Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai)
TRICHY – PUDUKKOTTAI ROAD, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 007
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
COURSE MATERIAL
1
M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai)
TRICHY – PUDUKKOTTAI ROAD, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 007
(SYLLABUS)
Sub. Code : EE6603 Branch/Year/Sem : EEE/III/V
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
2
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Olle.I.Elgerd, „Electric Energy Systems theory - An introduction‟, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, 34th reprint, 2010.
2. Allen. J. Wood and Bruce F. Wollenberg, „Power Generation, Operation and Control‟, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
3. Abhijit Chakrabarti, Sunita Halder, „Power System Analysis Operation and Control‟, PHI
learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Third Edition, 2010.
REFERENCES:
1. Nagrath I.J. and Kothari D.P., „Modern Power System Analysis‟, Tata McGraw-Hill, Fourth
Edition, 2011.
2. Kundur P., „Power System Stability and Control, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 10th reprint, 2010.
3. Hadi Saadat, „Power System Analysis‟, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 21 st
reprint, 2010.
4. N.V.Ramana, “Power System Operation and Control,” Pearson, 2011.
5. C.A.Gross, “Power System Analysis,” Wiley India, 2011.
3
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
UNIT 1 – INTRODUCTION
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Connected load
The term connected load means the sum of continuous ratings of all the
equipments connected to supply systems.
Load curve
Load on the power system is seldom constant. It varies from time to time. The
curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time is known as
a load curve. It can be plotted on a graph taking load on Y-axis and time on X-axis. There
are three types, Daily load curve, Monthly load curve, Yearly load curve.
When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes the curve then obtained is called load duration curve. This type of curve
which indicates the variation of load, but with the loads arranged in descending order of
magnitude, i.e, the greatest load on the left and lesser loads towards right.
Load factor
4
The load factor defined as the ratio between the average demand to the maximum
demand. The load factor can be written as
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Diversity factor
The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station is known as
diversity factor.
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Average demand
The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or
month or year) is known as average demand.
It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of
hours for which the plant was in operation.
Maximum demand
It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
Spinning Reserve
5
Spinning reserve is that generating capacity which is connected to the bus and is
ready to take load
Hot Reserve
Hot reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is in operation bus is not in
service.
Cold Reserve
Cold reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is available for service but is
not in operation.
Economic Dispatch Control (EDC)
When the economical load distribution between a number of generator units
is considered, it is found that the optimum generating schedule is affected when an
incremental increased at one of the units replaces a compensating decrease at every other
unit, in term of some incremental cost. Optimum operation of generators at each
generating station at various station load levels is known as unit commitment.
Governor Control
6
When a prime mover drives an alternator supplying electrical power at a given
frequency, a governor must be used to hold the prime mover at a speed that will
yield this frequency. An unloaded diesel engine will fly to pieces unless it is under
governor control.
Sense the bus bar frequency & compare with the tie line power frequency
Difference fed to the integrator & to speed changer
Tie line frequency maintained constant
7
Monitoring & decision
Condition of the system continuously observed in the control centers by relays.
If any continuous severe problem occurs system is in abnormal condition.
Control
Proper commands are generated for correcting the abnormality in protecting the
system.
If no abnormality is observed, then the normal operation proceeds for next
interval.
Central controls are used to monitor the interconnected areas
Inter connected areas can be tolerate larger load changes with smaller frequency
deviations
Central control centre monitors information about frequency, generating unit
outputs and tie line power flows to interconnected areas.
This information is used by automation load frequency control in order to maintain
area frequency at its scheduled value.
1.3 NEED FOR VOLTAGE REGULATION IN POWER SYSTEM
The transmission lines and the distribution lines need voltage control at various
stages to maintain the voltage at the last consumer‘s premises within permissible
limits.
Variations in supply voltage are detrimental in various aspects.
Below normal voltage substantially reduces the light output from incandescent
lamps.
Above normal voltage reduces the life of the lamps.
Motors operated at below normal voltage draw abnormally high currents and may
overheat, even when carrying no more than the rated horse power load.
8
If the voltage of the system deviates from the nominal value, the performance of
the devices suffers and its life expectancy drops.
The real line losses depend as much upon the reactive line as upon the real time
power flow. The reactive line flow depends upon line end voltages.
By adjusting the excitation of the generator at the sending end below a certain
limit may result in instability of the system and excitation above certain level will
result in overheating of the rotor.
Service voltages are usually specified by a nominal value and the voltage
maintained is ± 5 % of the nominal value.
In any power system if the frequency changes there won‘t be required receiving
end voltage. If we connected two systems in parallel, it will spoil the system.
The generator turbines, particularly steam driven ones are designed to operate at a
very precise speed.
