BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

 Biological hazards
are acquired from disease causing microorganisms and the poisonous toxins they may
produce.
are by far the most dangerous foodborne hazard in the food service and food retail
businesses.

These include harmful microorganisms seen only under the microscope such as:

 Bacteria  Other living organisms such as:

 Viruses  Insects

 Parasites  Rodents

 Molds  Farm animals

 Yeast  Domestic pets

 And the biological substance  Birds

prion, a protein molecule
 Fish and plants

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODBORNE ILLNESS

Infection
Intoxication
Toxin-mediated infection

Infection
ingestion of a harmful microorganism in food
occurs when a living microorganism is ingested as a part of food.
After ingestion, the microorganisms attach themselves to the gastrointestinal tract and
begins to grow.
An example of a bacterial infection is Salmonella spp.
This can lead to common foodborne illness symptoms like diarrhea.
In some, instances, the microorganisms may be carried by the bloodstream from the
gastrointestinal tract to the other parts of the body.
Foodborne viruses and parasites are good examples of microorganisms that can cause
infection.

Intoxication
ingestion of a harmful toxin produced in food
Arises when a living microorganisms that grows in food produces a toxin.
The food is then ingested and the toxin itself causes the illness.
Some examples of bacteria that cause food intoxication are Clostridium botulinum and
Staphylococcus aureus.
An intoxication may also occur due to consumption of a toxic chemical such as a
cleaning chemical.
 Toxin- Mediated Infection- ingestion of a harmful microorganism in food that produces
a toxin in the human body
-Takes place when a living microorganism is consumed and the ingested
microorganisms produces a toxin in the body that leads to illness.
-An example of a microorganism that produces toxin in the body is the Clostridium
perfringens.

TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
Beneficial Microorganisms
- Beneficial microorganisms are found in food production.
-Examples of these microbes are those used in making bread, beer, yoghurt, and cheese.
Harmful Microorganisms- Harmful microorganisms spoil food and cause diseases.

Microbial Forms:
Bacteria Molds
Viruses Yeast
Parasites Prions
Fungi

 Bacteria - Of all microorganisms, bacteria provide the most common threat to food safety.
-Bacteria are single-celled organisms and can cause illnesses in two ways:
 Pathogenic (infectious; disease-causing) bacteria.
 Toxigenic (poisonous) bacteria produce harmful toxins
-Most bacteria exist in a vegetative state, the cells grow, reproduce and produce
waste just like any other living organism.
-However, some bacteria are able to produce protective, thick-walled structures
called spores.
-Spores do not reproduce, but they enable the bacteria to survive some cooking
and freezing temperatures and the destructive effects of cleaning and sanitizing
solutions.
-They even survive when there is not enough food.

Classification of Bacteria:
 Spoilage bacteria – break down foods making them look, taste, and smell bad. They
reduce the quality of food to unacceptable levels. When this happens, the food will have to
be thrown away.
 Pathogenic bacteria – are disease-causing microorganisms that can make people ill if they
or their toxins are consumed through food.
 Bacterial Growth
-Bacteria reproduce when bacterial cell divides to form two new cells.
-This process is called binary fission.
-The reproduction of bacteria and an increase in the number of organisms are
referred to as bacterial growth.
- This means that during each growth generation, each cell gives rise to another
cell.
 Generation time
- or the time for cell numbers to double is typically 20-30 minutes but can also be quick as 15
minutes.
-Under optimal conditions, this means that a single cell can generate over 1 million cells in just
five hours.
-Proper storage and food handling help prevent bacterial growth.
-Generation times vary with the organism and environment can range from 20 minutes for a fast
growing bacterium under ideal conditions, to hours and days for less than ideal conditions or
slow growing bacteria

Phases of Bacterial Growth

1. Lag Phase. Growth is slow at first, while the microorganisms acclimate to the food and
nutrients in their new habitat.
2. Log Phase. Once the metabolic machinery is running, microbes start multiplying
exponentially, doubling in number every few minutes.
3. Stationary Phase. As more and more microbes are competing for dwindling food and
nutrients, the booming growth stops and the number of bacteria stabilizes.
4. Death Phase. Toxic waste products build up, food is depleted and the
microorganisms begin to die.
5. Recovery/ Survival Phase. Microorganisms grow and reproduce again.

Bacterial Growth Requirement

The conditions that favor the growth of bacteria, yeast, and molds can be easily
remembered by the acronym FATTOM which stands for Food, Acidity, Time, Temperature,
Oxygen, and Moisture.

 Food
-Microorganisms like all living things, need food to grow.
-The presence of a suitable food supply is the most important condition that affects bacterial
growth.
-The food must contain the appropriate nutrients needed for growth.
-Bacteria generally prefer foods that are high in protein like meat and dairy items.

 Acidity
-Disease- causing bacteria grow best at acidity levels equivalent to pH 4.6 to 7.5.
- The term pH is used as a symbol to designate the food’s degree of acidity.
-The scale for measuring pH is from 0 to 14. -A pH of 7.0 is neither acidic nor basic and is
considered neutral food.
-A pH less than 7.0 indicates that the food is acidic.
-A pH ranges greater than 7.0 refers to basic food. Examples of alkaline foods are olives, egg
whites, or soda crackers.
-Very acidic foods (pH below 4.6), like lemons, limes, and tomatoes, cannot support the growth
of disease- causing bacteria.
-Pickling fruits and vegetables by adding acids, such as vinegar, lowers the pH of the food and
slows down the rate of bacterial growth.
-High alkaline food are also unfavorable for the growth of microorganisms.
-Most bacterial growth is inhibited at an acidic environment or at a pH of below 4.6.
-The optimum growth pH for yeast is from 4.5 to 6.0 while molds require a pH from 3.5 to 4.0.
-The acidity of foods helps determine the type of heat processing or home canning required for
safe preservation.

 Time
-Because bacteria grow rapidly, it does not take long before many cells are produced.
-A rule of thumb in the food industry is that bacteria need about four hours, inclusive of the time
food is between 5°C to 60°C, to grow to numbers high enough to cause illness.
-Remember, a single bacterial cell can produce over 1 million cells in just five hours under ideal
conditions.
-It is very important not to give bacteria an opportunity
to multiply.
-Proper storage and handling of foods help prevent bacteria from multiplying.
 Temperature
-Temperature is probably the most important factor that affects the growth of bacteria in food.
-Most disease- causing bacteria grow within a temperature range of 5°C to 60°C.
- This is the range where microbial growth and reproduction are at their peak.
-This is commonly referred to as the Temperature Danger Zone.

