Birds and Prehistoric Agriculture: The New Mexican Pueblos

Author(s): Steven D. Emslie

Source: Human Ecology, Vol. 9, No. 3 (Sep., 1981), pp. 305-329
Published by: Springer
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Human Ecology, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1981

Birds and Prehistoric Agriculture:

The New Mexican Pueblos

Steven D. Emsliel

Analysis of faunal remainsfrom prehistoricsouthwesternpueblo sites re-

vealscertaincommonlyoccurringspecies of mammalsand birds, the latter
includingducksand geese, hawksand eagles,AmericanKestrel,Mourning
Dove, owls, HornedLark, CommonRaven, andjays. Thisphenomenonis
examinedwith the analysisof bird bonesfrom four New Mexicanpueblos
located in north-centraland west-centralNew Mexico. Recoveredfaunal
remainsdate to specificperiodsbetweenA.D. 1250and thepresent. Over70
species of birds represent various ecological situations; many of these
speciespresentlydo not occurnear thepueblos and a few occur only in the
extremesoutheasternportion of the state. Marshand riparianareas along
the riversystemsand richergrasslandson thefloodplains wouldaccountfor
most of these species occurringnear the sites prehistorically.However,
rather than attribute unusual species to climatic change, trade, or long-
distancehunting expeditionsby the Indians, an alternativeexplanationis
offered which attributeshigh species diversityto areas of human distur-
bance.Disturbedareassuch as agriculturalfieldscan increasespeciesdiver-
sity in an areaand aid in the rangeextensionof manyanimals. Theprimary
factor in this situation, besides the crops themselves,is believedto be in-
sects, whichattractotheranimals,particularlybirdsand theirpredators.In
addition,field irrigationsystemsact to extendripariangrowthfrom the river
across the floodplain, creatinghabitatsfor these animals. Finally, certain
groupsof birdsand mammalshavedevelopeda naturalattractionto human
settlementsand agriculturalareas and these includespecies whose remains
commonlyoccur in prehistoricpueblo sites. Theavifaunafrom these sites
also reveals informationon the prehistoricuse of birds as inferredfrom
bone modification,cut marks,burials,and articulatedwings.

KEYWORDS:avifauna,pueblos,"gardenhunting,"prehistoric,agriculture.

'Departmentof BiologicalSciences,NorthernArizonaUniversity,Flagstaff,Arizona.
305
0300-7839/81/0900-0305$03.00 i 1981 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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306 Emslie

INTRODUCTION

The study of faunal remains from prehistoricsouthwesternpueblo

Indian sites reveals certain consistently occurring species of birds and
mammals. This paper will examine cultural activitiesrelated to this phe-
nomenonwith an analysisof bird bones from four New Mexicanpueblos-
Picuris(San Lorenzo),Sapawe,Yungue,and PotteryMound-representing
ecological situationsfrom grasslands,ripariancommunities,and marshes,
to pinyon-juniperforests and coniferous forests. I will argue that certain
avian speciesrestrictedto specific habitatswere, and are, able to coexist in
artificialhabitatssuchas agriculturalfields, a conditionthat facilitatedpre-
historicfood gathering.
Despitea generalpatternthat in naturalsystemsspeciesdiversitytends
to decline as environmentalhabitatsprogresstowardmaturity,recenteco-
logical and ethnobiologicalstudies of modern southwesternIndians have
indicatedan increasein densityand diversityof plants and animalsin agri-
culturalfields. This is due to the combinationof a uniformhabitat(i.e., one
with a singledominantcultigen)createdwith highlyedibleplants,the break-
down of naturalhabitat barriersallowing intermixingof biotic commun-
ities, and the creationof an "ecotone effect" at field edges. Site remains
suggestthat prehistoricIndiansmaximizedthe advantagesof increasedagri-
culturalproductionby huntingand trappingparticularspeciesattractedto
their fields, thereby obtaining a diverse faunal diet as well as protecting
theircropsfrom damageor destructionby animalpests.
This paperwill examinethe existenceof this "gardenhunting" strat-
egy among prehistoricpueblo occupantsof these sites, throughan analysis
of the avifauna.The avifaunaanalysisalso revealsinformationon the pre-
historic use of birds, via such factors as bone modification, cut marks,
burials,and articulatedwings.