Most of AC motors rub at speeds that are directly related to the frequency.
The overall operation of a power system can be much better controlled if the
frequency error is kept within strict limits.
A large number of electrically operated clocks are used. They are all driven be
synchronous motors and the accuracy of these clocks is a function not only of a
frequency error, but actually of the integral of this error.
9
Constant turbine speed is an important requirement. The velocity of the expanding
steam is beyond our control and the turbine efficiency requires perfect speed
match.
Unusual deviations in the frequency can be detected earlier.
When two systems working at different frequencies are to be tied together to make
same frequency, frequency converting stations or links are required
Static changes in ∆Pi the real bus power affect the bus phase angle and not the bus
voltage magnitudes. This change affects the real line flows and not the reactive
line flows.
Static changes in ∆Qi in the reactive power affect the bus voltage magnitudes and
the phase angle. This change affects the reactive line flows and not the real line
10
flows. A static change in the reactive bus power affects the bus voltage at the
particular bus and has little effect on the magnitude of voltage.
Primary ALFC
The circuit primarily controls the steam valve leading to the turbine. A speed
sensor senses the speed of the turbine.
11
This is compared with a reference speed, governor whose main activity is to
control the speed of the steam by closing and opening of the control valve.
That is, if the differential speed is low, then the control valve is opened to let out
the steam at high speed thereby increasing turbine‘s speed and vice versa. The
control of speed in turn controls the frequency
Secondary ALFC
This circuit involves a frequency sensor that senses the frequency of the bus bar
and compares it with Tie line power frequencies in the signal mixer.
The output of this is an Area Control Error (ACE) which is sent to the speed
changer through integrator.
The speed changer gives the reference speed to the governor. Integral controller is
used to reduce the steady state frequency change to zero.
After this part of the circuit, is the introduction of the Primary ALFC loop whose
function has already been described. Thus, the two loops together help in
controlling the speed which in turn controls the Frequency since N α f.
This involves the process of controlling the system voltage within tolerable limits.
This includes the devices such as static VAR compensators, synchronous
condenser, tap changing transformer, switches, capacitor and reactor.
The controls described above contribute to the satisfactory operation of the power
system by maintaining system voltages, frequency and other system variables
within their acceptable limits.
They also have a profound effect on the dynamic performance of power system
and on its ability to cope with disturbances.
Security control
12
The main objective of real time power system operation requires a process guided by
control and decisions based on constant monitoring of the system condition. The power
system operation is split into two levels.
Level 2: Control
At each sample, the proper commands are generated for correcting the abnormality
on protecting the system from its consequences. If on abnormality is observed,
then the normal operation proceeds for the next sample interval.
Central controls also play an important role in modern power systems. Today
systems are composed of interconnected areas, where each area has its own
control centre. There are power to handle anticipated load peaks and unanticipated
generator outages. Interconnected areas can also tolerated large load changes with
smaller frequency deviations at spinning reserve and standby provides a reserve
margin.
The central control centre information including area frequency, generating unit
outputs and tie line power floes to interconnected areas. This information is used
by automatic load frequency control in order to maintain area frequency at its
scheduled values.
13
Governor control or Prime mover controls are concerned with speed regulation of
the governor and the control of energy supply system variables such as boiler pressure,
temperature and flows. Speed regulation is concerned with steam input to turbine. With
variation in load, speed of governor varies as the load is inversely proportional to speed.
The speed of the generator varies and the governor senses the speed and gives a
command signal, so that, the steam input of the turbine is changed relative to the load
requirement.
This involves the sensing of the bus bar frequency and compares with the tie line
power frequency. The difference of the signal is fed to the integrator and it is given to
speed changer which generates the reference speed for the governor. Thus, the frequency
of the tie line is maintained as constant.
14
(ii) Economic Dispatch Control (EDC)
This involves the process of controlling the system voltage within tolerable limits.
This includes the devices such as static VAR compensators, synchronous condenser, tap
changing transformer, switches, capacitor and reactor. The controls described above
15
contribute to the satisfactory operation of the power system by maintaining system
voltages, frequency and other system variables within their acceptable limits. They also
have a profound effect on the dynamic performance of power system and on its ability to
cope with disturbances.
The main objective of real time power system operation requires a process guided
by control and decisions based on constant monitoring of the system condition. The
power system operation is split into two levels.
Synchronous Generators
16
An over excited synchronous machine operating on no load generates reactive
power. Under excited synchronous machine absorbs reactive power.
Synchronous Compensators
Certain smaller generators, once run up to speed and synchronized to the system,
can be declutched from their turbine and provide reactive power without producing real
power.