Classification of Microorganisms according to Temperature Requirements

1. Psychrophiles - These cold- temperature loving microorganisms thrive in a temperature

range of 0°C to 21°C. They are especially troublesome because they are capable of multiplying
at both refrigerated and room temperatures. Most psychophysics bacteria are spoilage
organisms, but some can also cause diseases.
2. Mesophiles - Theses middle range bacteria grow at temperatures between 21°C and 43°C,
with the most rapid growth at human body temperature.
3. Thermophiles - Heat- loving microorganisms, they grow best at temperatures above 43°C.
all thermophilic bacteria are spoilage organisms.

Oxygen
-Bacteria require different amounts of oxygen to grow.
-Some require a lot of oxygen (aerobic), while others cannot tolerate oxygen (anaerobic) at all.
-Those belonging to genus Clostridia require the complete absence of free oxygen to grow.
-Anaerobic bacteria grow well in vacuum packaged foods or canned foods where oxygen is not
available.
-Anaerobic conditions also exist in the middle of cooked food masses such as stock pots and
baked potatoes, or in the middle of a roast or ham.
-Some bacteria only grow within a narrow oxygen range (microaerophilic), usually three to six
percent oxygen levels, while others can grow with or without oxygen (facultative anaerobes).
-Most foodbornecausing microorganisms are facultative anaerobes.
-Controlling oxygen conditions may be an effective way to prevent foodborne illnesses.
However, even without any oxygen, some disease- causing bacteria can still find conditions
suitable for growth.

Moisture
-Just like most forms of life, moisture is an important factor affecting bacterial growth, which is
why humans have been preserving food for thousands of years by drying them.
- Scientists have determined that bacterial growth is greatly influenced by the amount of
available water which is designated with the symbol aw .
-aw is water not bound to the food and is available for bacterial growth.
- It is measured on a scale from 0- 1.0.
-Disease- causing bacteria can only grow in foods with an a greater than .85
-In the Philippines, because of high relative humidity, the top layer of some exposed food can
hydrate and make it moist enough for microorganisms to grow.
-Good packaging and the control of environmental relative humidity which can be achieved with
air- conditioning, dehumidifier, or even adequate ventilation, can prevent this from happening,
-There are many preservation processes that can be done to reduce the aw (below .85) of
foods, including sun drying and freeze drying.
- The addition of salt or sugar can also be used to reduce available water.
However, very high amounts of these substances need to be used, rendering this method
impractical.

AEROBIC BACTERIA Example of Aerobic Bacteria:

 Bacteria that require a lot of oxygen  Nocardia
 Mycobacterium Tuberculosi

Nocardia
 Obligate aerobic, partially acid-fast, beaded, branching, gram-positive bacilli. The
genus Nocardia, in the family Actinomycetaceae, has many species and an increasing
number are recognized as causes of human disease

Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
 A species of pathogenic bacteria in the family Mycobacteriaceae and the causative agent of
tuberculosis. Tuberculosis has an unusual, waxy coating on its cell surface primarily due to
the presence of mycolic acid.

ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
 The bacteria that grow in the absence of oxygen. It does not have the ability to detoxify
oxygen. The final electron acceptor is carbon dioxide, sulfur, fumarate or ferric. Acetate like
substances, methane, nitrate and sulfide are produced by these bacteria. When in liquid
medium they are seen at the bottom of the medium.
Examples:
 Bacteroides
 Escherichia Coli

Bacteroides
 A genus of Gram-negative, obligate anaerobic bacteria. Bacteroides species are non-
endospore-forming bacilli, and may be either motile or nonmotile, depending on the species.
 The DNA base composition is 40–48% GC. Unusual in bacterial organisms, Bacteroides
membranes contain sphingolipids.

Escherichia Coli
 Also known as E. coli, is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform
bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-
blooded organisms.

Microaerophilic
 bacteria that only grow within a narrow oxygen range; usually three to six percent oxygen
level
Facultative Anaerobes
 bacteria that can grow with or without oxygen
 Most foodborne causing microorganisms
Moisture
 An important factor affecting bacterial growth, which is why humans have been preserving
food for thousands of years by drying them. Scientists have determined that bacterial growth
is greatly influenced by the amount of available water
Available Water
 Is water not bound to the food and is available for bacterial growth. It is measured on a scale
from 0-1.0. Disease- causing bacteria can only grow in foods with an a greater than .85
Water
 Is one of the most common substances on earth. It is an essential component of all foods.
The amount of water in a food (known as percent water) influences the appearance, texture,
and flavor of the food. All living organisms as well as food contain water. Water makes up
about 70% or more of the weight of most fresh (unprocessed) foods. Even “dry” foods like
beans, flour and cereals contain some water. Fresh fruits and vegetables contain the most
water — between 90% and 95% water. 
Preservation Processes that can be done to reduce available water of foods:
 sun drying
 freeze drying
 addition of salt
 addition of sugar
WHY DOES OUR FOOD SPOILS?
Food spoilage and spoilage can occur when there are slight changes in relative humidity.
Moisture can condense on the surface of a product and this can result in many common food
defects. The molding of grain, soggy cereals, and the caking and lumping of dry products like
powders and cake mixes can result from excessive moisture. Other defects such as mottling,
crystallization and stickiness have also been observed. Moisture condensing on the surface of a
food can also provide an environment for bacteria and molds to grow and multiply. Physical
defects such as cracking, splitting and crumbling occur when excessive moisture is lost from
foods.

BACTERIAL, VIRAL, AND PARASITIC FOODBORNE HAZARDS

Biological hazards, are of the greatest concern to food service and food retail operators.
 They have been classified as spore-forming bacteria, nonspore forming bacteria,
viruses, and parasites.
In the following sections, each type of bacterial hazard will be discussed. The type of
illness, symptoms and onset time, common foods, the route of transmission and ways to
control the hazards will likewise be identified.

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Bacteria

Spore - protectivethick-walled structures that were produced by bacteria.

- Do not reproduce but they enable the bacteria to survive.
Bacteria – among the fastest reproducing organisms in the world.

