Autonomous Vehicles

by

Leanne Dominique E. Lopena

Giselle R. Ranchez

A Research Paper Submitted to the School of Civil and Geological Engineering

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

Traffic and Highway Engineering (CE122-2)

Mapúa University
December 2019
 INTRODUCTION

Autonomous vehicles are driverless mechanism like cars, trucks, or trains in which

human, drivers not in any way are obliged to cautiously engage and to take control of the

vehicle. These driverless cars are combined with some devices like sensors and software to

navigate, control and drive the vehicle. More companies are trying to bring self-driving cars to

masses than ever before, yet a truly autonomous vehicle still doesn’t exist. Up to this day, there

are not enough evidences if, or when, a self-driving future will come. On the other hand, with a

huge number of research and innovations about self-driving technology making and building its

way into everyday cars, it’s hard not to think about it. On what extent do people have to wait?

Present technology has now come to a point where cars are innovated day by day. One of

the proponents like Elon Musk have proclaimed a vigorous timeline but failed their goals and

other companies in the industry also missed their projections. Several big players have begun to

walk back their predictions on how soon this driverless technology will be recognized. Waymo’s

Chief external officer, Tekedra N. Mawakan said that the hype around its self-driving cars

became incomprehensible. The technology has come a long way, but there’s still a lot of work to

be done. One is “Perception”, which is using the sensors to figure out what is around the vehicle,

in the environment around the vehicle and “Prediction”, that figures out what those road users

are going to be doing next in the next few seconds. Turns out, the perception and especially

prediction are difficult problems to solve.

Companies tackling self-driving today are taking two general approaches. Some are

building self-driving cars from the ground up. Others are developing the “brain” that drives the

car. Google, an early leader, started its self-driving car project in 2009 known as Waymo today,

the company is developing hardware and software that can function as the brains in a self-driving
car. Founded in 2017 by early players from Uber, Tesla and Google’s self-driving initiatives, it

has already raised 620 million USD in funding from Amazon and other big-name investors, the

company Aurora is taking a similar approach.

This research aims to determine and investigate the different problems including the

levels of driving automatization, the moral and ethical aspects of presenting these kind of

technologies, the potential scheme of deploying it, the expected effects of these new technologies

on the environment and the traffic safety of the autonomous vehicles is facing and yet still

enhancing them.
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This part of the paper examines the foundations of the study based on existing related

readings, literature, and research. This includes discussions with regards to the history of

Autonomous vehicles,

Historical Background

Innovation of vehicles was originally envisaged as early as 1918 (Pendleton et al., 2017),

and General Motors exhibited the first concept of automated vehicles in 1939 (Shladover, 2018).

From 1964 to 2003, various research and development (R&D) projects were ready for production

in the US, Europe, and Japan under individual and joint interventions by various government

institutes and universities to develop automated bus and truck platoons, genetically perfect

vehicle systems, and driving scene recognition video image processing (Shladover, 2018). In

2004, AV research was accelerated through the Grand Challenges Program of the Defense

Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the US. The encounters led in 2005 and 2007

to AVs capable of crossing desert terrain. Scientists have succeeded in putting AVs on urban

roads through the Urban Challenge Program at DARPA (Pendleton et al., 2017; Shladover,

2018). R&D has since proceeded at a rapid pace both in academia and in industrial settings. For

example, Volvo started its autonomous driving journey in 2006, introduced its full autonomous

test vehicle in 2017, and wants to bring its unmonitored AV onto the market by 2021. Google's

tech giant started its journey towards full AVs in 2009 and Google's AV fleet, WAYMO, has

completed three million miles of driving across four US states by 2017.

TESLA announced in 2014 that its car will be able to drive around 90 per cent of the time

on its own. Bloomberg (2017) presents an overview of how cities throughout the world are
getting ready for the transition to an AV environment. As per this analysis, 36 cities were

conducting AV experiments, or committed to doing that in the near future; while 18 other cities

are performing long-range surveys of AV-related regulatory, planning, and governance issues,

but have not yet begun piloting. The inventory includes certain piloting cities that participated in

testing a variety of AV products, including retrofitted automobiles and company-new vehicles

such as conveyors (small, cart-sized AVs traveling on sidewalks).