These are devices that can be connected to the system to adjust voltage levels .A
capacitive compensator produces an electric field thereby generating reactive power and
an inductive compensator produces a magnetic field to absorb reactive power.
Compensation devices are available as either capacitive or inductive alone or as a hybrid
to provide both generation and absorption of reactive power.
Overhead lines and underground cables, when operating at the normal system voltage,
both produce strong electric fields and so generate reactive power. When current flows
through a line or cable it produces a magnetic field which absorbs reactive power. A
lightly loaded overhead line is a net generator of reactive power while a heavily loaded
line is a net absorber of reactive power.
Cables
In the case of cables designed for use at 275 or 400kV the reactive power generated by
the electric field is always greater than the reactive power absorbed by the magnetic field
and so cables are always net generators of reactive power.
Transformers
17
Transformers always absorb reactive power regardless of their loading. At no load shunt
magnetizing effect is predominant and at full load series leakage inductance effect is
predominant. The reactive power absorbed by transformer is given by
𝑄𝑇 = 3|𝐼|2 𝑋 𝑉𝐴𝑅 𝑜𝑟 3𝐾𝑉𝐴 . 𝑋𝑇 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑅
where
I = Current in Amps flowing through transformer
CONTROL
All power transformers on transmission lines are provided with taps for control
of secondary voltage. The tap changing transformers do not control voltage by regulating
the flow of reactive VARs but by changing transformation ratio. There are two types of
tap changing transformers
The off-load tap changing transformer which requires the disconnection of the
transformer when the tap setting is to be changed. Off- load tap changers are used when it
is to be operated in frequently due to growth or some seasonal change.
18
On –load tap changing transformer is used when changes in transformer ratio to
be needed frequently, & no need to switch off the transformer to change the tap of
transformer. it is used on power transformers, auto transformers & bulk distribution
transformer & at other points of load service.
The modern practice is to use on-load tap changing transformer. In the position shown
the voltage is maximum and since the currents divide equally & flow in opposition
through the coil b/w Q1& Q2 the resultant flux is zero & hence minimum impedance.
To reduce the voltage the following operations are required in sequence:
i. Open Q1.
ii. Move selector switch S1 to the next contact.
iii. Close Q1.
iv. Open Q2.
v. Move selector switch S2 to the next contact.
vi. Close Q2.
Thus six operations are required for one change in tap position. The voltage change b/w
taps is often 1.25 percent of the nominal voltage.
Applications:
19
Autotransformers used to change from one subsystem to another are often
furnished with under load or on load tap changing facilities (ULTC). They may be
controlled either automatically or manually. These are usually present throughout
the network interconnecting transmission of system different levels.
The control of single transformer will cause changes in voltages at its terminals. In
addition, it influences the reactive power flow through the transformer.
During high system load conditions, the network voltages are kept at the highest
practical level to maximize reactive power requirements & increase the
effectiveness of shunt capacitors & line charging.
The term static var compensator is applied to a number of static var compensation
devices for use in shunt reactive control.
These devices consist of shunt connected, static reactive element (linear or non
linear reactors and capacitors) configured into a var compensating system.
Static var compensators (SVCs) constitute a mature technology that is finding
widespread usage in modern power systems for load compensation as well as
transmission-line applications.
Static var compensators (SVCs) are used primarily in power systems for voltage
control as either an end in itself or a means of achieving other objectives, such as
system stabilization SVCs are used because SVC at suitable points of a
transmission system can maintain specific voltage profile and can limit the voltage
and frequency deviations under disturbances
20
Static VAR compensators are located in receiving substations and distribution
systems for smooth and steeples variation of compensation of reactive power
injected into line by shunt capacitors and shunt reactors.
Further the transient stability can be improved and the system transmission
capacity can be increased both under operating and fault conditions.
21
Two alternative representations of these characteristics such as
22
3.3.3 Types of SVC
The followings are the basic types of reactive power control elements which makes all or
parts of SVC
Saturated reactor
Thyristor controlled Reactor
Thyristor switched capacitor
Thyristor Switched Reactor
Thyristor controlled Transformer
23
3.4 WAYS OF IMPROVING VOLTAGE STABILITY AND REAL
Reactive power compensation is often most effective way to improve both power
transfer capability and voltage stability.
The control of voltage levels is accomplished by controlling the production,
absorption and flow of reactive power.
To control voltage throughout the system we have to use addition devices to
compensate reactive power.
Reactive compensation can be divided into series and shunt compensation. It can
be also divided into active and passive compensation.
But mostly consideration will be focused on shunt capacitor banks; the leading
current drawn by the shunt capacitors compensates the lagging current drawn by
the load.
The selection of shunt capacitors depends on many factors, the most important of
which is the amount of lagging reactive power taken by the load.