1. Spore-Forming Foodborne Bacteria

The following group of bacteria can produce a spore structure that allows a cell to
withstand environmental stress, such as cooking, freezing, salting, drying, and picking.
Generally, bacterial spores are not harmful if ingested. However, if conditions of the food
are changed, permitting the spore to turn into a vegetative cell, the vegetative cell can
grow in the food and cause illness if eaten.
Spore-forming bacteria are generally found in ingredients grown near the soil like
vegetables and spices.
They can be particularly troublesome in food retail-type environments because they can
survive on foods.
When conditions are improved, for instance, adding dried spices to a beef stew mixture,
spores can become vegetative cells.
Imagine a restaurant preparing a 5-gallon pot of chili for the next day's lunch special. All
the ingredients (beans, meat, spices, and tomato base) of the chili are mixed together
and cooked to a rapid boil.
Although a rapid boil will destroy all vegetative cells, spores may still survive. The chili is
then kept in a 10-gallon container and allowed to cool overnight in a walk-in refrigerator.
It takes the chili eight hours to cool from 60 to below 5°C.
If given enough time at the right temperature during the cooling process spore-forming
bacteria that survived the cooking process may change into vegetative cells and grow.

Spores are most likely to turn vegetative when:

heat-shocked (heating causes spores to change);
optimum conditions exist for growth (high protein and high moisture);
temperatures are in the food temperature danger zone or between 5°C to 60°C; and
the amount of time the food is in the danger zone is four hours or more.

 To keep spore-forming bacteria from changing to the dangerous vegetative state, it is

critical that hot foods be maintained at 60°Cor higher and cold foods be kept at less than
5°C.
 Cooking, reheating, and cooling of foods should also be done as quickly as possible to
limit bacterial growth.
 Important spore-forming pathogens in the food retail industry include Bacillus cereus,
Clostridium perfringens, and Clostridium botulinum.

1. Bacillus cereus
Description: Bacillus cereus is a facultative anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium that has been
associated with two very different types of illnesses. Depending on the toxin produced by the
bacteria onto the food, illness can either be associated with diarrhea or vomiting. The diarrheal
illness is due to a toxic infection while the vomiting type is due to intoxication.
Type of Illness: Bacterial intoxication or toxin-mediated infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Depending on the type of toxin produced by the bacteria onto the
food, the illness will either be a vomiting or diarrheal type problem. Nausea and abdominal
cramps may be associated with either type. The onset time for the vomiting type is 30 minutes
to 6 hours, usually lasting for a day or less. The onset time for the diarrheal illness is 8 to 16
hours and lasts for 12 to 14 hours.
Common Food: A wide variety of foods, including meat, milk, vegetables, and fish, has been
associated with the diarrheal-type disease. The vomiting type illness is usually associated with
starchy food such as rice, potatoes, and pasta products.
Transmission in Food: Illness due to the Bacillus cereus is most often attributed to improperly
stored (cooled or hot-held) food. Improper storage permits the conversion of spores to
vegetative cells. Vegetative cells then produce the toxin or grow to high enough numbers in the
food to cause illness.
Prevention: Food must, be cooked and, if not consumed immediately, held at 60°C or higher.
Food must be cooled rapidly to below 5°C prior to storage.

2. Clostridium perfringens
Description: Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium that is one of the
most commonly reported causes of foodborne illnesses, especially for food that have been
temperature abused. Clostridium perfringens causes illness due to a toxic-infection where the
ingested cells produce a toxin in the human intestinal tract.
Type of Illness: Bacterial toxin-mediated infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: It causes intense abdominal pains and severe diarrhea. The onset
time is 8 to 22 hours and the illness usually lasts for a day or less.
Common Food: The microorganism is widely distributed in food, especially spices. It is often
implicated in meat dishes as well as those containing gravy. Gravy can create an anaerobic
environment which allows the microorganism to grow.
Transmission in Food: Illness due to Clostridium perfringens is most often attributed to
temperature-abused foods. Foods that are improperly cooled (in the temperature danger zone
for more than four hours) and then not reheated properly create an ideal condition for the growth
of Clostridium perfringens.
Prevention: Food must be cooked and cooled rapidly. It must be reheated only once. If not
consumed after the first heating, it should be discarded.

3. Clostridium botulinum
Description: Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium that causes
foodborne intoxication due to improperly heat processed foods, especially home canning ones.
The microorganism produces a neurotoxin which is one of the most toxic biological substances
known to humans. This toxin can be destroyed if the food is boiled for about 20 minutes.
However, botulism still occurs because people do not want to boil food that has already been
cooked.
Type of Illness: Bacterial intoxication
Symptoms and Onset Time: symptoms commonly associated with botulism are fatigue,
headache, dizziness, visual disturbance, inability to swallow, difficulty in speaking, and
respiratory paralysis. The onset time is 12 to 36 hours and the duration of the illness is several
days to a year.
Common Food: This occurs in food with a pH greater than 4.6 that are not properly heat
processed, packaged anaerobically (can or vacuum pouch), and held at above 41°F.
Transmission in Food: Illness due to Clostridium botulinum is almost always attributed to the
ingestion of food that were not heat processed correctly and packaged anaerobically.
Prevention: Discard damaged cans. Do not can or vacuum package foods in a food retail
establishment.

Nonspore forming Foodborne Bacteria

The following groups of bacteria are not capable of producing a spore structure; they are
always in the vegetative state.
Compared to spore-forming bacteria in the spore state, vegetative cells are easily
destroyed by proper cooking.
There are that are numerous examples of nonspore-forming foodborne bacteria that are
important in the food retail industry

1. Campylobacter jejuni
Description: Campylobacter jejuni is considered by many food scientists as the number one
agent that causes foodborne illnesses. This microaerophile infection-causing microorganism is
unique compared to most other foodborne pathogens because it can only tolerate 3 to 6%
oxygen for growth. The infective dose for Campylobacter jejuni in food is low.
Type of Illness: Bacterial infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Symptoms include abdominal pain, and slight to severe watery,
bloody diarrhea. The onset time is two to five days. Symptoms of this disease usually last from
two to seven days.
Common Food: This microorganism is commonly found in raw milk and raw chicken. Some
scientists estimate that Campylobacter jejuni may be present in nearly 100% of retail chicken.
Transmission in Food: Campylobacter jejuni is often transferred from raw meat to other foods
by cross-contamination, most often from a food contact surface, such as a cutting board, or the
food handler's hands.
Prevention: Cook raw meats properly. Do not use raw or unpasteurized milk. Thoroughly clean
food contact surfaces and hands after handling raw food.