Capabilities and Usages

The wide range of related innovations has encouraged vehicle automation taxonomies

that are nuanced and indeed performing. Among these, the levels of driving automation of the

International Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) most systematically capture the emerging

explanatory prevailing view and are displayed appropriately. As with all processes, these

elevations mainly describe how the "adaptable driving function" is divided between human and

machine: it is performed exclusively by a Level 0 human driver (no automation) and completely

by a Level 5 automated driving device (full automation). The mission must be performed

effectively or sequentially in the "mushy middle" which creates complicated human-machine

communication issues (Smith, 2014).

Self-driving cars experience, and generally try, an incredible variety of contexts such as

geographic areas, types of roadways, traffic conditions, weather conditions, and events or

incidents for which automated vehicles still need to be designed and proven. Complete

development projects tend to follow one of two systematic ways. First, to improve the automated

driving systems available in traditional vehicles so that more of the complex driving role can be

transferred to these systems by human drivers. Second, it requires the deployment of vehicles

without a driver and the eventual extension of this activity into more contexts. These two
methods can be defined in a simplistic way as “something everywhere” and “everything

somewhere.”

Autonomous vehicle's pros and cons

Campbell et al. explained that modern autonomous vehicles can sense their local

environment, classify different types of objects they detect, analyze sensory information in order

to classify suitable navigation paths while complying with transport rules. The combination of a

variety of technologies from different disciplines which span computer science, mechanical

engineering, electronics engineering, electrical engineering, and control engineering, etc., is

critical for effective autonomous navigation in such situations (Deshpande, 2014). Transportation

incidents were one of the world's common causes of death. By 2020, implementing new and

innovative methodologies and investments in road safety from global to international level, this

world could prevent 5 million deaths and 50 million serious injuries. The Global Road Safety

Commission believes that stopping this unnecessary and dreadful emergence in road

complications and facilitating year-on-year reductions is very essential (Campbell, 2010).

Deshpande et al. reported nearly 3000 deaths due to road accidents every day, with more than

half of the people not traveling in a car.

Autonomous cars are also difficult to connect on the same path as human-driven vehicles.

Another concern for autonomous cars is who is liable for damage to the car manufacturer, the

drivers or owners of the vehicle or the government. As a result, the number of traffic collisions

will decrease significantly due to the increased efficiency and quicker reaction time of an

autonomous system compared to humans. It would also reduce traffic disruption, therefore

increasing road capacity as autonomous vehicles would result in a decreased need for safety gaps

and better management of traffic flow. Furthermore, a major problem is the implementation of a
law and the development of autonomous vehicle government regulations. The reliability of

technology is also a major issue. There's a possibility that a car's computer or communication

system may be compromised.

Throughout their recent models, modern automotive companies continue to come up with

new autonomous technologies. For these aspects specifically, technological advances seen every

day in areas such as information technology, connectivity, data analysis and storage, etc. These

days, the realm of autonomous cars is also advancing at a rapid rate. A continued growth of

digital technology as well as the need accommodate for the growing population in developed

countries has made Autonomous Vehicles a requirement and a critical business paradigm

possible. Given the emergence of new concepts and innovations such as social networks, smart

phones, and Autonomous Vehicles, some researchers have clearly advised that the transportation

landscape is changing rapidly. An example is Uber, which is invading cities even as taxi

companies struggle to maintain business and remain competitive. Manyika et al. includes

robotics of vehicles on the list of future top ten disruptive technologies.

Benefit and Cost Summary

This review shows that there are likely to be benefits and costs for autonomous vehicles

(Milakis, van Arem and van Wee 2017). Few of these factors have a direct impact on drivers,

including higher vehicle costs, decreased driver pressure, and productivity gains. Others,

including differences throughout the benefit of the road, congestion, risk of accidents, pollution,

and non-driver mobility options, are external impacts. The actual significance of these impacts

may depend on how technology affects vehicle travel such as: enhanced convenience and

efficiency may increase vehicle travel, traffic issues such as congestion, injuries, pollution

emissions and road costs that increase, as ride-hailing services have done in large quantities
(Schaller 2017). Furthermore, unless more efficient shared transportation solutions allow

consumers to reduce their ownership of vehicles and thus exploit reductions in total car travel,

traffic problems will decline.