Variable VAR compensation is achieved using switched capacitors. Depending on
the total VAR requirement, capacitor banks are switched into or switched out of
the system.
The smoothness of control is solely dependent on the number of capacitors
switching units used. The switching is usually accomplished using relays and
circuit breakers.
Series Switched capacitors are connected in series with the line to control power
flow and minimizing transmission losses.
Shunt Switched capacitors are connected in parallel with the load bus to ground to
enhance the voltage stability.
24
3.5 THE THYRISTOR-SWITCHED CAPACITOR (TSC)
Fig. 1 . Switching of a capacitor at a voltage source: (a) a circuit diagram and (b) the current and
voltage
Case 1: The capacitor voltage is not equal to the supply voltage when the thyristors are
fired. Immediately after closing the switch, a current of infinite magnitude flows and
charges the capacitor to the supply voltage in an infinitely short time. The switch realized
by thyristors cannot withstand this stress and would fail.
Case 2: The capacitor voltage is equal to the supply voltage when the thyristors are fired,
as illustrated in Fig. The analysis shows that the current will jump immediately to the
value of the steady-state current. The steady state condition is reached in an infinitely
short time.
25
To overcome the problems discussed above, a small damping reactor is added in
series with the capacitor, as depicted in Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Voltages after turn-off to the TSC: (a) a circuit diagram and (b) the voltage–
current waveforms.
The thyristor switch allows the conduction for integral number of half-cycles. The
capacitor is not phase controlled, as is a TCR.
26
The thyristor valves are turned on at an instant when minimum voltage is sensed
across the valves to minimize the switching transients.
Barring these initial transients, the TSC current is sinusoidal and free from
harmonics, thus obviating the need for any filters.
Another function of this series inductor is to act in combination with the capacitor
as a filter for harmonics generated by the associated TCR. In some cases,
discharge circuits are provided with the capacitors to rapidly dissipate the remnant
charge on the capacitor after a switch-off.
27
However, this response time may be extended because of any delays in the
measurement and control systems.
Operating Characteristics
28
3.6 VOLTAGE CONTROL IN A TRANSMISSION SYSTEM BY
BOOSTER TRANSFORMER
The booster transformer performs the function of boosting the voltage. It can be
installed at a substation or at any intermediate point of line.
In the circuit shown in figure P and Q are the two relays. The secondary of the
booster transformer is connected in series with the line whose voltage is to be
controlled and the primary of the booster transformer is supplied from a regulating
transfoemer with on load tap changer gear.
The booster can be brought in to the circuit by the closure of relay Q and the
opening of the relay P, and vice versa as shown in figure.
The secondary of the booster transformer injects a voltage in phase with the line
voltages.
Advantages
Disadvantages
29
3.7 REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENT FOR CONTROL OF
Long radial transmission lines present a problem of unequal voltage along the
length. Once energized shunt capacitance of the line becomes a source of reactive
power (var).
Under low load conditions the var generation exceeds the var consumption.
Without compensation, under light load conditions the endpoint voltage may
exceed the upper permissible voltage limit.
Under heavy load conditions the voltage may dip below the lower permissible
limit. The voltage profile of the line becomes flat at surge impedance load (SIL).
In practice, on account of the transient stability considerations the permissible
loading of long lines are kept below surge impedance load & therefore problem is
to restrict overvoltage along the length of the line. This is solved by connection of
shunt reactors.
Controlled shunt compensation of long lines improve the voltage profile. It also
enhances the power transfer capability of a long line by giving voltage support.
30
Fig.1 Voltage profiles of an uncompensated line
Shunt Compensation
Figure 2 shows the principles and theoretical effects of shunt reactive power
compensation in a basic ac system, which comprises a source V1, a power line and
a typical inductive load.
Figure 2(a) shows the system without compensation, and its associated phasor
diagram. In the phasor diagram, the phase angle of the current has been related to
the load side, which means that the active current IP is in phase with the load
voltage V2. Since the load is assumed inductive, it requires reactive power for
proper operation and hence, the source must supply it, increasing the current from
the generator and through power lines.
If reactive power is supplied near the load, the line current can be reduced or
minimized, reducing power losses and improving voltage regulation at the load
terminals. This can be done in three ways: a) with a capacitor, b) with a voltage
source, or c) with a current source.
In Fig. 2(b), a current source device is being used to compensate the reactive
component of the load current (IQ). As a result, the system voltage regulation is
31
improved and the reactive current component from the source is reduced or almost
eliminated.
If the load needs leading compensation, then an inductor would be required. Also
a current source or a voltage source can be used for inductive shunt compensation.