2. Escherichia coli
Description: The Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli group of bacteria includes any
E. coli capable of producing shiga toxin. These bacteria include four strains of foodborne
pathogens enterotoxigenic E coli, enteropathogenic E. coli, enterohemorrhagic E. coli, and
enteroinvasive E, coli. A particular type of enterohemorrhagic E. coli called E. coli 0157:H7 is a
facultative anaerobic bacterium that can be found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals.
Illness can be due to an infection and toxicoinfection and is particularly serious infants because
it can cause kidney failure and bloody diarrhea.
Type of Illness: Bacterial infection or toxin-mediated infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Illness due to the Shiga toxin-producing E. coli is a threat to
children up to 16 years old and the elderly. It can cause severe abdominal pain, nausea
vomiting, bloody diarrhea, HUS, kidney failure, and death. The infection usually begins with flu-
like symptoms and fever followed by bloody diarrhea. The onset time is 12 to 72 hours and the
illness lasts from one to three days.
Common Food: This microorganism has been isolated from raw milk and raw ground beef.
Transmission in Food: E. coli is usually transferred to foods like beef through contact with the
intestines of animals. Transmission can also occur if employees are carriers and if they do not
observe proper hand washing after going to the bathroom.
Prevention: Cook hamburger patties or ground meat until well done (at least 68°C) or until all
its juices is of a clear color. Do not use raw milk products. Make sure that employees practice
good personal hygiene.

3. Listeria monocytogenes
Description: Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that causes
foodborne infection. It can survive under many conditions, even in high-salt food. Unlike other
foodborne pathogens, it can grow at refrigerated temperatures below 5°C. Listeriosis, the illness
caused by Listeria monocytogenes, usually causes gastrointestinal symptoms in a healthy adult.
However, disease complications, such as septicemia, meningitis, and encephalitis can be life
threatening for people with weakened immune systems.
Type of Illness: Bacterial infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, headache, fever, chills, and
backache. Complications from listeriosis can be life threatening for pregnant women, or the at-
risk population, such as the young, elderly and those with weakened immune systems. The
onset time is one day to three weeks and the duration of the disease depends on when the
treatment is administered to the patient.
Common Food: This microorganism has been isolated from many food and is most common in
raw meat, raw poultry, dairy products (cheese, ice cream, raw milk), raw vegetables, and
seafood.
Transmission in Food: Transmission to foods can occur by cross-contamination. Also, foods
that are not cooked properly can contain live cells.
Prevention: Cook foods thoroughly. Practice good personal hygiene.

4. Salmonella spp.
Description: Salmonella is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that frequently causes a
foodborne infection. Like E. coli, Salmonella can be found in the intestinal tracts of warm-
blooded animals.
Type of Illness: Bacterial infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Salmonella infection produces abdominal pain, headache,
nausea, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea. The onset time is 6 to 48 hours; the disease generally
lasts for two to three day.
Common Food: This microorganism exists in many foods, especially raw meat, poultry
products, dairy products, pork, milk chocolate, and cream-filled desserts.
Transmission in Food: Transmission to foods occur through cross-contamination from raw
foods (especially poultry), from food contact surfaces (cutting boards), or from food handlers.
Prevention: Cook foods thoroughly. Practice good personal hygiene, and clean and sanitize
food contact surfaces after they come in contact with raw foods.

5. Shigella spp.
Description: Shigella is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that causes about 10% of foodborne
illnesses in the U.S. It is frequently found in the intestines of humans and warm-blooded animals
and can cause an infection or toxic-infection. A common illness caused by Shigella is bacillary
dysentery.
Type of Illness: Bacterial infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Shigellosis causes bacillary dysentery, diarrhea, fever, abdominal
cramps, fatigue, and dehydration. The onset time is one to seven days and the duration of the
disease depends on when treatment is administered to the patient.
Common Food: This microorganism is common in ready-to-eat salads (e.g., potato, chicken),
dairy products, poultry, and raw vegetables.
Transmission in Food: Water contaminated by fecal material and handled unsanitary by food
workers are common transmission routes.
Prevention: Practice good personal hygiene and wash foods with potable water supply
(suitable for drinking).

6. Staphylococcus aureus
Description: Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that produce a very
heat-stable toxin as it grows on food, an example of an intoxication. This bacterium can grow on
cooked foods that are re-contaminated by food workers through mishandling them.
Staphylococcus aureus bacterium does not compete well when other types of microorganisms
are present. However, it grows well without competition from other microbes. The
microorganism is normally present on human skin, hands, and in nasal passages, and can be
transferred to foods easily. It may also be found in burns, infected cuts and wounds, pimples,
and boils. It can survive in high salt and sugar conditions and lower water activity. Type of
Illness: Bacterial intoxication
Symptoms and Onset Time: Staphylococcus aureus intoxication produces severe nausea,
acute abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. The onset time is one to six hours, usually two to
four hours. The illness lasts one to two days.
Common Food: This microorganism is common in cooked ready-to-eat, foods, salads, meat,
poultry products, custard, high salt foods like ham, and dairy products.
Transmission in Food: Since humans are the primary source, cross-contamination from the
worker's hands is the most common way the microorganism is introduced to foods. Foods that
require preparation and handling are especially susceptible.
Prevention: Practice good personal hygiene. Keep ready to-eat foods out of the temperature
danger zone. Avoid handling of food with bare hands. Workers with cuts or opens wounds
should not be allowed to come in contact with food unless the wound has been properly
bandaged and gloves or a similar barrier are used to cover the bandaged area.

7. Vibrio spp.
Description: There are three species within the Vibrio group of bacteria that have been
implicated in foodborne infections. They include Vibrio cholera, vibrio parahaemolyticus, and
Vibrio vulnificus, all of which are resistant to salt and are common in seafood.
Type of Illness: Bacterial infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Foodborne illnesses from the Virbio spp. is characterized by
diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, headache, fever, and chills. The onset time is 2
to 48 hours; its duration is for two to three days, but can last longer.
Common Food: Vibrio spp. are commonly found in raw, under processed, improperly handled,
contaminated fish and shellfish. These bacteria are most usually found in the summer months
and in warmer waters.
Transmission in Food: Since the microorganisms exist in raw seafood, transmission to other
foods by cross-contamination is of great concern. Most illnesses are caused by eating raw or
undercooked seafood, especially oysters.
Prevention: Cook seafood properly. Avoid consumption of raw seafood. Practice good personal
hygiene.