METHODS

Avian remainswereidentifiedusing moderncomparativeskeletonsin

the LyndonL. HargraveOrnithologyCollectionat the Museumof Northern
Arizona, Flagstaff, and the museum's ornithologycollection. Bones from
Picuris and Sapawewere originallyanalyzedby Lyndon L. Hargraveand
reexaminedby the author; bone from Pottery Mound and Yungue was
analyzedby the author.
The minimumnumberof individuals(MNI) for each specieswas cal-
culated by counting the most common element of the same side, and by
comparingyoungvs. old individualsbasedon bone growth.
Excavationtechniquesat the four puebloswere not consistentdue to
the natureof the excavations(salvageor research)and because they were

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BirdsandPrehistoricAgriculturein NewMexico 307

directedby differentpeople. Excavationsat PotteryMound requiredrapid

salvage techniquesdue to the increasingdestructionalerosion of the Rio
Puerco. As a result, no screeningof soil was carriedout in these excava-
tions. Screeningwas also omittedat the excavationsof Sapaweand Yungue
but was carriedout to a limiteddegreeat Picuris.Consequently,faunaldata
from these sites have been biased. These biases are recognizedbut are not
believedto be of significanceto the results of this study, which is based
more on actual speciespresentthan on relativenumbersrepresentedat the
sites. However, total numbersof bones recoveredfor each species from
each site as well as MNIsarepresentedfor comparativepurposes.

DATA

Table I presentsthe identificationsof birds from the four pueblos,

theircalculatedMNI per speciesper site in parentheses,and theirassociated
habitats.Pottery Moundhas the largestassemblageof bones, followed by
Sapawe,Picuris,and Yungue.The only specieswhichoccurin all four sites
are the Snow Goose (Chen caerulescens),Mallard(Anas platyrhynchos),
Gadwall(A. strepera),Red-tailedHawk (Buteojamaicensis),GoldenEagle
(Aquilachrysaetos),AmericanKestrel(Falcosparverius),NorthernHarrier
(Circuscyaneus), CommonTurkey(Meleagrisgallopavo), SandhillCrane
(Grus canadensis),Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus),and Common
Raven(Corvuscorax).
Pottery Mound is a large Pueblo IV site located on the banks of the
Rio Puerco, Valencia County, approximately32 km southwest of Los
Lunasat an elevationof 1527meters(m) (Fig. 1). This site was excavatedby
FrankC. Hibben,Universityof New Mexico,beginningin 1954,due to ero-
sional impactsof the Rio Puerco. The initial excavationsuncoveredthree
overlyingpueblo structureswith severalof the rooms containingremark-
ablywell-preservedwall paintingsor kivamurals(Hibben,1955).A descrip-
tion of over 100 of these muralscan be found in Hibben (1975). Approxi-
mately 200/oof this site has been excavatedand excavationshave recently
been reinitiated,again due to erosional impacts of the Rio Puerco. By
ceramicanalysisVoll (1961) concludesthat the site was occupiedat A.D.
1325-1350and abandonedby A.D. 1450-1490.
Sapawe is a Pueblo IV-V pueblo located in pinyon-juniper-covered
foothills on the PajaritoPlateau, Rio ArribaCounty, near the town of El
Rito, at an elevation of 2100 m (Fig. 1). This site, known as the largest
adobe-walledpueblo in New Mexico, was excavatedby FlorenceHawley
Ellis, Universityof New Mexico,throughfive summerseasonsin the middle
to late 1960s.The site, datedby ceramicanalysis,was occupiedat approxi-
mately A.D. 1400 and graduallyabandonedbetween the mid-1500sand
veryearly 1600s(FlorenceH. Ellis, personalcommunication).

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308 Emslie

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BirdsandPrehistoricAgriculturein NewMexico 309

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Birds and Prehistoric Agriculture in New Mexico 315

-oSapawe
4
* Picuris
Yungue

Pottery Mound

100 km

Fig. 1. Location of the four pueblos and their associated drainages in New
Mexico.

Yungueis a part of San Juan pueblo located on the west side of the
Rio Grande,Rio ArribaCounty,nearthe town of Espaniola,at an elevation
of 1725 m (Fig. 1). This site was also excavatedby FlorenceHawley Ellis
over three seasons in the late 1950s and into the 1960s. This site showed
some evidenceof occupationfrom the 1200sand appearedas a largeoval-
shapedsite open on one end before the 16thcentury.In 1598, Don Juan de
Ofiatebroughta groupfrom Mexicoto establishthe first Spanishsettlement
in New Mexico. At first they lived with the Indians in San Juan, but in
1600-1601they moved across the river and took over most of Yungue,
which they occupieduntil they left to settle Santa Fe in 1610. The Indians
then reoccupiedtheirsite. Most of the recoveredbird bones date, based on
ceramicanalysisand historicrecords,to the period of Spanishoccupation
(FlorenceH. Ellis, personalcommunication).
Picurispueblo, or San Lorenzo,is located in pinyon-juniperforest on
the northside of the Rio Pueblo, Taos County, approximately3 km west of

