ceiling should be sound reflecting. The
perimeter and rear to be provided with sound absorbing materials like
acoustic tiles.
{acoustic tiles}
• Sidewalls: These should be sound reflecting and diffusing
with as many irregularities as possible. For example, making
doorway wider at one side of the wall keeping windows etc.,
and the back wall is treated with deep sound absorbing finish.
• Floor: All aisles are carpeted except in front of the stage to
make full noise control. Fabric upholstered seats are used.
Absorptive and cushioned seats will give stable reverberation.
• Balconies: Use balconies to increase seating capacity and to
reduce the distance to the farthest row of seats.
• Sound reinforcement system: In large halls a sound amplification system
to reinforce the sound to a weak source in a large room is required. In
addition there should be adequate loudness in every part of the
auditorium uniform distribution (diffusion) of sound energy in the room.
The hall should be free from echoes, long delayed reflections, flatter
echoes, sound concentrations, distortions, and sound shadow and room
resonance.
• Seats: To make the hearing conditions satisfactory when the
room is full or partly full, upholstered seats with absorbing
material at the bottom and back are used, so that the absence
or presence of audience does not affect the reverberation time.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACOUSTICS
OF THE BUILDING
• Reverberation
• Loudness
• Focusing
• Extraneous noise
• Resonance
• Echelon effect
• Echelon effect:
If there is regular structure similar to a flight of stairs or asset of railways in the hall, the
sound produced in front of such a structure may produce a musical note due to regular
successive echoes of sound reaching the observer. Such an effect is called echelon effect. If
the frequency of this note is within the audible range, the listeners will hear only this note
prominently. To avoid echelon effect, the staircase must have to be covered with carpets.
• Focusing:
The presence of cylindrical or spherical surface on the wall or the ceiling gives rise to
undesirable focusing. In hall, the observer receives sound waves from the speaker along
the direct path and the observer also receives the sound waves after reflection from the
ceiling.
Thus the intensity of sound received by the observer in certain positions are
comparatively higher than other positions in the auditorium. It may also happen that the
direct and the reflected waves are in the opposite phases. This results in minimum
intensity of sound at the observer. Further the direct and the reflected waves may from a
stationary wave patterns. This causes uneven distribution of sound intensity.
• Resonance:
The acoustics of a building may also be affected by resonance. If the resonance is of
any audio frequency note the intensity of the note will be entirely different from the
intensity desired. Resonance is inversely proportional to the square root of volume of
the hall. So if the hall is of large size the resonance frequency is much below the
audible frequency limit and harmful effect due to resonance will not be affected.
ALL THE BEST

Architectural Acoustics

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ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND IN A ROOM

• Those that allow sound rays to

• This is known as transmission

• Measured in decibels (dB)

From the origin point of view

 Acoustical foam panels

 Acoustical foam panels

low bass noise, impact noise, or for anechoic sound chambers.

Available in standard thickness, with custom thicknesses optional.

The ultimate in energy absorption with 100% echo reduction

• Standard Polyurethane Foam Patterns

• Fire Rated Foam

White paintable acoustical wall panels

White paintable acoustical wall panels

Fabric wrapped panels

Acoustical wall coverings

 Baffles and banners for ceiling

 Fibre glass blankets and roll

Quadra Pyramid Diffuser

These devices reduce the intensity of sound by scattering it over an expanded

 Quadra Pyramid Diffuser

 Double Duty Diffuser

 Barriers Vibration Control Composites

 SOUND CHANNELS WALL FABRICS

SOUND CHANNELS WALL FABRICS

• Porous rigid materials.

• Porous flexible materials.

• Porous rigid materials.

• Non rigid porous flexible materials

• Non rigid porous flexible materials

• Double wall construction.

BOARDS WOODEN STUDS

EXTERNAL WALL 13MM CELOTEX OR OTHER INSULATING

BRICK WALL 10CM

REINFORCED CONCRETE ROOF

COMPRESSED CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

2 One and half brick thick wall that is 30 cm. 705-710 53

3 Cavity wall having two leaves each of half 485-490 50-53

4 Cavity wall having two 10 cm thick leaves of 310-312 50

6 20 cm thick hollow dense concrete block wall 185 45

7 Partition wall made with gypsum wall board 60-70 45

8 76 mm thick hollow clay block wall with 13 108-110 36

•It is applied in its liquid form and when cured provides a

•Most lacquers are sprayed on and many coats are required.

Polystyrene, expanded rigid backing 0.15

 Reverberant sound is the reflected sound , as a result of improper absorption.

 Reverberation may results in confusion with the sound created next.

 Reverberation is the persistence of

 Reverberant sound is the reflected

 Reverberation may results in

• An echo is produced when the reflected sound

• The sensation of sound persists for 1/10th of a

 This defect can be removed by :

• This defect is the outcome of formation of sound foci.Because of high

• This defect can be removed by suitably placing diffusers and reflectors.

• Right proportions of internal spaces.

Example : Acoustical design of halls

Example : Acoustical design of halls

• Minimisation of external noise ( noise protection)

• Limitation of capacity (700 to 1000) and axial span.

Skene: A large rectangular building situated behind the orchestra, used as a

The large stone theatres seated tens of thousands of Romans.