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Viruses

Foodborne viruses differ from foodborne bacteria. Viruses require a living host (animal,
plant, or human) to grow and reproduce.
Unlike bacteria, they do not reproduce or grow in foods. However, the consumption of
even a few particles is enough for a person to experience an infection.
 Viruses are usually transferred from one food to another, e g., from a food handler to a
food, or from a water supply to a food.
A PHF is not needed by a virus to survive. There are three viruses common in food retail
preparation: Hepatitis A, Norwalk virus, and rotavirus.

1. Hepatitis A
Description: Hepatitis A is a foodborne virus associated with many foodborne infections. It
causes the liver disease infectious hepatitis. It has an incubation period of 10 to 45 days. This
means that a food worker can harbor the microorganism for up to six weeks and not show any
symptoms of illness. However, during this time, the food worker can contaminate foods and
other workers in the food retail establishment. The hepatitis A virus is very resilient and can live
for several hours in a suitable environment.
Type of Illness: Viral infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: The symptoms of infectious hepatitis are fever, vomiting,
abdominal pain, and fatigue. Advanced stages of the disease cause swelling of the liver and
possibly jaundice or the yellowing of the skin. The onset time is 15 to 50 days after eating the
contaminated food. A mild case of infectious hepatitis typically lasts for several weeks. Severe
cases can last for several months.
Common Food: The hepatitis A virus can be found in raw or lightly cooked oysters and clams
harvested from polluted waters, and raw fruits and vegetables that have been irrigated or
washed with contaminated water supply. PHF, unheated food, and ready-toeat foods washed
with non-potable water and handled by infected people can also become sources of the virus.
Due to the long incubation period, it is very difficult to identify the original food source of a
hepatitis A infection.
Transmission in Food: The virus is primarily transmitted from person-to-person contact, by
cross contamination, and by fecal contamination.
Prevention: Handle and cook food properly. Avoid consumption of raw seafood. Practice good
personal hygiene.

2. Norwalk virus group

Description: The Norwalk is a common foodborne virus associated with many foodborne
infections, even some outbreaks involving up to 3,000 people.
Type of Illness: Viral infection Symptoms and Onset Time: Common symptoms caused by
Norwalk and Norwalk like viruses are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps.
Headache and low fever may likewise occur. A mild, brief illness usually develops 24 to 48
hours after contaminated food or water is consumed and lasts for about one to three days.
Severe illness is very rare.
Common Food: The virus can be ingested through raw seafood, and raw fruits and vegetables
washed with a contaminated water supply. Unheated foods that are handled by people who are
shedding the virus are also common sources.
Transmission in Food: The virus is transmitted from person-to-person contact and by fecal
contamination.
Prevention: Handle and cook foods properly. Avoid consumption of raw seafood. Practice good
personal hygiene.

3. Rotavirus
Description: Group A rotaviruses cause several diseases known as rotavirus gastroenteritis.
These viruses are the leading causes of severe diarrhea among infants and children. Over three
million cases of rotavirus gastroenteritis occur annually in the United States.
Type of Illness: Viral infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Individuals infected with rotavirus may experience mild to severe
symptoms. Common symptoms of rotavirus gastroenteritis are vomiting, watery diarrhea, and
low- grace fever. The onset time ranges from one to three days. Symptoms often start with
vomiting followed by four to eight days of diarrhea.
Common Food: Infected workers may contaminate foods that require handing and no further
cooking, such as salads and fruits.
Transmission in Food: The virus is transmitted from person-to-person contact and by fecal
contamination.
Prevention: Cook food in the proper temperature and handle it properly. Food workers must
practice good personal hygiene and wash hands thoroughly before working with food and after
going to the toilet.

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Parasites

Foodborne parasites are among the common foodborne biological hazards.

Parasites are microscopic creatures that need to live on or inside a host to
survive.
Parasites can be found in irrigation water, animal feces, and muscles tissues of
improperly fed cattle, and swine, and fish muscles.
Humans can become infected when undercooked meat and fish are consumed

Where Can It Be Found?

 Irrigation Water
 Muscle Tissue of Improperly Fed Cattle
 Muscle Tissue of Improperly Fed Swine
 Muscle Tissue of Undercooked Fish
 Muscle Tissue of Undercooked Meat
 Animal Feces

There are several examples of parasites that can come in contact with food and
cause foodborne illness.

ANISAKIS SPP
 Worm and Herring worm
 a genus of parasitic nematodes (roundworms) that have lifecycles involving fish
and marine mammals.
 The worms are about 1 to 1 1/2 inches long. They can be beige, ivory white, gray,
brown or pink.

Types of Illness: Parasitic Infection

Symptoms and Onset Time: If the worms attach themselves to the linings of the
stomach, the typical symptoms are vomiting and abdominal pain. When they stick to the
intestine, they produced sharp pain and fever, symptoms similar to those produced by
appendicitis.
Common Food: Raw and Uncooked Seafoods
Transmission in food: This parasite is transferred in the water where the marine
animals lives. Humans become accidental host upon eating the infected fish.
Prevention: Inspect, handle and cook food Properly, Avoid raw fish.

CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM
 a single- celled micro organism called protozoa. They can cause foodborne
infections and can be found in water that has been contaminated with cow feces.
 Drink water with high levels of runoff from farms or slaughterhouses have been
implicated in outbreaks caused by this parasite.
 It is capable of causing disease both in immunocompetent and
immunocompromised hosts.

Symptoms and Onset Time: Symptoms include watery diarrhea, stomach cramps,
upset stomach, and slight fever. Some cases may be without symptoms.
Symptoms appear 2 to 10 days after ingestion of C. parvum oocysts
Common Food: This parasite most commonly Associated with the consumption of
contaminated water. Raw foods that are in contact with contaminated water, especially
raw vegetables, can also be contaminated.
Transmission in Food: This parasite can be found in soil, food, water or surfaces that
have been contaminated with feces from infected humans or animals.
Prevention: Handle and cook foods properly, use potable water supply, Observe good
personal hygiene and proper hand washing

GIARDA LAMBLIA
 A one-celled, microscopic parasite that is found in the feces of wild animals,
domestic pets, and infected persons.

 Recognized as one of the most common causes of waterborne (and occasionally

foodborne) illness in the United States.