The main advantages of using voltage or current source VAR generators (instead
of inductors or capacitors) is that the reactive power generated is independent of
the voltage at the point of connection.
32
Series Compensation
VAR compensation can also be of the series type. Typical series compensation
systems use capacitors to decrease the equivalent reactance of a power line at rated
frequency
By excitation control
By static shunt capacitors
By static series capacitors
By static shunt reactors
By synchronous condensers
34
Booster transformer
Regulating transformer
Static var compensators
Excitation system, where the exciting current is fed from a controlled rectifier that
gets its power either directly from the generator terminals or from the power
plant‘s auxiliary power system, normally containing batteries.
The terminal voltage of the alternator is sampled, rectified and compared with a
reference voltage; the difference is amplified and fed back to the exciter field
winding to change the excitation current.
In the static excitation system, the generator field is fed from a thyristor network
shown in Fig. It is just sufficient to adjust the thyristor firing angle to vary the
excitation level.
A major advantage of such a system is that, when required the field voltage can be
varied through a full range of positive to negative values very rapidly with the
ultimate benefit of generator Voltage regulation during transient disturbances.
35
3.8.2 by Static Shunt Capacitors
Capacitors produce var and may be connected in series or shunt in the system.
Series capacitors compensate the line reactance in long overhead lines and thus
improve the stability limit.
However, they give rise to additional problems like high voltage transients, sub
synchronous resonance, etc. Shunt capacitors are used for reactive compensation.
Simplicity and low cost are the chief considerations for using shunt capacitor.
Further, for expanding systems additions can be made.
The shunt reactor is used to reduce or limit voltage rise due to open circuit or light
load.
Shunt reactor absorbs reactive power are usually used for EHV lines longer than &
when the far end line is opened , the receiving current flowing through the large
source inductive reactance will cause a rise in voltage at the receiving end of the
line.
37
Ferranti effect will cause a further rise in receiving end voltage during heavy loads
some of the reactors may have to be disconnected.
Advantages
38
During heavy load conditions, some of the reactors are disconnected by using
switching reactors & circuit breakers.
39
Synchronous condensers connected in parallel are used to provide constant voltage
at that particular point. The synchronous compensator is connected to the tertiary
winding of the main transformer for voltage and reactive power control at both
transmission and sub transmission levels.
Advantages
Disadvantages
40
UNIT 4 – COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
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4.1 UNIT COMMITMENT PROBLEM
4.1.1 UC Statement:
To select the generating units that will supply the forecasted (estimated load in
advance) load of the system over a required period of time at minimum cost as well as
provide a specified margin of the operating reserve, known as spinning reserve. This
procedure is known as Unit Commitment.
1. Spinning reserve.
2. Thermal constraints.
Minimum uptime.
Minimum down time.
Crew Constraints.
3. Other constraints.
Hydro constraints.
Must run constraints.
Fuel constraints.
Spinning Reserve
Spinning reserve must be established, so that the loss of one or more units does not cause
drop in system frequency (i.e., If one unit is lost, the spinning reserve unit has to make p
41
for the loss in a specified time period. Spinning reserve is the reserve generating capacity
running at zero load or no load.
Thermal constraints
A thermal unit can withstand only gradual temperature changes and is required to
take some hours to bring the unit on-line. For thermal plants, one hour is the smallest
time period that should be considered for unit commitment solutions as the start-up and
shut-down time for many units is of this order. The thermal unit constraints are minimum
up time, minimum down time and crew constraints.
Minimum up time
Once the unit is decommited, there is a minimum time before it can be recommitted.
Crew constraints
If a plant consists of two or more units, they cannot both be turned on at the same time.
Since there are not enough crew members to attend both units while starting up.
Other Constraints
Hydro-constraints
Some units like nuclear units are given a must run status during certain times of the year
to maintain the voltage in the transmission system.
42
Fuel constraints
If thermal and hydro sources are available, a combined operation is economic and
advantageous. A system in which some units have limited fuel, or else have constraints
that require them to burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time, presents a most
challenging unit commitment problem.
METHOD
Priority List Method (using Full Load Average Production Cost FLAPC)
Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which
consists of creating a priority list of units.
The priority list can be obtained by noting the full-load average production cost of
each unit.
Full load average production cost = {Net heat rate at full load} × Fuel cost
𝑪𝒊 (𝑷𝑮𝒊 ) 𝑲𝒊 × 𝑯𝒊 (𝑷𝑮𝒊 )
𝑭𝑳𝑨𝑷𝑪 = =
𝑷𝑮𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊
Assumptions:
No load costs are zero.
Unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load.
Start-up costs are fixed amount.
Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time.
Determine the full load average production cost for each unit.