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316 Emslie

Penasco, at an elevationof 2243m (Fig. 1). This site was partiallyexcavated

by HerbertDick, Fort BurgwinResearchCenter, beginningin 1961. The
pueblo was establishedat A.D. 1250-1300and is still occupied today. A
Spanishmissionwas erectedon the site in 1621. Bones from this site date to
specific periods betweenA.D. 1250 and the presentbut many remainun-
dated until ceramicstudies are completed. Dates, when known, are pro-
vided for bones discussedin the followingsections.
It is not feasible to present the proveniencesof all bird bones from
these sites. These data are on file with the collectionsor are availableupon
requestfrom the author. Most bones from the sites, with a few exceptions,
date to the time periodsspecifiedabove. Exceptionsincludeintroducedor
obvious intrusivebones such as the Rock Dove bones from Picuris Pueblo
and the DomesticChickenbones from Pottery Mound. These specieswere
historicallyintroducedto North Americaand may occur in archaeological
sites as a result of historic activities at the sites. For example, the four
chickenbones from Pottery Mound are from surfacecollectionsand prob-
ably date to A.D. 1880-1890when a cow camp was located near the site
(FrankHibben,personalcommunication).Whileit is not alwayspossibleto
recognizewhenbones areintrusive,modificationson the bone establishthat
they were deliberatelyutilized by individualsoccupyingthe site. Modified
bones from these four sites are discussedin a latersection.

DISCUSSION

Habitatclassification(see Table I) of avifaunawas basedprimarilyon

Bailey (1928), Ligon (1961), and Hubbard(1978). Severalof these species
displaywiderprehistoricdistributionrangesin New Mexico. For example,
the HarlequinQuail occupiesopen grasslandsand grassyevergreenwood-
lands at higherelevationsin mountainrangesin the southernhalf of New
Mexico. The recordfrom Sapawesuggestsa considerablywiderprehistoric
distribution.The White-neckedRaven, distinguishedfrom other ravensby
bone size (Ashley, 1941), currentlyoccurs in grasslandsof southern and
easternNew Mexico,and its presenceat Picurisis far northof this range. In
addition, the Black-billed Magpie is found primarily in riparian and
agriculturalareas in northern New Mexico but its remains at Pottery
Mound evince a southern prehistoric range extension. Boreal Owl and
Passenger Pigeon remains at Picuris also representrange extensions for
these speciesand are discussedin moredetailbelow.
Two noticeable attributes of the avifaunal data from these four
pueblos are the diversityof representedspecies and habitatsand the con-
sistent presenceof certain species or species groups, includingducks and
geese, hawksand eagles, AmericanKestrel,MourningDove, owls, Horned

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BirdsandPrehistoricAgriculturein NewMexico 317

Lark,and corvids(ravensandjays). Thesepatternsmay be explainedby the

existence of an agriculturallybased subsistencestrategy among pueblo
Indians. Recent ethnobiological and ecological studies, including those
from the southwest United States, suggest that agriculturalfields attract
greaterdensitiesand diversitiesof plants and animalsthan would naturally
occur in an area (e.g., Carotherset al., 1974; Linares, 1976; Nabhan and
Sheridan,1977;Rea, 1979, 1981;Bye, 1981).
Linares(1976) describesthe "gardenhunting" model which demon-
strateshow Indianagriculturalfields attractfloraland faunaldiversity.She
arguesthat a largemammalianbiomassrepresentedby faunalremainsin an
archaeologicalsite in Panamawas due to this phenomenon.A recentstudy
by Rea (1979) using modern Pima Indian fields in southernArizona also
demonstratesthis phenomenon.The Pima have constructedextensiveirri-
gationcanalsand livingfencerowsaroundtheirfieldswhichallow growthof
additionalriparianhabitat and cover. This has createda species diversity
"two to three times that found in the nearbysaltbush-bursage(Atriplex-
Ambrosia)communityor on the bajadasaway from the rivers"(Rea, 1979:
5). Carotherset al. (1974)found a higherspeciesdiversityof breedingbirds
in cottonwoodstandsnearagriculturalareascomparedto standsawayfrom
fieldsin the VerdeValleyof Arizona.The authorsattributedthis increaseto
the relativeabundanceof insectsin agriculturalareas. Finally,Nabhanand
Sheridan(1977)have shownhow living fencerowsare essentialin maintain-
ing the environmentalstability of floodplain farming in eastern Sonora,
Mexico, by protecting fields from stream-side erosion and providing
habitatsfor specieswhichaid in the biologicalcontrolof pests.
Three major attributesof agriculturalareas are responsiblefor in-
creasingdiversity.
1. The creationof an accessible,nonrestricting,and uniform habitat
of highlyedibleplants. Insectscan thrivein such a habitatand an increase
in insect densitiesfavors an increasein the densityof theirpredatorswhich
in turnattractstheirpredators.
2. The breakdownof naturalhabitatbarriersin disturbedareas. This
allowsintermixingof biotic communities,increasingthe diversityof species
in the area. Mayr(1963)has notedincreasesin hybridizationof good species
of flycatchers,butterflies,and toads in agriculturalareasdue to the removal
of the naturalhabitatbarriers.
3. The creationof an "ecotone effect" at field edges. The community
mixturesin theseareasadd to the speciesdiversity.
Irrigationditches and living fencerowsaroundthe fields, when pres-
ent, can also extend ripariangrowth from the river across the floodplain
and increase "the biological productivityof the floodplain" and attract
"high densitiesand diversitiesof breedingbirds" (Rea, 1979:2,5) (Fig. 2).
In summary,though the speciesrepresentedin the avifaunafrom the
four pueblos typify a varietyof ecological situations,they may also occur