Symptoms and Onset Time: Human giardiasis may cause diarrhea within one week of
the ingestion of cyst. The illness may last for as long as a month. The disease is more
severe for the at-risk population.
Common Food: These parasites are most commonly associated with the consumption
of contaminated water. Raw foods that are in contact with contaminated water,
especially raw vegetables, can also be contaminated
Transmission in Food: These parasites could occur, theoretically, on any food touched
by contaminated food worker. They are primarily transmitted by water supply
contaminated with feces and by fecal.
Prevention: Provide a potable water supply in the food establishment and handle foods
carefully o prevent contamination and cross- contamination. Food workers must practice
good personal hygiene and wash hands before working with food and going to the toilet.
ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES
 Ascaris lumbricoides is the most common human worm infection. It is a
large roundworm and can grow up to length of 35cm long.
 Infections with these parasites are common where sanitation is poor and
human feces are used as fertilizer.
 This can happen when hands or fingers that have contaminated dirt on them
are put in the mouth or by consuming vegetables and fruits that have not
been carefully cooked, washed or peeled.
Type of Illness: Parasitic infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Symptoms of ascariasis include pneumonitis and bowel
obstruction. The onset of illness is about ten days to eight weeks and lasts for one to
two years.
Common Food: Eggs and other food soiled by feces are carriers of this parasite.
Transmission in Food: These parasites are transmitted from sewage-contaminated
water supply, through person-to-person contact, and by fecal contamination.
Prevention: Ensure that food handlers practice good, personal hygiene. Thoroughly
wash produce with potable water and cook food thoroughly. Dispose waste sanitarily.

TAENIA SAGINATA AND TAENIA SOLIUM

 Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) and Taenia solium (pork tapeworm) are
parasitic worms (helminths).
 humans are the definitive hosts of both organisms.
Type of Illness: Parasitic infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Common symptoms of tapeworm infection are digestive
disturbances, worm segments in stool, and cysticercosis of muscles, organ, heart, or
brain. The onset of the infection is 10-14 weeks while the illness can last for up to 20
years.
Common Food: Raw and undercooked beef and raw and undercooked pork are the
common sources of the parasites.
Transmission in Food: These parasites are transmitted through the ingestion of
undercooked beef and pork infected with tapeworm.
Prevention: Thoroughly cook beef and pork. Practice good, personal hygiene and
apply good standards of general sanitation.

DIPHYLLOBOTHRIUM LATUM
  Diphyllobothrium latum and other members of the genus are broad fish
tapeworms. Humans acquire these parasitic flatworms primarily through the
consumption of raw or insufficiently cooked fish.
Type of Illness: Parasitic infection
Symptoms and Onset Time: Fish tapeworm can sometimes cause vitamin B12
deficiency. Symptoms will manifest in three to six weeks while the illness lasts for
up to several years.
Common Food: Raw and undercooked fish are the common sources of this
parasite.
Transmission in Food: These parasites are transmitted through the ingestion of
undercooked fish meat infected with fish tapeworm.
Prevention: Thoroughly cook fish meat. Practice good, personal hygiene and
apply good standards of general sanitation.
Trichinella spiralis
Description: Trichinella spiralis is a foodborne roundworm that can cause parasitic
infection. It can be found in an infected fleshy muscle and is eaten by certain meat-
eating animals; these animals then transmit it to a new host.

Type of Illness: Parasitic infection Symptoms and Onset Time: The early symptoms of
trichinosis are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Later stages of the
disease are characterized by fever, swelling of tissues around the eyes, and muscle
stiffness. The onset time is 2-28 days after eating the contaminated meat. Death may
occur in severe cases.

Common Food: Pork is by far the most common food that carries the Trichinella
spiralis, although it can also be found in wild animals such as bear and wild boar meat.
Transmission in Food: This parasite is inherently carried by meat-eating or scavenger
animals. It is generally thought that its possible route to the animal is through the latter's
consumption of infected tissues from other animals and garbage.

Prevention: Cook pork until it has no pinkish tinge anymore. Always cook meat
properly.

Toxoplasma gondii
Description: Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii. This
parasite is common in warm-blooded animals including cats, rats, pigs, cows, sheep,
chicken, and birds.

Type of Illness: Parasitic infection Symptoms and Onset Time: Healthy children and
adults usually do not experience any symptoms when infected with toxoplasmosis
Symptoms of mild cases of the illness include swollen lymph glands fever, headache,
and muscle aches. People with immune system problems and those who have recently
received an organ transplant may develop severe toxoplasmosis that can result in
damage to the eye or the brain. Babies who become infected while inside the womb can
be born with mental retardation, blindness, or other serious mental or physical
problems. The onset time is 10-13 days after exposure.

Common Food: The parasites are found in red meat, especially pork, venison, and
beef. Fruits and vegetables can also be contaminated if they come in contact with
animal feces.

Transmission in Food: The domestic cat appears to be a major culprit in the

transmission of the parasite to humans and other animals. Food can be contaminated
by contact with fecal material. Humans most often acquire the infection by ingesting
cysts in undercooked red meat. Unborn babies can catch this parasite from their mother
if the mother is infected during pregnancy. Prevention: Avoid eating raw and
undercooked meat. Wash fruits and vegetables before eating, and wash hands after
handling raw meat and vegetables. Prevent cross-contamination from raw foods to
cooked or ready-to-eat foods by washing and sanitizing equipment and utensils.

Entamoeba histolytica
Description: This is a single-celled parasitic animal that predominantly infects humans
and other primates. Diverse mammals, such as dogs and cats, can become infected but
they usually do not shed cysts (environmental survival form of the organism) with their
feces, thus they do not contribute significantly to transmission. The active (trophozoite)
stage exists only in the host and in fresh feces; cysts survive outside the host in water,
soil, and foods, especially under moist conditions in the latter. When swallowed they
cause infections by excysting (to the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract.

Amoebas remain in the gastrointestinal tract of its host. Severe ulceration of the
gastrointestinal mucosal surfaces occurs in less than 16% of cases. In fewer cases, the
parasite invades the soft tissues, most commonly the liver. Masses formed that lead to
intestinal obstruction are rare and fatalities are infrequent.

Type of Illness: Parasitic infection Symptoms and Onset Time: Symptoms of

amoebiasis include amoebic dysentery with fever, chills, and sometimes, liver abscess.
The onset of illness is two to four weeks, although it can last much longer.

Common Food: Raw and mishandled food, especially those with fecal contamination
are sources of the parasites.

Transmission in Food: These parasites are transmitted from sewage contaminated

water supply and food, through person-to-person contact, and by fecal contamination.
Prevention: Practice safe food handling, and personal, sanitary hygiene. Handle and
cook food thoroughly.

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Fungi

Fungus
Is a eukaryotic organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi.