𝐊×𝐇𝐢(𝐏𝐆𝐢)
FLAPC =
𝑷𝑮𝒊
Form priority order based on average production cost,(Ascending Order)
Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order.
Calculate PG1, PG2…PGN from economic dispatch problem for the feasible
combinations only.
43
Assume load is dropping or decreasing determines whether dropping the next unit
will supply generation and spinning reserve.
If not, continue as it is.
If yes, go to next step.
Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be needed again.
Check H< Minimum shut down time.
o If yes, go to last step.
o If not, go to next step.
Calculate two costs
Sum of hourly production costs for the next H hours with the unit up.
Recalculate the same for the unit down + start up cost for either cooling or
banking. If the second case is less expensive, the unit should be on.
Repeat this procedure until the priority list.
Merits:
No need to go for ‗N‘ combinations.
Take only one constraint.
Ignore the minimum up time and minimum down time.
Complication reduced.
Demerits:
Start up cost are fixed amount.
No load cost is not considered
PROGRAMMING METHOD
Algorithm to run forward in time from the initial hour to the final hour.
Forward Dynamic programming is suitable if the start-up cost of a unit is a
function of the time it has been off-line (i.e., fixed amount).
Previous history of the unit can be computed at each stage.
Initial conditions are easily specified.
44
Algorithm
For a Load cycle, at each load level, the algorithm is to run units or both units
with a certain load sharing. Determine the most economical cost curve of a single
equivalent unit. Then add the third unit and repeat the steps. The process is repeated until
all the units are added.
45
Determine the possible number of combinations and determine the economic
dispatch and total cost.
Compute the minimum cost in hour K with combination I is
With a priority list ordering, reducing the number N by discharging the highest cost
schedules at each time interval and saving only the lowest N paths. The flow chart for
dynamic method is as shown Figure.
46
UNIT 5 – COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS
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5.1 STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM OF A POWER SYSTEM
A power system may be operated in a several different states. These are classified into
five operating states. They are
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state
The five operating states and their transitions are shown in fig.
Normal state
A system is said to be normal state if both load and operating constraints are
satisfied. It is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the
operating constraints (i.e., equality (E) and inequality (I) constraints).
Secure state
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The normal of the system is said to be secure state if all postulated contingency
states are found to be normal. A normal state of the system is said to be insecure if one or
more of the postulated contingency state consists of the constraint limits violated. In this
state, frequency and the bus voltage magnitude are within the normal operating range.
Current flows on all transition lines are within the given ratings. Transformers and
generators are operated within their ratings and there is no load shedding anywhere in the
system. Reserve margin is sufficiently high to make the system well secure.
Alert state
A normal state of the system is said to be in alert state if one or more of the
postulated contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated. When the system
security level falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance increases, the
system may be in alert state. All equalities (E) and inequalities (I) are satisfied, but on the
event of a disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state. To bring back
the system to secure state, preventive control action is carried out.
Emergency state
The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints
are violated, but the load constraint is satisfied. In this state, the equality constraints are
unchanged. The system will return to the normal (secure) or alert state by means of
corrective actions, i.e., disconnection of faulted section or load shedding. The generator
still traces the load and the system is still synchronized. But one or several components
are overloaded. As the components eventually fail, the system will start disintegrate.
Extremis state
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Restorative state
From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure
state. The latter is a slow process. Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back
to alert state and then to the secure state. This is done using restorative control action.
Control Strategies
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To achieve high power system security, the control room should have data
collection system and computerized power system analysis program software,
called Energy Management Systems (EMS).
An EMS generally has a centralized digital computer system connected to Remote
Terminal Units (RTUs) via communication channels. The control room operator
may take various actions to maintain adequate power system security.
The philosophy that has evolved to cope with the diverse requirements of a system
control comprises a hierarchical structure as shown in fig. In this structure, there
are controllers operating directly on individual system such as excitation systems,
prime movers, boilers, transformers tap changers and DC converters.
There is usually some form of overall plant controller are in turn supervised by
system controllers at the operating centres.
The system controller actions are coordinated by poor-level master controllers.
The overall control system is thus highly distributed relies on many different types
of telemetry and control signals.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems provide information
to indicate the system status. State estimation programs filter the mentioned data
and provide an accurate picture of the system‘s condition.
The human operator is an important link at various levels in this control hierarchy
and at key locations on the system.
The primary function of the operator is top monitor system performance and
manages resources so as to ensure economic operation while maintaining the
required quality and reliability of power supply.
During system emergencies, the operator plays a key role by coordinating related
information from diverse sources and developing corrective strategies to restore
the system to a more secure state of operation.