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318 Emslie

Fig. 2. Irrigation ditches may serve to extend riparian growth from the rivers across the flood-
plain as does this modern ditch in the Verde Valley, central Arizona. This increases the biolog-
ical productivity of the floodplain and is another factor in the increase of density of birds near
agricultural fields.

sympatrically in human-induced habitats as agricultural fields. Specific ex-

amples of birds attracted to these artificial habitats include: (1) Great Blue
Heron: has been noted preying on pocket gophers flooded from their
burrows when fields are first irrigated (Bailey, 1928: 29). (2) Geese and
some surface-feeding ducks: are particularly attracted to cornfields, where
they feed in the spring and fall (Kortright, 1943: 476). Reed et al. (1977)
attribute increases in geese populations in the St. Lawrence valley of Quebec
to increased planting of maize by the farmers. (3) Northern Harrier or
Marsh Hawk: is frequently found near weedy borders and ditch banks sur-
rounding agricultural fields (Amadeo M. Rea, personal communication).
(4) American Kestrel: also very common near field edges. (5) Quail: are at-
tracted to wild and cultivated seeds and grains in fields. The Pima Indians
of southern Arizona are known to trap and eat Gambel's Quail which are
snared in their fields (Rea, 1979). (6) Sandhill Crane: prefer habitats with
shallow water and mud flats near grain fields (Walkinshaw, 1973; Hubbard,
1978). (7) Pigeons and doves: are attracted to wild and cultivated seeds and
grains in fields. Bailey (1928: 299) reports in 1904 flocks of Band-tailed
Pigeons landing on the threshing floor of a pueblo near Taos to pick up
waste wheat and wild oats. (8) Horned Lark: also attracted to seeds and

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BirdsandPrehistoricAgriculturein New Mexico 319

grains in fields. McAtee (1905) discusses the economic value of Horned

Larks to agriculturalcrops. (9) Insectivorousbirds such as nighthawks,
swallows, robins, and bluebirds:are attractedto high insect densities in
agriculturalareas (Howell, 1907). (10) Icterids, including blackbirdsand
meadowlarks:feed on insectsin fieldsin the summerand seedsand grainsin
the winter(Bailey,1928;Hubbard,1978).

Applicationsto ArchaeologicalFaunalRemains

Faunal diversityin archaeologicalsites can shed light on subsistence

strategies.By groupingthe representedspeciesinto procurementcategories,
or categoriesbasedon the methodsin whichthe animalswereobtained,we
can get a measure of the relative importanceof each method. Animals
representedby theirremainsin southwesternarchaeologicalpueblosites can
be classifiedinto threesuchcategories:
1. Trade:includesspecies prehistoricallybroughtor introducedto a
region where they did not naturally occur. In the Southwest, the only
known species in this category are parrots and macaws (Hargrave, 1970)
and the CommonTurkey(Rea, 1980)whichweretradedor introducedfrom
Mexicoand Mesoamerica.
2. Long-distancehunts: includes species which were hunted at long
distancesaway from the pueblos such as BighornSheep, Pronghorn,and
eagles.
3. Field-huntedand trapped:includesspecieswhichmay be attractedto
artificialecological situationsnear human settlementssuch as agricultural
fields, irrigationditches, and trash dumps. These species were taken in
snaresand trapsat theseareas.
Anothercategoryof animalswhose remainsmay occurin archaeolog-
ical sites, not relatedto procurement,includesspecies recentlyintroduced
or domesticated,such as the Domestic Chickenat Yungue and the Rock
Dove at Picuris,and intrusivebones such as the DomesticChickenbones at
PotteryMound.
Classificationof the avifauna from the four pueblos into these pro-
curementcategoriesindicatesthat several species had a much wider pre-
historicdistribution,as they currentlyoccur up to hundredsof kilometers
away from the pueblosfrom whichthey are represented.This suggeststhat
eitherenvironmentalconditionswereconsiderablydifferentprehistorically,
or that the Indiansacquiredmany birds on long-distancehuntingexpedi-
tions away from the pueblos. However, there is no evidenceof severecli-
maticshiftswhichwouldbe requiredto createthe diversityof habitatsrepre-
sentedby the avifauna.Tree-ringrecordsfor the area near PotteryMound,
for the period A.D. 1320-1490,compiled by Dean and Robinson (1977),

