LRS16-3 Fatigue Analyses C

Kul-34.
4300
Aircraft Structural Design (4 cr)
Fatigue Analyses (3/3)
M Kanerva 2016
Objective and Contents of the Module
The objective of the module is to describe (1) how aircraft fatigue
analyses are performed and (2) how fatigue is controlled during the
aircraft service
Contents
• Overview
• Lessons learned
• Load spectra
• Atmospheric turbulence
• Aircraft response to turbulence
• Aircraft fatigue loads
• Fatigue analyses
• Structural integrity programs & analyses
O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

Fatigue Analyses
Page 2
Fatigue analyses
Overview
Lessons learned
Load spectra
Atmospheric turbulence Revision
Aircraft response to turbulence

Aircraft fatigue loads
Fatigue analyses
Structural integrity programs

Fatigue Analyses
Page 3
Atmospheric Turbulence Model
Global Turbulence Model 1/5
Global turbulence model for aircraft load analyses is derived by taking
into account that an aircraft encounters patches of turbulences
Assumptions of the model:
1. In each patch, gust velocity is assumed to be normally

distributed and has a specific gust intensity w defined by its
rms value:
1 1 é 1æ y ö ù
2
p( y ) = expê- çç ÷÷ ú
2p s w êë 2 è s w ø úû

Fatigue Analyses
Page 4
Assumptions of the model (continued):
2. The patches divide into two groups, one representing mild
turbulence (non-storm), the other representing more severe
turbulence (storm)
3. Gust intensities in both groups of patches are normally
distributed and have specific rms values of the gust intensity
(b1 and b2):
2 1 é 1 æsw ö ù
2
2 1 é 1 æsw ö ù
2
p (s w ) = exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú p (s w ) = exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú
p b1 êë 2 è b1 ø úû p b2 êë 2 è b2 ø úû
Note! The equations take into account that w is always positive

Fatigue Analyses
Page 5
Assumptions of the model (continued):
4. For both groups of patches, the rms values b1 and b2 of the gust
intensity sw depend on the altitude
5. For both groups of patches, there is a specific probability of
existence, these probabilities P1 and P2 being dependent on the
altitude
2 1 é 1 æ s ö2 ù 2 1 é æ
1 sw ö
2
ù
p (s w ) = exp ê- çç w
÷÷ ú p (s w ) = exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú
p b1 (h ) êë 2 è b1 (h ) ø úû p b2 (h ) êë 2 è b2 (h ) ø úû
P = P1 (h) P = P2 (h )

Fatigue Analyses
Page 6
Based on the assumptions, the probability density of the gust intensity
sw is:
2 1 é æ
1 sw ö
2
ù 2 1 é 1 sw ù
æ ö
2
p(s w ) = P1 exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú + P2 exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú

p b1 êë 2 è b1 ø úû p b2 êë 2 è b2 ø úû
where:
• b1(h) and b2(h) are the rms values of the gust intensity sw for the
non-storm and storm turbulence patches, respectively
• P1(h) and P2(h) are the fractions of time that the aircraft flies in the
non-storm and storm turbulence, respectively

Fatigue Analyses
Page 7
Recommended Values of b1 and b2 (CS-25/FAR-25)
Altitude [1000 ft[
b1 and b2 [ft/s]

Fatigue Analyses
Page 8
Recommended Values of P1 and P2 (CS-25/FAR-25)
Altitude [1000 ft[
P1 and P2

Fatigue Analyses
Page 9
Frequency of Velocity Exceedance 1/2
For aircraft load analyses, frequencies of exceeding for different
gust velocity levels need to be known
For the stationary Gaussian random process, this frequency can be
computed with the Rice’s equation:
é æ ö
2
ù
N ( y ) = N 0 exp ê- ç ÷ ú
1 y
ê 2 çs ÷ ú
êë è y ø úû
where No is the number

of zero crossings per
unit time with positive
(or negative) slope

Fatigue Analyses
Page 10
Frequency of Velocity Exceedance 2/2
Term No in the Rice’s equation can be thought of as a ”characteristic
frequency”
No is defined by the equation:

¥
ò f 2F ( f )df
N0 = 0
¥
ò F( f )df
0
According to the definition, No is “the radius of gyration of the PSD

about zero frequency”

Fatigue Analyses
Page 11
Fatigue analyses
Overview
Lessons learned
Load spectra
Atmospheric turbulence
Fatigue analyses

Fatigue Analyses
Page 12
Aircraft Response to Turbulence
Introduction
Response to atmospheric turbulence must be determined for each
(possibly) fatigue critical detail of an aircraft structure
A convenient load measure is used in the analysis, e.g.

• centre of gravity acceleration
• bending and torsion moment of a wing cross-section
• force per unit width of wing skin
• strain or stress of a wing spar

Fatigue Analyses
Page 13
Transfer Function 1/2
Structure response to turbulence is
described by the transfer function turbulence
that transfers the input PSD into the
output PSD:
Fo ( f ) = Fi ( f ) H ( f )
2
¥ ¥
si = ò F ( f )df ; s
0
i o = ò F ( f )df
0
o
response
In case of a flexible aircraft, transfer
function is specific for each local load
of the aircraft

Fatigue Analyses
Page 14
Transfer Function 2/2
Typically, response PSD curves have
peaks at natural frequencies
In the examples beside (related to a

Wing bending
specific wing cross-section):
• 0.3 Hz is the airplane short-period
natural frequency
• 1.5 Hz is the first wing-bending
frequency
• 2.3 and 2.7 Hz are the engine Wing torsion
frequencies
• 3.3 Hz is the first fuselage bending
frequency

Fatigue Analyses
Page 15
Amplification Coefficient 1/4
Amplification coefficient is further
used to describe aircraft response to
turbulence
It is defined to be the ratio of the output

and input intensities:
sy ¥ ¥
A=
sw
= òF
0
y (w )dw òF
0
w (w )dw
w = gust intensity (rms value)
y = load intensity (rms value)

Fatigue Analyses
Page 16
Value of the amplification coefficient must normally be determined for
each local load with a dynamical analysis, taking into account
important vibration modes
In preliminary analyses, the amplification coefficient for vertical gusts

can be estimated by assuming a rigid airplane:
r VT CLa
A = Ks
2(W / S )
The gust response factor Ks in the equation can be estimated when

aircraft and turbulence characteristics are known

Fatigue Analyses
Page 17
Gust response
factor Ks for
computing the
amplification
coefficient of
the g-load, rigid
airplane

Fatigue Analyses
Page 18
Typical increase in the amplification due to elasticity is of the
order 1.15 ... 1.25

Fatigue Analyses
Page 19
Load Level Exceedances 1/8
Rice’s equation and the amplification coefficient give an equation for
computing the number of exceeding of load level y due to turbulence
with the gust intensity of sw :
é 1 æ y ö2 ù é 1 æ y ö2 ù sy
N ( y ) = N 0 exp ê- ç ÷ ú = N 0 exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú A=
ç ÷
ê 2 ès y ø ú sw
êë 2 è A s w ø úû
ë û
é 1 ( y / A )2 ù
= N 0 exp ê- ú
êë 2 s 2
w úû
Note: N0 is the number of zero crossings for the local load y

Fatigue Analyses
Page 20
The number of zero crossings N0 must also be determined, as needed,
by taking into account flexibility of the aircraft
When the vertical motion of the aircraft is only accounted for, and a
rigid airplane is assumed, N0 can be estimated using the equation:
V
N0 = k0
pc
The coefficient k0 in the equation depends on the aircraft and

turbulence characteristics
Typical increase of N0 due to elasticity is of the order 1.5 ... 2.0