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Unit commitment Generation on/ off status
Economic dispatch Generation MW output schedule
Generator bus voltage Unit exciter setting
Network configuration Substation CB open / close
Load scheduling Distribution feeder CB
On-load tap changing transformer Tap position
Phase shifting transformer Tap position
Tie-line system interchange Interchange schedule
Both computers have their own core memory and drive an extensive number of
input-output devices such as printers, teletypes, and magnetic tape drive, disks.
Usually one computer, the on-line units, is monitoring and controlling the power
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system. The backup computer may be executing off-line batch programs such as
load forecasting or hydro-thermal allocation.
The on-line computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between the two
computers. Upon a fail over or switch-in status command, the stored information
of the common disk is inserted in the memory of the on-line computer.
The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of update
cycle. All of the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through
input-output microprocessors that have been programmed to communicate, as well
as preprocess the analog information, check for limits, convert to another system
of units and so on.
The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory without
interrupting the central processing unit. As a result of these precautions, for all
critical hardware functions, there is often a guaranteed 99.8% or more availability.
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Software also allows for multilevel hardware failures and initialization of
application programs, if failures occur. Critical operation and functions are
maintained during either preventive or corrective maintenance.
Besides hardware, new digital code to control the system may be compiled and
tested in the backup computer, then switched to on-line status. The digital
computers are usually employed in a fixed cycle operating mode, with priority
interrupts wherein computer periodically performs a list of operations. The most
critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following categories
are scanned every 2 seconds.
All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and voltages,
transformer tap positions and capacitor banks.
The turbine-generators are often commanded to new power levels every 4 seconds,
sharing the load adjustment based on each unit‘s response capability in MW/min.
The absolute power output of each unit‘s response capability is typically adjusted
every 5 min by the computer executing an economic dispatch program to
determine the base power settings.
Type 2: Medium size power system (plant control centre) and power station HVDC
Links distribution systems.
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Type 3: Regional control centre, distribution system in large urban area several
hydro power stations with cascade control.
Type 4: National & Regional control centers distributed systems in large urban
area and several hydro power station with cascade control.
Master Station
Master unit is provided with a digital computer with associated interfacing devices
and hardware to receive information from RTU (Remote Terminal Unit), process data
and display salient information to operator as shown. The hardware at the master station
includes the following:
1. Process computer.
2. CRT display.
3. Printer.
4. Data Logger.
5. Computer graphics.
6. Control console.
7. Keyboard.
8. Alarm panel
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9. Instrument panel.
10. Modem.
11. Multiplexer.
The RTUs are installed at selected power stations and substations. The hardware
components of RTU may include the following:
1. Transducers.
2. A/D and D/A converter.
3. Serial interface.
4. Modems.
5. Multiplexers.
6. Front end computer.
7. Control relays.
The analog quantities like voltage, MW, MVAR and frequency measured at
stations are converted into DC voltage or current signals, through transducers and
fed to the A/D convert the analog signals into digital from suitable for
transmission.
The digital signal is fed to the end computer and modems through the serial
interface MODEM sends the information to the control the stations equipments
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through the control relays. In addition to measure quantities, status of various
devices is informed to master station.
The master station scans the RTU sequentially and gathers information on the
system operating condition i.e., voltage, current, line flows, generation, output,
etc., as well as equipment status. Computer, using real time data can check
operating limits of various quantities and gives an alarm to operator if loading or
any other abnormal condition is detected.
The system real time information is presented to operator through CRT (Cathode
Ray Tube), Computer graphics terminals, alarm printer, etc.
The supervisory control and data acquisition system allow a few operators to monitors
the generator. The following are the following of SCADA.
1. Data Acquisition: It provides telemeter measurements and status information to
operators.
2. Information display (limit violations unplanned events).
3. Supervisory control (CBs (Circuit Breakers): On/Off ; Generator : stop/start,
raise/lower command)
(a) Electrical breaker control
(b) Voltage regulators
(c) Tap changer control
(d) Capacitor control
(e) Loss reduction
(f) Miscellaneous device control
(g) Load management
(h) Fault isolation
(i) Service restoration
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4. Information storage and results display (Reports such as energy accounting,
reserve calculation, interchanged evaluation.)
5. Sequence of events acquisition.
6. Remote terminal unit processing
7. General maintenance.
8. Runtime status verification.
9. Economic modeling
10. Remote start / stop.
11. Load matching based on economics.
12. Load shedding: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load
in response to system emergencies.
The computer system used at power system has been undergoing continuous
development over the years. Formerly, all the functions such as data acquisition,
logging display, and control and performance calculations were performer by
computer processing unit (CPU).
In such system failure of any of the elegant leads to the total system breakdown.
Thus, the need for a dual computer configuration arose which is quite costly.