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320 Emslie

Table II. Avifauna from the Four Pueblo Sites Classified into the Pro-
curement Categoriesa
Long-distance Field hunt
Taxon hunts and trap
Pied-billed Grebe x
Great Blue Heron x
Wood Stork x
White-faced Ibis x
Geese and surface-feeding ducks x
Diving ducks x
Eagles x
Hawks and falcons x
Quail x
Sandhill crane x
Sora x
American Coot x
Long-billed Curlew x
American Avocet x
Wilson's Phalarope x
Pigeons and dove x
Roadrunner x
Owls x
Poorwill x
Common Nighthawk x
Common Flicker x
Horned Lark x
Swallows and martin x
Black-billed Magpie x
Jays, crows, and ravens x
American Robin x
Mountain Bluebird x
Wilson's Warbler x
Shrikes x
Meadowlarks, blackbirds, and
orioles x
aNo species from the four pueblos are recognized as "trade" species,
so this category of procurement is not included in the table.

indicateno significantclimaticchange(MartinRose, personalcommunica-

tion). Finally,althoughhuntingexpeditionsto gathersmallbirdsare known
ethnographically,these hunts are limitedto smallnumbersof people, prob-
ably involve specific rituals (FlorenceH. Ellis, personalcommunication),
and would not accountfor the densitiesof birdsrepresentedby the avifauna
at the pueblos. By classifying the avifauna into the three procurement
categories,it may be possibleto explainthis ecologicaldiversity.This tech-
nique may also help to explainwhy certainspeciesof animalsnearlyalways
occurin pueblositesin the Southwest.
Table II presentsthe classificationof the avifauna into the procure-
mentcategories.No speciesarerecognizedas tradespeciesand this category
is not includedin the table. Speciesclassifiedunder "long-distancehunts"
include birds restrictedto water and eagles, for which there are ethno-

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Birdsand PrehistoricAgriculturein New Mexico 321

graphicaccountsof Hopi and Rio GrandeIndianstravelingto specificareas

to gather nestlingsor trap adults of the Golden Eagle (Beaglehole, 1936;
Ellis, 1964; Tyler, 1979). Most species representedat these sites may be
classifiedas "field hunt and trap" near the pueblosdue to their attraction
to disturbedareas.
Pueblogroupsin New Mexicowere, and still are, agriculturists.Corn,
beans, squash, cotton, and tobacco have been cultivated for centuries
(Dozier, 1970)and, althoughthereis no prehistoricevidencein New Mexico
for the use of living fencerowswith the fields (Winter, 1974), prehistoric
irrigationsystemsare known. Luxan, chroniclerfor the Espejoexpedition,
reportedirrigationcanalsat Zuni extendingfrom waterholes in marshesto
the fields, and irrigatedcorn fields at Acoma with canalsand damsfromthe
San Jose River(Hammondand Rey, 1966: 182,186).In addition, Castalto
de Sosa visitedPecos and five Tewa pueblosnorth of Santa Fe and wrote:
"All of these six pueblos are irrigatedand have irrigationditches, a thing
[whichwould]not [be]believedif we had not seenit with our own eyes."
A verygreatamountof maize,beans,and othervegetablesis harvested
(Schroederand Matson, 1965: 117). Evidenceof irrigationwas also un-
covered during excavationsat Sapawe (FlorenceH. Ellis, personal com-
munication).
Naturalhabitatssurroundingthese fields consistedof open grasslands
on the floodplains and marsh and riparianareas along the river systems.
Togetherthese conditionscreatedthe threefactorsnecessaryto attracthigh
speciesdensityand diversityand aidedthe rangeextensionof some animals.
Geese and ducks, quail, cranes, pigeons, MourningDove, Horned Lark,
CommonFlicker,corvids, and icteridswould be attractedby wild and cul-
tivated seeds and grains in the fields. Increasedinsect populationswould
attractAmericanKestrel,Common Nighthawk,Common Flicker, Purple
Martin, swallows, robins, bluebirds, warblers, corvids, shrikes, and
icterids.Finally, herons and ibis, hawks, owls, and roadrunnerswould be
attractedto the increasedsmall mammaland bird populationsaroundthe
fields.
Species from the four pueblos which indicatemajor prehistoricdis-
tributionalchangesincludethe HarlequinQuail from Sapawe,the Passen-
ger Pigeon, Boreal Owl, and Wood Ibis from Picuris, the White-necked
Ravenfrom Picurisand PotteryMound, and the Black-billedMagpiefrom
PotteryMound. Increasedprehistoricgrasslandsand riparianhabitatsmay
account for some of these distributionalshifts. Gross and Dick-Peddie
(1979)have recentlyconstructeda vegetationmap for New Mexico for the
late 19th centurybased on territorialsurveyrecords.Theirresultsindicate
greaterextensionsof grasslands,woodland savannahs,and riparianhabi-
tats before their reduction caused by increased habitat destruction by
humans.Grasslandsin particularhave been reducedby overgrazingof live-
stock sincethey wereintroducedby the first white settlersin the Southwest