Fatigue Analyses
Page 21
Coefficient k0
vs. mass
parameter for
a rigid aircraft

Fatigue Analyses
Page 22
In a set of turbulence patches with the gust intensities swi, the number
of exceeding of load level y is:
é 1 ( y / A )2 ù
N ( y ) = å ti N 0 exp ê- ú
s wi êë 2 s wi úû
2
where ti is the fraction of time when sw = swi

Fatigue Analyses
Page 23
Considering a continuous variation of the gust intensity sw, the
summation on the previous slide is replaced by an integral:
¥ é 1 ( y / A )2 ù
N ( y ) = ò N 0 exp ê - ú p (s w )ds w
s w =0 êë 2 s w úû
2
where the factor with the probability density p(sw)dsw is equivalent to

the fraction of time in the numerical summation

Fatigue Analyses
Page 24
With the applied turbulence model (probability density of sw), the
equation for the number of exceeding of load level y becomes:
N ( y) æ y/ Aö æ y/ Aö
ç
= P1 exp - ÷ + P2 expç - ÷
ç b1 ÷ø ç b ÷
N0 è è 2 ø
Note!
• the equation is derived e.g. in the
textbook of Hoblit
• on the semi log plot, each of the two
terms represents its own share

Fatigue Analyses
Page 25
The equation for computing the number of load level exceedances is finally
modified to the form that takes into account the load level due to the reference
flight condition (cruise flight):
é æ y - y1g / A ö æ y - y1g / A öù
N ( y ) = N 0 ê P1 expç - ÷ + P expç - ÷ú
ê ç b1 ÷ 2
ç b2 ÷ú
ë è ø è øû
where y1g is the load level corresponding to the cruise flight
Note: The equation applies for each part of mission or flight with constant bi,
and Pi per patch

Fatigue Analyses
Page 26
Design Envelope Analysis 1/2
The continuous turbulence model must also be used as a basis for
determining limit loads due to gusts
The load level due to a gust is:
æsy ö
ydesign = s y h d = çç s w ÷÷h d = (A s w )h d = A (s wh d ) = A U s
èsw ø
where:
• hd is the design ratio of peak to rms values
• Us is the limit turbulence intensity
Note! Us is now a true airspeed gust velocity

Fatigue Analyses
Page 27
Design Envelope Analysis 2/2
Us values to be used in load analyses are given by CS-25 in the form:
U s = U sref Fg
where:
• U ref is the reference turbulence intensity defined with true airspeed
(TAS) values as a function of the altitude
• Fg is the flight profile alleviation factor used also in the discrete gust
load analysis
The equation to be used for computing the limit loads is:
PL = PL -1g ± U s A
where PL-1g is the steady 1g load for the condition

Fatigue Analyses
Page 28
Fatigue analyses
Overview
Lessons learned
Load spectra
Aircraft fatigue loads Reminder
Fatigue analyses

Fatigue Analyses
Page 29
Aircraft Fatigue Loads
Modelling of Aircraft Use – Ground Loads
Significant loads are applied to many structures in landing, the
magnitude of loads depending on the vertical velocity in touch down
Þ Frequencies of exceeding
must be established for
vertical landing speeds
Vertical velocities greatly depend

on the type of the aircraft
Measured velocities of similar

aircraft can be utilised in the
specification of vertical velocities

Fatigue Analyses
Page 30
Modelling of Aircraft Use – GAG-cycle 1/2
Ground-Air-Ground
cycle (GAG-cycle) is
the highest peak-to-peak
load cycle encountered
by an aircraft structure
once per flight
When fatigue loads are

based on exceedance
curves, the GAG-cycle
must be extracted from
the curves for its
analysis

Fatigue Analyses
Page 31
Modelling of Aircraft Use – GAG-cycle 2/2
Pressurisation occurs once per flight and can be included in the GAG-
cycle in load analyses of fuselage structures
For a transport aircraft, peak-to-peak GAG-cycle is the most

damaging cycle and may account for 90% of the total fatigue life
E.g. ESDU (Engineering Sciences Data Unit) gives an approximate

method for extracting the GAG-cycle from the aircraft load spectrum

Fatigue Analyses
Page 32
Fatigue analyses
Overview
Lessons learned
Load spectra
Fatigue analyses Reminder