The further advancement in communication technology and powerful
microprocessors has resulted in the cheap and reliable microprocessor based
Distributed Processing System (DPS).
It is based on the principle of LAN. Today, in all process industries including
power plant, this system is employed for data acquisition and control.
DPS consists of a number of microprocessors connected through data highway,
which is passive in nature. Each processor is assigned a specific task
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independently. So, the failure of one of the processors does not disturb the
function of the other processors.
The function of the data acquisition and control system is to provide the operator
with current plant information through graphic displays, group displays, alarms
annunciations and so on, for the safe operation of plant.
The DPS further provides detailed historical information for diagnostic / review
purposes in case of outage and plant performance.
The data acquisition and control system performs the following general functions.
Data acquisition and validation
Real time variable computations
Alarm monitoring and display.
Performance and deviation calculation.
Trends, events, reports and logs.
Sequential control
Modulating control
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(RTU) that encode measurement transducer outputs and operand/closed status
information into digital signals that are transmitted to the operations centre over
communication circuits.
The control centre can transmit control information such as raise/lower commands
to the speed changer and in turn to the generators and open/close commands to
circuit breakers (CBs). The information coming into the control centre is breaker
/switch status indications and analog measurements.
The analog measurements of generator outputs must be used directly by the
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) program, whereas, all other data will be
processed by the state estimator before being used by the other programs. Real
time operations are in two aspects.
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(a) Three level control
The practice of all communication links between equipment and the control
centre could be interrupted and still, electric service is being maintained.
The generating in the system remains synchronized to the transmission
network and maintains its existing power output level even without signals
received from control centre.
Monitoring
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limits are routinely handled by digital computer. A more serious
abnormality detected by the digital computer may cause suspension of
normal control functions
In emergencies such as loss of a major generator or excess power demands
by a neighboring utility on the tie lines, many alarms could be detected and
the system could enter an emergency state.
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5.5 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS
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3. Fuel scheduling to plants.
4. Hydro-thermal scheduling-up to 7days.
5. MW interchanges evaluation-with neighboring system.
6. Transmission loss minimization.
7. Security constrained dispatch.
8. Maintenance scheduling.
9. Production cost calculation.
State Estimation
Introduction
To obtain the best possible values i.e., ―best estimate‖ of the bus voltage
magnitudes and angles by processing the available network data. The complex bus
voltage (V<δ) serve as the state variables of the power system. State estimation is the
process to clean up the erroneous data.
To ―smooth out‖ small random errors in meter readings, detect and identify gross
measurement errors and ―fill in‖ meter readings that have failed due to communication
failures.
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Security monitoring
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The security monitoring functions are given below:
State estimator receives information from SCADA system and the network
topology and stores the status of the system (V and δ) in a central location called
database.
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Power system application like power flow, optimal power flow, contingency
analysis and short circuit analysis are executed using the state of the system were
computed by state estimation
System security involves practices designed to keep the system operating when
components fail. Systems security can be broken down into three major functions that are
carried out in an energy control centre:
System monitoring
Contingency analysis
Security-constrained optimal power flow
System monitoring
It provides the operators of the power system with pertinent up to data information
on the conditions of the power system. Effective operation of the system is required that
critical quantities are measured and the values of measurements are transmitted to a
central location. Such system of measurements and data transmission called telemetry
systems, have evolved to schemes that can monitor voltages, currents, power flows and
status of circuit breakers and switches in every substation in a power system transmission
network.
Contingency analysis
The results of this type of analysis allow system to be operated defensively. Many
of the problems that occur on a power system can cause serious trouble which is often the
case with cascading failures. In this analysis, certain programs are used that model
possible system and are used to study outage events and alarm the operators about any
potential overloads or out-of-time voltages.
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Security-constrained optimal power flow
State estimator:
To determine the best estimate of the state of the system using real time status and
measurements.
Power flow:
To calculate V, δ, power flows for the steady state condition.
Contingency analysis:
To determine the events which are harmful to the system by determining the states.
Optimal power flow:
Optimize a specified objective function by using controller action.
Security enhancement:
To alleviate an existing overload in the system by using corrective control actions.
Preventive action:
Before the occurrence of contingency event, preventive action has to be taken.
Bus load forecasting:
Forecast the load using real time measurements.
Transmission loss factors:
Calculate the impact of the transmission losses using incremental transmission loss (ITL).
Short circuit analysis:
Determine the fault current for different types of faults.
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Factors affecting power system security
Any piece of equipment in the system can fail either due to internal causes or due to
external causes such as lightning stroke, object hitting transmission towers, or human
errors in setting relays. Thus, most power systems are designed to have sufficient
redundancy to withstand all major failure events.
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