Fungi
Are heterotrophic organisms that possess a chitinous cell wall.
The majority of its species grow as multicellular filaments called hyphae forming a
mycelium; some fungal species also grow as single cells.
They perform an essential role in all ecosystems in decomposing organic matter and are
indispensable in nutrient cycling and exchange
Some fungi become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds.
Many fungal species have long been used as a direct source of food, such as
mushrooms and truffles, and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine,
beer, and soy sauce. Fungi are being used as sources for antibiotics used in medicine
and various enzymes which are important for industrial use or as active ingredients of
detergents.
Several species of fungi are significant pathogens of humans and other animals.
Are not considered as plants, they are considered related to animals

Example of Fungi:
 Yeast
 Molds
 Mushrooms

Mycotoxins
 Bioactive compounds produced by fungi that are toxic to animals and humans.

Types of Fungi Hazardous for Consumption:

Molds
 Molds are microscopic fungi that live on plant or animal matter.
 Under a microscope they look like skinny mushrooms.
 Most molds bodies consist of:
 root threads that invade the food it lives
 on a stalk rising above the food
 spores at the ends of the stalks
 Molds have branches and roots that are like very thin threads. The roots which can be very
deep-rooted in food may difficult to see.
 Moldy foods may also have invisible bacteria growing along with the mold.
 Some molds are beneficial; they are used to make certain kinds of cheeses. Blue-veined
cheese. Cheese such as Brie and
  Camembert have white surface molds. Other kinds of cheese have both internal and
surface molds. These molds are safe to eat

Aflatoxin
 Is a cancer-causing poison produced by certain fungi in or on food and feeds, especially in
field corn and peanuts.
 They are probably the best known and most intensively researched mycotoxins in the world.
 have been associated with various diseases, such as aflatoxicosis in livestock, domestic
animals and humans.
 Some molds cause allergic reactions and respiratory problems.
 When in the right conditions, molds produce mycotoxins; these poisonous substances are
produced by certain molds found primarily in grain and nut crops, as well as on celery, grape
juice, apples, and other produce contaminants of the food chain.
 While most molds prefer warmer temperatures, they can grow at refrigerator temperatures,
too. They can also tolerate salt and sugar better than most other food invaders.
 In humans, mycotoxins can cause: - Vomiting - fever - headache

Common Foodborne Molds:

 Molds most often found on meat and poultry are:
 Alternaria
 Aspergillus
 Botrytis
 Cladosporium
 Fusarium
 Geotrichum
 Monilia
 Manoscus
 Mortierella
 Mucor
 Neurospora
 Oidium
 Oosproa
 Penicillium
 Rhizopus
 Thamnidium.
 These molds can also be found on many other foods.

How to Minimize Mold Growth?

 Cleanliness is vital in controlling mold. Mold spores from affected food can build up in
refrigerators, dishcloths, and other cleaning utensils.
• Clean the inside of the refrigerator every few months
• Keep dishcloths, towels, sponges, and mops clean and fresh.
• Keep the humidity level in the house below 40%.

Don't Buy Moldy Foods

 Examine food well before buying it.
 Fresh meat and poultry are usually mold free, but cured and cooked meat may not be.
Examine them carefully.
How to Protect Food from Mold?
 When serving food, keep it covered to prevent exposure to mold spores in the air.
 Transfer opened cans of perishable foods into clean containers and refrigerate them
promptly.
 Don't leave any perishables out of the refrigerator for more than two hours.
 Use leftovers within three to four days so mold doesn't have a chance to grow.

How to Handle Food with Mold?

 Buying small amounts and using food quickly can help prevent mold growth. The
following should be done when mold is seen in food:
 Don't sniff the moldy item.
 If food is covered with mold, discard it.
 Clean the refrigerator or pantry spot where the food was stored.
 Check nearby items the moldy food might have touched.
Yeast
Yeast are single-celled fungi, in contrast to molds which are multicellular. They differ
from bacteria by their larger cell size and shape, which may be oval, elongated, elliptical,
or spherical.
Most yeast are not pathogenic. In fact, yeast is used as an ingredient in bread making
and is responsible for alcoholic fermentation needed in alcoholic beverages.
Yeast can grow over wide ranges of acid pH solutions and in ethanol solutions as high
as 18%. Many can grow in sugar solutions that are between 50-60%. Some can be
recognized by the color they produce (cream, pink, orange, red). Their spores are quite
heat-resistant and some can grow at very low temperatures (-20 to -30°C).
There are many genera of yeast and some are useful for the food industry. The harmful
ones cause food spoilage and undesirable taste.

Most Common Yeast in Foods

 Candida (beef, grain, beer and fruit juices)
 Rhodotorula (fresh poultry, shrimps, fish, beef, and surface of butter)
 Saccharomycetes (baker's and brewer's yeast, and wine and champagne yeast)
 Zygosaccharomyces (useful in shoyu and miss fermentation, but spoils mayonnaise and
salad dressings)
 Genus Torula causes black discoloration of butter.

Mushrooms
- Mushrooms are actually the fruit fungus. The fungus itself is simply a net of threadlike
fibers called mycelium. They grow in soil, wood or decaying matter.
 Truffle Mushroom – most expensive mushroom.
 White button mushroom- added to pizza

Edible Mushrooms
 Edible mushrooms are used extensively in cooking in many cuisines, notably Chinese,
European and Japanese.
  Mushrooms are commonly thought to have a little nutritional value, many species are
high in fiber and provide vitamins such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, cobalamins,
and ascorbic acid.
 Some mushrooms can become a source of vitamin D such after exposure to ultraviolet
light.
 Mushrooms are also sources of some minerals, including iron, selenium, potassium and
phosphorus

Common Edible Mushrooms

1. Puffballs (Lycoperdon spp. And Calvatia spp.) - Depending on their size, puffballs have
been mistaken at a distance for everything, from golf balls to sheep.
Size: 1" to 2" in diameter, sometimes larger
2. Shaggy Mane or lawyer's wig (Coprinus Comatus) - The shaggy mane or lawyer's wig is
large and distinctive.
Size: 4" to 6" tall, sometimes larger
3. Coral Fungi (Clavariaceae) - These fungi appears as clumps of branching stems which point
upward. They do look much like coral. Most are tan, whitish or yellowish; a few are pinkish or
purple.
Size: Cluster's may be up to 8" high
Morels - Sponge, pinecone and honeycomb mushrooms are nicknames of the morels. Morels
are easy to recognize and delicious to eat, making them the most popular wild mushroom in
Missouri.
Size: 2" to 12" tall
Three Common Species of Morels:
Common Morel (Morchella esculenta):
 When young, this species has white ridges and dark brown pits and is known as the
white morel. As it ages, both the ridges and the pits turn yellowish brown, and it
becomes a yellow morel. If conditions are right, it can grow into a giant morel, which may
be up to a foot tall.