Fatigue Analyses
Page 33
Fatigue Analyses
Crack-Free Life
3. The spent life due to the load
cycles is estimated to be ni /Ni
4. All load cycles are analysed
accordingly
5. The spent life D due to all loads
in unit time is computed, which
further gives an estimate for the
crack-free life T:
D = å ni N i ; T =1 D
Note! The unit time may be one flight or a set of flights representing
the aircraft use as a whole

Fatigue Analyses
Page 34
Fatigue Analyses
Crack-Free Life – Notes
The effect of loading sequence on fatigue life is different with different
materials and mean stresses:

Fatigue Analyses
Page 35
Fatigue analyses
Overview
Lessons learned
Load spectra
Fatigue analyses

Fatigue Analyses
Page 36
Structural Integrity Programs
Introduction
have been developed to ensure
the safety of aircraft structures
The programs define an
organised approach for
structural integrity actions
covering the whole life-cycle of
the aircraft
The US military standard MIL-
STD-1530C Aircraft Structural
Integrity Program is an example
of a standardised approach

Fatigue Analyses
Page 37
Civil Aviation
Civil transport aircraft are typically used in a similar way by different
operators
Structure inspections included in the maintenance programme then

form a good basis for securing the structural integrity
If the actual use differs considerably from the planned use, additional
activities are needed (e.g. to take into account high number of GAG-
cycles for large aircraft used in short routes)
As needed, supplemental inspection and maintenance tasks are

defined based on experience and further evaluation

Fatigue Analyses
Page 38
Military Aviation
The use of fighters is operator specific and often differs from the
planned use
Military operators therefore define their own structural integrity
programs based on actual use
Actual use, in terms of the Fatigue Life Expended (FLE), is monitored
for each aircraft
Fleet leaders, analyses and data gathered from other operators are
used to foresee actions needed to secure structural integrity and the
targeted lifetime
The fleet is used so that individual aircraft consume their fatigue lives
with (closely) the same rate

Fatigue Analyses
Page 39
Procedure
Task I Note! The procedure assumes

Design Data
that the design and certification
Task II data are available
Analysis and development
testing For more information, see e.g. the MSc
thesis of T. Hukkanen (TKK 2008)
Task III
Certification testing
Task IV
Development and certification of a
structural integrity program
Task V
Structural integrity actions

Fatigue Analyses
Page 40
FLE Estimate Based on Measured Load Data
Load data measured with strain gauges can be used to evaluate FLE
of a fatigue critical structure detail:
• Strain data is recorded
• Transfer functions are
developed for computing load
spectrum of the hot spot
• Measured load spectrum is
transformed to load cycles
• Applicable fatigue analysis
software is used to evaluate:
(1) the crack nucleation time and
Figure: T. Hukkanen MSc Thesis
(2) the crack propagation rate

Fatigue Analyses
Page 41
FLE Estimate Based on Flight Parameter Data
An alternative method for the evaluation of FLE is to derive structure
loads from flight parameter data:
Flight parameter based
F-18 fatigue life analysis
• Flight parameter data and MU & SAFE
-Data
strain data are recorded
sglob (t)
• Load analysis method Interpolation = f (Flight Params(t))
& smoothing
based on flight parameter
data is developed (neural Inverse
x1
x2
Pre-processing x3 Neural y1
network) Simulation of Data Network

y2
y3
xn
s [Mpa]
0.25 s Training
S/G Data FFT &
software is used to evaluate (HOLM) Filtering
Data
crack nucleation time and

crack propagation rate Figure: T. Salonen MSc Thesis

Fatigue Analyses
Page 42
FLE Estimate Based on Analysis Data
Third method for the evaluation of FLE is to compute structure loads:
• CFD analysis is used to define
aerodynamic load data for
different flight conditions
• Structure loads corresponding
to the estimated use are
computed with calibrated FE
models
software is used to evaluate
crack nucleation time and
Figure: Patria
crack propagation rate

