Kul-34.

4300
Aircraft Structural Design (4 cr)
Fatigue Analyses

M Kanerva 2016
Objective and Contents of the Module
The objective of the module is to describe (1) how aircraft fatigue
analyses are performed and (2) how fatigue is controlled during the
aircraft service

Contents
•  Overview
•  Lessons learned
•  Load spectra
•  Atmospheric turbulence
•  Aircraft response to turbulence
•  Aircraft fatigue loads
•  Fatigue analyses
•  Structural integrity programs

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Fatigue Analyses
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Lessons Learned – Summary

Typical reasons for fatigue failures:

•  Insufficient fatigue life (design)
•  Insufficient damage tolerance (design)
•  Insufficient knowledge of the load spectrum (design)
•  Inadequate full-scale fatigue testing (design)
•  Material/manufacturing defects (production)
•  Insufficient corrosion protection (design, production)
•  Insufficient/unsuccessful inspection (design, maintenance)

Note! More than one reason is typically needed for a

catastrophic failure

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Fatigue analyses
Overview
Lessons learned
Load spectra
Atmospheric turbulence
Aircraft response to turbulence
Aircraft fatigue loads
Fatigue analyses
Structural integrity programs

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Fatigue Analyses
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Load Spectra – Introduction 2/2
A load spectrum for a structural
detail is derived using an
applicable measure for the load
cycles, e.g.:
•  stress or strain
•  force per unit width
•  bending moment of an
aircraft wing or fuselage
cross-section

A load spectrum can be determined (1) experimentally or (2)

analytically

The former method is naturally limited to existing structures

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Forms of Load Spectrum
Cycle Counting – Rainflow
In the rainflow method, the load history
is thought of being in vertical direction

A rainflow is initiated from each inner

corner, the flow continuing until it meets
a flow that has initiated from a higher
load peak

Each rainflow defines a load half-cycle

The method gives an identical result

with the range pair range count method
(and is relatively easy to code)

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Forms of Load Spectrum
Exceedance Curves 1/9
Exceedance curve represents how many load peaks of at least
specified magnitude a structure or structure detail encounters in
a specified time

Load
level"

Aircraft gust
spectrum"

Log exceedances / time"

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Forms of Load Spectrum
Exceedance Curves 2/9
Exceedance curves can be generated:
•  from measured load data;
•  analytically; or
•  partly from measured statistical data (e.g. man-made loads) and
partly analytically (e.g. nature induced loads)

Exceedance curves are generally used in fatigue analyses since:

•  exact load histories do not exist for a new structure to be designed
•  exceedance curves are practical for design purposes

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Forms of Load Spectrum
Exceedance Curves 6/9
A stair approximation
of the exceedance
curve is normally
satisfactory for fatigue
analyses allowing to
represent loads with Load level Exceedances Occurrences
the number of load 1 4 4
occurrences of 2 20 16
selected load levels
3 100 80
4 800 700
5 3000 2200
6 20000 17000

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Fatigue analyses
Overview
Lessons learned
Load spectra
Atmospheric turbulence
Aircraft response to turbulence
Aircraft fatigue loads
Fatigue analyses
Structural integrity programs

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

Fatigue Analyses
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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Introduction
A realistic atmospheric turbulence model is needed to evaluate gusts
encountered by an aircraft during its service
A convenient model is the one that defines frequencies of
exceeding for different gust velocities in one direction
Such a model, based on measured velocity data of turbulence, has
been developed and is used in aircraft fatigue load analyses

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Assumptions
Continuity of turbulence
The probability that y is
between y and y+dy is p(y)dy!
Isotropy and homogeneity:
•  same gust velocity distribution in all
directions
•  same gust velocity distribution in
each point

Normally distributed gust velocity:

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Magnitude of Turbulence
The magnitude of turbulence is
defined by the root mean square
(rms) value of the gust velocity
Turbulences with different rms
values exist
Atmospheric turbulence can be
represented roughly with three
types of turbulence:
•  storm σy = 13.8 ft/s
•  cumulus σy = 6.1 ft/s
•  Clear Air Turbulence CAT
σy = 3.5 ft/s

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Cumulative Probability Distribution of Gust Velocity
Cumulative probability distributions of gust velocities can be computed
numerically from the probability density:

Note! 1 – P(y) defines

the probability that the
velocity y is exceeded"

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Frequency Content of Turbulence
In addition to the magnitude,
the frequency content of
turbulence must be known
Superposition of an infinite
number of sinusoidal
components illustrates the
frequency content, i.e. how a
stationary random process can
be approximated by the
superposition of sinusoids:

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Power Spectral Density (PSD) of Turbulence 1/2
Frequency content of
turbulence can be described
with the Power Spectral
Density (PSD) function
The PSD function Φ(ω) is
defined as follows:

To be noted is that PSD models

Φ(ω)dω is thus the contribution applied in aeronautics describe
of the frequencies ω → ω + dω the turbulence with respect to a
to σy2 flying aircraft

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Power Spectral Density (PSD) of Turbulence 2/2
The PSD function may
be formed using different
frequency units:
•  ω [rad/s]
•  Ω [rad/ft]
•  f [Hz]
•  Ω/2π [cycles/ft]

Taking into account definition of the PSD function, in all cases:

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
PSD Models for Shearing Turbulence 1/2
The PSD function representing well shearing (vertical-lateral)
turbulence encountered by an aircraft is the von Karman model:

where:
•  σw is the rms gust velocity
•  L is the scale of turbulence

Another common model is the Dryden model:

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
PSD Models for Shearing Turbulence – Notes 1/2
The turbulence models are
known to have poor correlation
with measurements with low
Ω/2π values
This is acceptable because
low frequencies are not
meaningful when considering
aircraft loads 10-5
[cycles/feet]
From the two models, the
von Karman model is used Note!
in gust load analyses of •  10-5 cycles / ft = 1 cycle / 100 000 ft
aircraft •  10-2 cycles / ft = 1 cycle / 100 ft

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
PSD Models for Shearing Turbulence – Notes 2/2
With different units of frequency, the PSD model of shearing
turbulence gets the following forms:

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Scale of Turbulence 1/2
The term L in the PSD models
is a fitting parameter and called
the scale of turbulence

It affects the shape of the PSD

curve at low frequencies which
are normally insignificant when
considering aircraft loads

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Scale of Turbulence 2/2
Civil aircraft encounter most of
the turbulence at high enough
altitudes where an appropriate
and generally accepted value of
L is 2500 ft

Military aircraft fly more at low

altitudes where the scale of
turbulence is lower due to the
effect of earth ⇒ lower values
are also used in load analyses of
military aircraft

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Von Karman PSD Model vs. Measurements
The figure beside gives a
comparison in between a
measured PSD and the von
Karman PSD for shearing
turbulence

The measured PSD was

obtained in the L-1011 flight-
test program

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
PSD Models for Longitudinal Turbulence
For longitudinal turbulence, the PSD
models have a different form since they
describe the turbulence with respect to a
flying aircraft
Von Karman:

Dryden:

Note! These models are seldom needed

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Frequency of Velocity Exceedance 1/2
For aircraft load analyses, frequencies of exceeding for different
gust velocity levels need to be known
For the stationary Gaussian random process, this frequency can be
computed with the Rice’s equation:

where No is the number

of zero crossings per
unit time with positive
(or negative) slope

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Frequency of Velocity Exceedance 2/2
Term No in the Rice’s equation can be thought of as a ”characteristic
frequency”

No is defined by the equation:

According to the definition, No is “the radius of gyration of the PSD

about zero frequency”

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Global Turbulence Model 1/5
Global turbulence model for aircraft load analyses is derived by taking
into account that an aircraft encounters patches of turbulences

Assumptions of the model:

1.  In each patch, gust velocity is assumed to be normally

distributed and has a specific gust intensity σw defined by its
rms value:

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Global Turbulence Model 2/5
Assumptions of the model (continued):
2.  The patches divide into two groups, one representing mild
turbulence (non-storm), the other representing more severe
turbulence (storm)
3.  Gust intensities in both groups of patches are normally
distributed and have specific rms values of the gust intensity
(b1 and b2):

Note! The equations take into account that σw is always positive

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Global Turbulence Model 3/5
Assumptions of the model (continued):
4.  For both groups of patches, the rms values b1 and b2 of the gust
intensity σw depend on the altitude
5.  For both groups of patches, there is a specific probability of
existence, these probabilities P1 and P2 being dependent on the
altitude

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Global Turbulence Model 4/5
Based on the assumptions, the probability density of the gust intensity
σw is:

where:
•  b1(h) and b2(h) are the rms values of the gust intensity σw for the
non-storm and storm turbulence patches, respectively
•  P1(h) and P2(h) are the fractions of time that the aircraft flies in the
non-storm and storm turbulence, respectively

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Global Turbulence Model 5/5
Illustration of the model:
non-storm storm

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Recommended Values of b1 and b2 (CS-25/FAR-25)
Altitude [1000 ft[

b1 and b2 [ft/s]

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Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Recommended Values of P1 and P2 (CS-25/FAR-25)
Altitude [1000 ft[

P1 and P2

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