Autonomous operation can increase traffic, power, emissions, and road costs under many

circumstances. Optimistic people believe that autonomous vehicles can reduce pollution because

they will all be electric and mostly distributed, but most consumers would actually prefer private

autonomous vehicles because consistently applied laws and policies such as high fossil fuel taxes

and high-occupancy car lanes on congested roadways support electric and shared vehicles.

Additional materials are required for self-driving technologies, and vehicle manufacturers are

likely to market seats that turn into beds and mobile offices that can increase overall energy

consumption and pollution.

Environmental Benefits

Environmental concerns have been the driving forces behind the development of electric

vehicle (EV) innovation, along with higher oil prices in the last decade. The EV is struggling

from some technical disadvantages including a distance-traveling range restricted to the battery

size and durability. It prevents the EV to short-range mobility and can lead in anxiety in the

process of finding charging stations (Melis, 2014). Throughout this context, natural and organic

synergies can be found between shared Autonomous Vehicles (AV) fleets and EV technology:

an AV fleet can address the practical limitations of EVs, including anxiety about travel ranges,

access to charging infrastructure and time management.

According to Chen (2015), fleet-managed AVs are relieving such concerns based on

demand for actual-time travel and destinations for charging stations. The financial analysis
suggests that the total value of charging stations, vehicle capital and maintenance, electricity,

insurance, and AV fleet registration ranges from $0.42 to $0.49 per preoccupied mile. Shared

AV operation can therefore be provided to minimum-mileage residences at the same per-mile

cost of private vehicle ownership. As certain, automatic electric cars are likely to compete with

existing manually operated car-sharing systems and are significantly less expensive than driver-

operated transport services on demand.

Preparation of Autonomous Vehicles in Urban

Several methods in urban planning were either to facilitate the vehicle by devoting land

and parking space and extra lanes to suit heavy traffic, while others attempted to reduce relying

on automobiles by encouraging public transportation, bicycling, carpooling, and pedestrian

access. Considering the impact of autonomous vehicles on these different methods will be

important for current and future urban planners as it will transform transportation decisions.

Another potential result is that autonomous vehicles may increase overall use of private or

sharing vehicles as the amount of time expended in traffic is reduced for other purposes while in

a car. At same point, autonomous vehicles could expand the coverage area for other types of

public transportation, thus promoting greater importance on autonomous vehicles combined with

a high-capacity railway or bus service and enhanced pedestrian traffic in dense urban centers.

Some urban areas have enjoyed a renaissance as younger generations and seniors have tried to

move back to the city center for physical accessibility, easy access to businesses and services,

and the competitive advantages of denser populations.

Eventually, for cities that have already planned hoping an income stream from parking

meters, parking fees, car tags, and other revenue instruments dependent on road usage and driver

requirements, this income is likely to dry up if public, autonomous vehicle use becomes the rule
in most major areas. This might create new problems in funding a wide range of local

government operations and transportation needs, while at the same time freeing up property used

for parking and processing of cars for new projects.

Transportation in Rural Areas

Most of the emphasis on autonomous vehicle testing and marketing has been on their

impact in urban areas. Nonetheless, some of the biggest advantages for customers in terms of

mobility, availability, and networking will exist in America. Several of these communities have

already been introduced to the features and benefits of advanced technology by automating

agricultural equipment. Lawmakers and developers will begin to explore the implications of the

introduction of autonomous vehicles in rural areas amid exposure to more developed areas, both

socially and economically. For lawmakers, researchers, and private sector leaders, discussing and

preparing for these outcomes and as well as other second and third-order impacts that will result

from a future of autonomous vehicles. A wide variety of new technologies could render many of

these findings a possibility, but consumer choice will be the principle as these new vehicles

become more and more convenient for the American people.

Tesla’s Autopilot Features

Tesla insists that Autopilot gives drivers more confidence behind the wheel, improves

overall road safety, and allows driving on the highway more comfortable. Although fully

autonomous cars are still a couple of years away, Tesla Autopilot operates much like the systems

used by aircraft pilots when situations are perfect. The driver was still in charge on the

automobile and eventually in control of it. It also provides the driver with insightful access to

classified information he uses to control his actions. In addition to the usual range of incident
mitigation systems such as Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), which controls

emergency steering and braking, the Tesla Model S and Model X electric vehicle autopilot

technology allows vehicles to autonomously steer, change lanes, navigate vehicles and curves,

and park in the garage automatically.