Fatigue Analyses
Page 43
Life Extension
When a fatigue critical
structure is identified early
enough, it is often possible
to extend its fatigue life
Possible means:
• shot peening of the
surface (metallic parts)
• polishing of the surface
(metallic parts)
• local reinforcement
(e.g. composite patch) Figures: J. Linna MSc Thesis

Fatigue Analyses
Page 44
FINAF F-18 Activities – Load Analysis Tools
Development and use of flight
simulation software
Development and use of CFD

analysis tools
Development and use of FE models:

Figure: Aalto/AM/AE
• global
• local
• structural details
Figures: Patria

Fatigue Analyses
Page 45
FINAF F-18 Activities – Load Measurement Systems
Development and use of the
HOLM (Hornet Operational
Loads Measurement) system:
• two F-18C aircraft
• 26 strain gauges / aircraft
• strain recording frequency
1280/640 Hz
• additionally, 200 flight
parameters recorded at
high frequencies

Fatigue Analyses
Page 46
FINAF F-18 Activities – Analysis Systems
Development and use of methods for
utilising measured data: Flight parameter based
F-18 fatigue life analysis
MU & SAFE
• transfer functions -Data
sglob (t)
• load history analyses Interpolation = f (Flight Params(t))
& smoothing
Development and use of a flight x1

Inverse Pre-processing
x2
Neural
parameter based load analysis system x3 y1
Simulation of Data Network

y2
y3
xn
s [Mpa]
Training
Development and use of fatigue life
0.25 s
S/G Data FFT & Data

(HOLM) Filtering
analysis systems
• fatigue crack growth
• residual strength

Fatigue Analyses
Page 47
FINAF F-18 Activities – Record of Fatigue Critical Areas
Upper Outboard Longeron, Y491-Y508
Crease Longeron Dorsal Longeron, Y557.5
Crease Longeron Sivuvakaajan Stub Former Y590.5
Kaaren Y508 takakiinnitystapin alue
ILEF pääsalon “rystyset”
Sisäsiiven etusalko
Ulkosiiven taittovaihteiston korvakkeet 1,2,3,8 ja 9
Ulkosiiven etusalon pystyjäykiste Xw=220 in

Figure: Patria
Aft Shear Tie
Ulkosiiven Rib, Missile Support TEF:n ja Aileronin saranakorvakkeet + TEF:n Formerit 5 & 6

Fatigue Analyses
Page 48
FINAF F-18 Activities – Inspection Method Development
Development and use of methods
for inspecting structures:
• ultrasonics
• thermographics
• X-ray

Fatigue Analyses
Page 49
FINAF F-18 Activities – Fatigue Testing
Analyses on parameter
effects on material fatigue:
• Chemical surface
treatments
• Mechanical surface
working methods (shot
peening, polishing)
• Cold-working of hole
edges Figure: J. Linna MSc thesis
Fatigue testing of joints

Fatigue Analyses
Page 50
FINAF F-18 Activities – Repair Technique Development
Surface working methods
Geometry modifications
Part/fastener (and material) replacements
Reinforcements, e.g. composite patches

Fatigue Analyses
Page 51
Fatigue Analysis of OH-KOG 1/4
The remaining fatigue life of the DHC-6 Twin Otter Series 300
OH-KOG aircraft wing was evaluated due to the modifications and
exceptional use of the aircraft:
• Entry into service in 1979

• The aircraft has been used mainly for
geographical surveying
• In 2007, the OH-KOG had gathered
17166 FH
• Fatigue life of 33000 FH has been
verified for the wing in the normal use
Figure: M. Anttila MSc thesis