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322 Emslie

Ilk

Fig. 3. Thisviewof the Rio PuerconearPotteryMoundindicatesthe extentof erosionwhich

has o>ccurredin the areahistorically.Archaeologicalsiteshavebeenobservederodingfromthe
banks.

in the late 1800s, and by the control of fires (Humphrey, 1958; Harris,
1966).Dortignac(1963)providesa summaryof the erosionaldestructionof
the Rio PuercoBasincausedby these and other factors. He also concludes
that this basin consisted of richer grasslands historically (Fig. 3). The
HarlequinQuail, White-neckedRaven, and Black-billedMagpie appar-
entlyenjoyeda moreextensiveprehistoricdistributionbefore theirhabitats
werereducedby these factors.Theirnaturalattractionto agriculturalareas
was also importantin theirincreasedranges.
The presenceof PassengerPigeonand BorealOwl at Picurisrequiresa
more complex explanation.These species were probably able to expand
their prehistoricrange into New Mexico becauseof minor climatic shifts.
They currentlydo not occur in the state, although there are Pleistocene
records(Howard, 1931, 1971). The Boreal Owl currentlyoccupies boreal
forestsin the northernUnitedStatesand Canada,rangingno farthersouth
thancentralColorado.The PassengerPigeon, now extinct, formerlyranged
in forested areas of the easternUnited States. (Schorger, 1955). Ceramic
typology indicatesthat the Boreal Owl bone dates to the A.D. 1200-1350
period, and the Passenger Pigeon bone to the A.D. 1300-1350 period
(HerbertDick, personalcommunication).Schoenwetter(1970), in studies
of pollensamplesfrom Picuris,found increasesin effective moisturein the

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BirdsandPrehistoricAgriculturein New Mexico 323

period A.D. 1335-1425.Consequently,these species probablyrangedinto

New Mexico duringa minor mesic intervalbetweenA.D. 1300-1400(Har-
graveand Emslie, 1980).Theirattractionto agriculturalareasmay account
for theirpresencein the site.
Thus although the avifauna from the four pueblo sites represent
extremediversityof habitatand ecology, classifyingthem into procurement
categoriessuggests the possibility that most species were field hunted or
trappednear the pueblos and were attractedto the large prehistoricagri-
cultural fields. Even species classified as having been acquiredon long-
distancehunts away from the pueblos may have been taken within a small
radiusof the sites. Most of these speciesare restrictedto water,a condition
also imposedon the pueblo farmers.All of these pueblos are located near
largeriversystemsfrom which these birds could have been obtained. Con-
sequently,most of the avifaunarepresentedat these sites may havebeen ob-
tained within a 2-kilometerradius of the pueblos. This may also explain
why certainanimalsnearlyalways occur in pueblo sites. Geese and ducks,
crane,quail, MourningDove, HornedLark, swallows,corvids,and icterids
are highly attractedto fields and human settlementsand, for that reason,
wereand still areconsistentlysnaredand trappedby the Indians.
This analysissuggeststhat as the Pueblo Indiansbecamemore seden-
tary, expanding agriculturalcultivation, they increasinglysupplemented
this base with certain species of birds. The probability of finding these
speciesin the archaeologicalremainsincreasesas the evidenceof agriculture
in theseremainsincreases.
The importanceand symbolismof these birds to prehistoricIndians
may also have increasedas these species became more closely associated
with the growingof crops and the changeof seasons. The mannerin which
archaeologicalfaunal remainsare found, as well as alterationsand modifi-
cationson the bone, thus suggestpossibleconclusionsabout the prehistoric
use and symbolismof thesebirds.

PrehistoricUse of Birds

Possibleuses of birdsby the prehistoricpuebloscan be inferredby the

mannerin which remainsare found: complete or partial skeletons in the
site, articulatedwings, and bone caches; and by alterationsand modifica-
tions on the bone: cut marks,breakage,and bones modifiedinto tools and
ornaments.
A cluster of bones from one individualspecies from a single prove-
nienceat a site is indicativeof partialor completeskeletonswhichmay have
been animals buried by the prehistoric Indians. Species from the four
pueblos representedin this mannerincludethe Red-tailedHawk, Ferrugi-
nous Hawk, Common Turkey, Domestic Chicken, Great Horned Owl,