In the latest Autopilot, the new driver-focused layout of the instrument cluster shows the

real-time information the car uses to intelligently determine the behavior of the vehicle relative

to its environment at that moment. An addition to the autopilot functionality, each Tesla car's

driving behavior is shared with its central server when traveling through different road

conditions (Ingle & Phute, 2016).

Tesla Motors

Although several automotive companies are working towards this, there is one that has

clear expectations and ambitions for future autonomous vehicles. Tesla Motors, an automotive

company founded by three engineers, are one of the most well-known vehicle autonomy brands

(Conner, 2016). Basically, this company’s purpose is to create different vehicles, all of which

are far more environmentally friendly than every other car on the market today. Several of the

best inventions of the business is the Roadster, a vehicle that runs on a lithium ion battery

charge, producing zero emissions from any source of fuel. Its development in 2008 was able to

sustain a charge that was long enough to travel 245 miles before a recharge was needed. This

was just the first step in a long line of goals the company is hoping to achieve as time goes on.

BMW

Back then, BMW began working on autonomous vehicles in 2004, putting the technology

to the roads of various cities has achieved numerous successes. In 2006, Hockenheim was
introduced by the first self-driving simulator (BMW 3 Series) along the racing line. This

launched highly automated test cars on Germany's A9 motorway in 2011. BMW announced a

self-driving at the Customer Electronic Show (CES) in 2014 that can break, steer and accelerate

without any driver action. BMW launched 360° hazard detection and automatic valet parking

assistance installed into the BMW i3 at the CES in 2015. In 2016, the implementation of

Automated Gesture Control Parking into the BMW i3 was demonstrated at the CES. BMW

declared the ties with non-life insurance company Allianz in March 2017; the electric vehicle

manufacturer and insurance company plans to jointly evaluate causalities and responsibilities in

the event of accidents. BMW released a prototype of a completely automated self-driving Level

5 car on February 2018 and declared that it would market automated self-driving cars called

"iNEXT" by 2021.

Audi

Which is one of the corporations in the autonomous vehicle experience race. Audi and

Stanford University were quickest to complete a 150-mile course in 2005, winning the DARPA

Grand Challenge for Automated Vehicles that year. The US states that California and Florida

implement in 2014; Audi was the first company to receive a driving permit from California. The

Audi RS 7 piloted driving concept completed a lap at the speed of the Hockenheimring

speedway without a driver present. In 2015, Audi became the first corporation to allow non-

engineers to drive a car equipped with "Highway Pilot" technology from Silicon Valley,

California to CES in Las Vegas, Nevada, on a 566-mile test drive. In 2016, Audi launched

"Traffic Jam Assist" feature for Level 2 automation onto the lane. In 2020-2021, Audi will

launch a Level 4 "Highway Pilot" feature technology similar to what's been shown in the "Jack"
prototype automobile, which provides hands-free driving at limited access road speeds where the

vehicle can perform lane changes and drive autonomously through cars.

GAP or PROBLEM

There are different problems that autonomous vehicles are facing. Nowadays, the

automotive industry makes a quantum shift to a future where the driver will have smaller and

smaller role in driving his or her vehicle ending up being totally excluded. The following are the

problems encountered by the autonomous vehicles:

Negative Impact on the Environment

In fact, self-driving vehicles could increase energy consumption by up to 200%. One of the

biggest disadvantages is that there will be an increase in the total number of miles travelled by

automobiles as car travel will become much faster and more comfortable. Vehicle owners could

make trips that they would not do now because it would be so easy to travel by automobile.

While commuters’ profit because in the period they normally drive, they will conduct certain

activities, this could have a negative impact on the environment. Individuals may be willing to

live farther away from work, so vehicles may run for a longer period. Which would though lead

to increased use of power and fuel. It might well find these concerns exaggerated, but we can't be

sure until automated cars are widely used.

Target of Hackers
 According to the cyber security expert Eddie Schwartz, there are also reasons for the new

risks associated with such technologies, such as malicious abuse, being very cautious. "If they

ever hit the road, self-driving cars would prove to be an enticing hacker option. The cyber-safety

sector is still 40 years from maturity.”

Difficult in detecting signs

Human behavior e.g. heavy foot traffic, jaywalkers, and hand signals is hard to

understand by a machine. The driverless vehicle may fail in situations where drivers need to deal

with erratic human behavior or communicate with each other. Robots have a difficulty in reading

road signs. GPS as well as other technologies may not register obstacles such as speed bumps,

recent road conditions changes, and newly posted signs.