Fatigue Analyses
Page 52
Specific features of OH-KOG:
• Pods for measuring
devices at the wing tips
(several modifications
during the operational
use)
• Measuring flights at low Figures: M. Anttila MSc thesis
altitude (100 – 150 ft)
Note! The pods at wing tips

have a significant effect on
aeroelastic properties of the
wing

Fatigue Analyses
Page 53
Tasks:
1. Creation and verification of the wing FE
model (original and modified wings)
2. Evaluation of the original load spectrum
3. Reference fatigue analysis -> stress
levels on the wing to obtain the certified
fatigue life G-mittausdataa - Kosovo
0.8
4. Creation of the actual load spectrum 0.6
0.4
5. Palmgren-Miner fatigue analysis 0.2
n
corresponding to the actual use -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-0.4
-0.6
Note! Lack of initial data affected the -0.8

t (s)
approach making the analysis complicated Figures: M. Anttila MSc thesis

Fatigue Analyses
Page 54
Results: Kumulatiiviset kuormitukset
• Based on the conservative 10000
analysis, the actual use 1000
has consumed fatigue life

100
faster than the planned
Etelä-Suomi
use 10 Tunturilappi
1 / FH
Afrikka
Irlanti
• Fatigue life consumption 1 Kosovo

Alkuperäinen
rate highly depends on the 0.1
measuring area 0.01
• The whole fatigue life has 0.001
not yet been consumed -1.5 -1 -0.5

Dn
n
0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure: M. Anttila MSc thesis

Fatigue Analyses
Page 55
Fatigue Analysis of PIK-20 1/3
Different versions of the Finnish
PIK-20 glider have originally been
certified to 3000 or 4000 FH
Many gliders are still in use and

several of them have exceeded
their certified fatigue life (the
continuing use based on structure
inspections)
A fatigue analysis was made for

the wing upper spar cap which is
the most fatigue critical structure
detail of the glider

Fatigue Analyses
Page 56
Tasks:
1. Creation and verification of the
wing FE model
2. Identification of the critical
cross-section (based on
analysis and original load test
results)
3. Creation of load spectra
(4 analytic and 3 measured load
spectra)
4. Search of the representative
SN-data for UD glass/epoxy and Figure: T. Lukkarinen MSc thesis
carbon/epoxy
5. Palmgren-Miner fatigue
analyses

Fatigue Analyses
Page 57
Conclusions:
• Very conservative
load spectra have
been used in the
original fatigue life
evaluations
• Conservative
analysis predicts that
the spar is not
fatigue critical even
when the glider is
partly used for
aerobatic flight
Figure: T. Lukkarinen MSc thesis

Fatigue Analyses
Page 58

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Kul-34.

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

Aircraft response to turbulence

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

Assumptions of the model:

1. In each patch, gust velocity is assumed to be normally

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

Note! The equations take into account that w is always positive

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

p(s w ) = P1 exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú + P2 exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

where No is the number

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

No is defined by the equation:

According to the definition, No is “the radius of gyration of the PSD

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

A convenient load measure is used in the analysis, e.g.

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

In the examples beside (related to a

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

It is defined to be the ratio of the output

w = gust intensity (rms value)

y = load intensity (rms value)

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

In preliminary analyses, the amplification coefficient for vertical gusts

The gust response factor Ks in the equation can be estimated when

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

Note: N0 is the number of zero crossings for the local load y

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

The coefficient k0 in the equation depends on the aircraft and

Typical increase of N0 due to elasticity is of the order 1.5 ... 2.0

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

where ti is the fraction of time when sw = swi

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

where the factor with the probability density p(sw)dsw is equivalent to

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

where y1g is the load level corresponding to the cruise flight

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

The equation to be used for computing the limit loads is:

where PL-1g is the steady 1g load for the condition

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

Vertical velocities greatly depend

Measured velocities of similar

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

When fatigue loads are

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

For a transport aircraft, peak-to-peak GAG-cycle is the most

E.g. ESDU (Engineering Sciences Data Unit) gives an approximate

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

Structural integrity programs

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016

O Saarela + M Kanerva Aircraft structural design 2016