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324 Emslie

Mourning Dove, Purple Martin, Common Raven, Black-billedMagpie,

and MountainBluebird.
Two Red-tailedHawk skeletons were found at Sapaweand a partial
adult FerruginousHawk was recoveredfrom Pottery Mound. Hawk and
falcon skeletons commonly occur in archaeologicalsites in the Southwest
(Hargrave,1959;Olsen and Wheeler, 1978;Emslie and Hargrave,1979;S.
J. Olsen, 1979; Amadeo M. Rea, personal communication).Hawks may
have been kept captivefor use of their feathersfor variousceremonialitems
(Beidleman,1956;Ladd, 1963).
Turkeys were a common domestic species kept by the Anasazi for
food, and for use of their bones and feathersin tools and ornaments.At
least 38 turkeyskeletonsrecoveredat Sapawemay indicatethat this site was
a "turkeyfarm"with turkeyfeathersand blanketsbeing exportedas trade
items (FlorenceH. Ellis, personal communication).Turkey skeletons fre-
quentlyoccur in prehistoricAnasazi sites, particularlyin the fill or on the
floor of kivas and pithouses,or in vent shafts (Hibben, 1937;Brew, 1946;
Hargrave,1964; Emslie, 1977), and it is possible that these were regularly
sacrificedin a ritualperhapsrelatedto the abandonmentof the structures.2
A partial immatureskeleton of a Great Horned Owl from Pottery
Mound may have been captured as a nestling by the Indians and kept
captive. Its humerusdisplaysa healed break which may have been broken
intentionallyby the Indiansto keep the bird from escaping. However, the
possibleuse of captiveowls is unusualin that owls areoften associatedwith
witchcraft and feared by the modern Pueblos (Lange, 1959; Simmons,
1974). Alternatively,owl feathersare used by the Pueblos to drive witches
and bad luck away (Beidleman,1956). A workedbone and bones with cut
marksof this specieswerealso recoveredfrom PotteryMound.
A MourningDove skeleton from Picuris may have been used for its
feathers;the Picuris Indianstoday associate this bird with its seed-eating
habitsin theirmythology(Tyler, 1979).
Partialskeletonsof a PurpleMartinand MountainBluebirdoccurred
at Picuris. The elementspresentin both these skeletonsinclude the outer
wings, legs, and distal skull bones, suggestingthat the birdsmay have been
stuffed, a practicenot unknown among the modern Pueblos (Beidleman,
1956) (for other examplesof this practicesee Ubelakerand Wedel, 1975).
These species may representa change in seasons to the Pueblos, and the
beginningof the growingseason, sincethey are migratoryin New Mexicoin
the spring.Swallowsalso representwaterand rain(Tyler, 1979).The partial

2Anearlycompleteskeletonof a DomesticChickenfrom Yungueis probablyintrusiveto the

site; a small group of SpanishAmericanswho keep chickenslive near the site (FlorenceH.
Ellis, personalcommunication).

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BirdsandPrehistoricAgriculturein NewMexico 325

skeletons were also cached with figurinesin a kiva at Picuris, suggesting

that they mayhavehad symbolicimportance.
A partialskeletonof a CommonRavenand Black-billedMagpiewere
also recoveredfrom Picuris. Though the elementspresentdo not indicate
that eitherwas a stuffed bird, magpieskinsare used on ceremonialaltarsat
Isleta and raven feathersare commonly used by the Pueblos (Beidleman,
1956).
Bird wings are recognizedby the presenceof three or more of the
major long bones, usuallythe radius, ulna, and carpometacarpus,from a
single provenience(Hargrave,1970). Only at Picuris were probablewings
recoveredwhich representthe Red-tailed Hawk, Golden Eagle, Prairie
Falcon, Violet-greenSwallow, Common Raven, Common Crow, White-
necked Raven, and Great Horned Owl. These wings, with their attached
feathers, may have been used in costumes and ceremonies. The large
numberof these wings, as well as the relativelylargenumbersof hawk and
eagle bones recoveredfrom Picuris(Table I) in comparisonwith the other
pueblos,led Hargraveto believethat Picurismay havebeena majortrading
centerfor hawkand eaglefeathersand wings,perhapsto Plainstribes.
While it is not feasible to list all the cut marks which occurredon
bones, many of them are suggestiveof methods of food preparation,dis-
counting the cut marks found on wings discussedabove. Butcheringcut
marksoccur commonlyon the humerus,femur, and tibiotarsus,and occa-
sionally on the furculum,scapula, tarsometatarsus,and vertebrae.These
types of cut marksoccurredfrequentlyon bones of the CommonTurkey,
CanadaGoose, and SandhillCrane at the four pueblos and suggest that
these were food items. Only at Sapawewere cut markslacking on turkey
bones; however, several broken isolated turkey bones from this site may
indicatethat they were eaten there as well. These cut marksalso occur on
two GreatHornedOwltibiotarsifrom PotteryMound.
Othersmallbirds,particularlythose attractedto fields, may also have
been used for food. Modern Pueblos are known to eat MourningDove,
AmericanRobin, blackbirds,and Horned Lark (White, 1947; Beidleman,
1956;Tyler, 1979).
A completeanalysisof the workedbone fromthe four puebloswill not
be presentedhere. Koelle(1970)has completeda studyon the workedbone
from Sapawe.The speciesrepresentedby workedbone and the numberof
piecesfrom the otherthreepueblosare presentedin TableIII. Most worked
bird bone consists of tubes and awls manufacturedusing the groove and
snaptechnique,illustratedby S. L. Olsen(1979),and the discardedends are
included in this assemblage. Also formed from these bones are awls,
needles,whistles,and musicalinstruments.
Table III indicates that turkey and crane were important birds in
manufacturingthese items. I believe that this was not due to a symbolic