Tesla Model S and Model X

There are radars behind the front bumpers of Tesla Model S and Model X, with a range

of several hundred meters that can track cars and moving objects from a considerable distance.

Apparently, the sensor cannot detect lanes or motionless objects such as stationary human

beings. A control system is a typical wide-angled camera mounted on the front or surrounding

car roof that recognizes different objects such as vehicles, trucks, bicycles, cyclists, pedestrians

and road markings.

Skill Degradation

Drivers that over-rely on highly automated driving systems may fail to use their manual

driving skills over long periods of time (Parasuraman, Sheridan, & Wickens, 2000). The neglect
of manual driving skills may, in turn, may degrade both the psychomotor dexterity and cognitive

skills required to manually complete a task successfully and safely (e.g., Parasuraman et al.,

2000). Ironically, this loss of skill may further encourage reliance on automation (Lee & Moray,

1994). The consequences of this skill degradation may be exacerbated in situations of automation

failure as the driver may have difficulty resuming manual control of driving (Sarter, Woods, &

Billings, 1997). In addition to the predicted long-term effects (e.g., Rudin-Brown & Jamson,

2013), recent research has demonstrated that periods of automated driving may also impose more

transient skill degradation. For example, a simulated driving study by Skottke, Debus, Wang, and

Huestegge (2014) found that even brief periods of highly-automated driving were sufficient in

impairing driving performance in a subsequent manual driving task, as evidenced by shorter

headway times and increased variability of lateral position.

Motion Sickness

A relatively unexplored, yet important, human factors issue in the realm of automated

driving is that of an increased propensity for motion sickness of vehicle occupants. Motion

sickness is a condition marked by symptoms of nausea, dizziness, and other physical discomfort

(Golding, 1992) and can be associated with various modes of transportation (e.g., boats; Byrne &

Parasuraman, 1996). The condition is most frequently caused by a conflict between visual and

vestibular inputs (Benson, 1999), loss of control over one’s movements (Rolnick & Lubow,

1991) and reduced ability to anticipate the direction of movement (Golding & Gresty, 2005).

Interestingly, Sivak and Schoettle (2015) purport that up to 10% of American adults are expected

to experience motion sickness often in autonomous vehicles. The authors also contend that

remedies for motion sickness in the form of the design of the automated vehicle are limited as

the crux of the issue is that automation controls the drivers’ direction of motion, not the driver
themselves, which may present issues of driver acceptance (see Regan, Horberry & Stevens,

2014).

SOLUTIONS/MITIGATION

Autonomous Vehicles or Self-driving technologies become increasingly sophisticated

and technically accessible, and in some cases, they can be deployed for commercial vehicles as

well. According to the current stage of research and development, it is still unclear how the self-

driving technologies will be able to handle extreme and unexpected events including their moral

aspects. Since most of the traffic accidents are caused by human error or omission, it is expected

that the emergence of the autonomous technologies will reduce these accidents in their number

and gravity, but the very few currently available tests results have not been able to scientifically

underpin this issue yet. Although, specific factors have been discovered by the proceedings in

2007 IEEE symposium Computational Intelligence in Security and Defense Applications that

states: “For vehicles to operate in real world noisy and uncertain environments, they need to

include numerous sensors and they need to include both reactive and deliberative features.” To
address the issues of perception, prediction, target of hackers and the negative impact/s on the

environment, a more intelligent/SMART software design or even an artificial intelligence should

be developed, tested and compared to effectively and efficiently put into feasibility autonomous

vehicles. Hanford et al. would summarize their findings with the following:

“Autonomous vehicles promise remarkable capabilities for both civilian and military

applications, but much work remains to develop intelligent systems software which can be used

for a wide range of applications. In particular, there is a need for reliable open-source software

that can be used on inexpensive autonomous vehicles.”

The increasing trend in automation of vehicles will radically change the composition of

car industry players, as mechatronics will not only be a complementary part of the automobile

industry but an indispensable part of it. There is a reasonable expectation that automated cars

will perform the same or better in all respects than their conventional counterparts. However, it

seems that the current regulations do not keep up with the development of technology and

sometimes hinder the development and testing of autonomous technologies.

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