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326 Emslie

Table III. Species Identified from Worked Bone from

Pottery Mound, Yungue, and Picuris.
Number of bones
Pottery
Species Mound Yungue Picuris
Geese 8 1
Turkey Vulture 2
Red-tailed Hawk 1 I
Ferruginous Hawk 4
Hawk 2 8
Eagle I
Golden Eagle 10 20
Common Turkey 75 4 3
Sandhill Crane 33 2
Great Horned Owl I
Common Raven 2
Aves 38 1 4
Total 173 9 39

preferencefor these birds but instead that the birds were selectedfor their
long straightwingand leg bones. The relativeabundanceof these birdsmay
also havebeena factor.

CONCLUSION

Avifauna from four New Mexican pueblos sheds light on the pre-
historic ecology and distributionof birds in New Mexico. Classifyingthe
representedspecies into procurementcategories suggests that while an
extremeamount of ecological diversityis represented,most species could
have been obtainedwithin a 2-kilometerradius of the pueblos, indicating
increasedspeciesdensitiesand diversitiesin agriculturalareas. This results
from threemajor factors:(1) the uniformhabitatof highlyedible plants in
the fields; (2) the breakdownof habitatbarriers,allowingmixingof biotic
communities;and (3) the "ecotone effect" createdat field edges. (Irrigation
ditchesand living fencerowsaroundthe fields, whenpresent,may also be a
factor in this phenomenon.)These conditions may have servedto expand
the prehistoricdistributionof many animals, facilitatingfood gatheringby
Pueblo Indians, and may account for the consistent presence of certain
species in prehistoricpueblo sites. This model may be applicableto other
groups of vertebrates as well, including mammals, reptiles, and
amphibians.
A modernexampleof this processis the Bosquedel Apache National
Wildlife Refuge on the Rio Grandein south-centralNew Mexico. Estab-
lishedin 1939as a winteringarea for migratorywaterfowl,this refuge con-

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BirdsandPrehistoricAgriculturein NewMexico 327

sists of 57.191 acres, of which 1,500 are farmedon a cooperativebasis to

providefood for the wildlife. This "artificial"agriculturalfield habitathas
succeededin restoringsandhillcranesand waterfowlto their formerabun-
dances in the Rio GrandeValley. A large variety of other birds are also
found in this refuge.
The avifaunafrom the pueblosalso allows speculationon the possible
prehistoricuses of birds, by comparingthem with the ways they are used
today. Hawks, falcons, and ravensmay have been used for their feathers
and completewings in costumesand ceremonies,or for trade, as they are
today, while geese, turkey, crane, and small birds, now killed for food as
well as for feathers,may have been more completelyutilized. The Purple
Martinand MountainBluebirdwerefound with clay figurinesin a smallpit
on the floor of a kiva, suggesting that they may have been important
symbolicspecies.Detailedexaminationof birdremainsfrom futureexcava-
tions of prehistoricsouthwesternpueblo sites should providefurtherinfor-
mationon this aspectof Indianculture.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A number of people have contributedinformation essential to the

content of this paper to whom I am extremelygrateful. These people
include:HerbertDick, FlorenceH. Ellis, Amadeo M. Rea, MartinRose,
Frank C. Hibben, Gary Nabhan, and CharlesVoll. The valuable discus-
sions and influenceof the late LyndonL. Hargrave,as well as his workwith
the bone from Picuris and Sapawe, cannot be overemphasized.Much of
this work was completed under a grant from the Max C. Fleischmann
Foundation.The bone from Pottery Mound, Yungue, and Sapaweis de-
posited at the Universityof New Mexico, Albuquerque;bone from Picuris
is deposited at the Fort Burgwin ResearchCenter, Fort Burgwin, New
Mexico. Any identificationerrors or other errors are, of course, my re-
sponsibility.This paperwas originallypresentedat the ThirdEthnobiology
Conference,Tucson,Arizona,March1980.

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