Black morel or smoky Morel (Morchella elata):
 The ridges are gray or tan when young, but darken with age until they are nearly black.
The pits are brown and elongated. These morels are best when picked young. They
should be discard if they have already shrunk or have completely black heads

Half-free morel (Morchella semilibera):

 This is the exception to the rule that morels have the bottom of the cap attached directly
to the stem. The cap of the half-free morel is attached on the middle. These morels have
small caps and long bulbous stems.

Bearded Tooth (Hericium erinaceus) - With its clump of hanging white fur, this tooth fungus
looks like a polar bear's paw. It is pure white when fresh and young, but yellows with age.
Size: 4" to 12" wide
Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) - This large white, tan or ivory-colored mushroom is
named so for its oyster shell-like shape. It has white gills running down a very short, off-center
stem. Spores are white to lilac, and the flesh is very soft.
Size: 2" to 8" wide
Chanterelles (Cantharellaceae) - Chanterelles are great favorite of European mushroom
hunters and are also becoming more popular in the United States. These mushrooms are
funnel- or trumpet-shaped and have wavy cap edges.
Size: ½" to 6" wide 1" to 6" tall
Boletes (Boletaceae) - Similar to a hamburger bun on thick stalk, these sturdy, fleshy
mushroom can be mistaken at first glance for gilled ones, but if the cap is turned over, a spongy
layer of pores instead of blade-like gills.
Size: up to 10" tall; caps 1" to 10" wide
Sulfur Shelf (Laetiporus sulphureus) - These mushrooms light up the forest with their brilliant
orange-red caps and pale sulfuryellow pore surfaces. Some specimens fade to a peach or
salmon color.
Size: 2” to 12” wide
Hen-of-the-woods (Grifola frondosa) - This mushrooms look something like a large, ruffled
chicken. It grows as a bouquet of greyish brown, fan-shaped, over-lapping caps, with off-centre
white stalks branching from a single, thick base.

Poisonous Mushrooms
 Are hard to distinguish from edible ones. The toxins involve in mushroom poisoning are
produce naturally by the toxic species of this fungus.
 Most of them cannot be made nontoxic even with cooking, canning, freezing, or any
other means of processing.
Three dangerous groups of fungi:
 the amanitas
 the false morels
 A catch all category known as little brown mushrooms (LBMS).

Mycetism
 Mushroom poisoning
 The deleterious effects caused by the ingestion of toxic substances present in a
mushroom. These symptoms may vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death
 is usually acute and the severity of symptoms depends on how much and the kind of
species eaten
There are three categories of mushroom poisoning:
1. Protoplasmic -This results in the generalized destruction of cells followed by organ
failure.
2. Neurologic -This causes hallucinations, depression, coma and convulsion.
3. Gastrointestinal -This includes spastic colon, rapid nausea and vomiting, abdominal
cramps and diarrhea.

Five Rules to avoid mushroom poisoning:

 Identify each and every mushroom you collect, and only eat those whose identification
you are sure of. When in doubt, throw it out.
 Strictly avoid any mushroom that looks like amanita (parasol-shaped mushrooms with
white gills), little brown mushrooms, and false morels.
 Some people are allergic to even the safest mushrooms. The first time you try a wild
new mushroom, eat only small amount and wait for 24 hours before eating more.
  As with other foods, rotting mushrooms can make you ill. Eat only firm, fresh, undecayed
mushrooms.
 Most wild mushrooms should not be eaten raw or in large quantities, since they are
difficult to digest.

Common Poisonous Mushrooms

1. Amanitas
 Amanitas are the reason why there are no old, bold mushroom hunters. Several
members of this group contain amanitin, one of the deadliest poisons found in nature.
One cap of the destroying angel (Amanita virosa) can kill a man.

They also have the following characteristics:

• A sac like cup surrounding the base of the stem is often buried just beneath the soil
surface and may not be obvious.
• A ring on the stem
• White gills
• A white spore print

2. False Morels (Helvella and Gyromitra

spp.)
- Illnesses caused by false morels are difficult to treat because they can fit both
categories-edible and poisonous mushrooms.
Size: 2" to 8" tall
False morels differ from true morels in three obvious ways:
 The caps surfaces have lobes, folds, flaps or wrinkles, but it does not have pits and
ridges like a true morel. It can also be said that their caps bulge outward instead of being
pitted inward.
 The bottom edge of the cap of a false morel hangs free around the stem, liked a skirt.
On true morels, the bottom edge of the cap is attached to the stem.
 False morels are found in the woodlands floor in spring, summer and fall.

3. Little Brown Mushrooms (LBMs)

 Like the LGBs (little gray birds) of the bird watchers, this is a catch all category. It
includes all small to medium sized, hard to identify brownish mushrooms with
spores of all colors.

4. Jack O' Lantern (Omphalotus

olearius)
 This bright orange mushrooms is well named. Not only it is pumpkin-colored and
found in the fall it also glows in the dark. Fresh specimens sometimes give off a
faint greenish glow at night.
Size: 3" to 10" tall; cap 3" to 8" diameter

5. Green-spored lepiota (chlorophyllum molybdytes)

  These large, common mushrooms often appear in fairy rings on suburban lawns,
and are frequently eaten by the lawn owners. They cause a violent
gastrointestinal upsets.

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Prions

Kuru
 Which means “trembling fear” is a fatal disease that was observed by a medical district
officer working in the highlands of New Guinea among the people of the Fore (FOR-ay)
tribe.
 Symptoms: initially becoming unable to walk, lost the ability to swallow or chew and
drastic weight loss that would inevitably lead to death.
 Is one of the several diseases in humans and animals caused by prions proteins.

Prion
 Shortened term for Proteinaceous Infectious Particle
 They are small glycosylated protein molecules found in brain cell membranes.
 Infectious proteins which cause disease
 Discovered by Prusiner in1982 in Scrapie (neurological disease of sheep)
 Misfolded/ abnormally folded roteins in animals which are pathogenic.
 Proteins that are unique in their ability to reproduce on their own and become infectious.
They can occur in two forms called PrP-sen and PrP-res.
PrPC
 Normal form of the protein

PrPSc
 Infectious form of protein

HOW PRIONS KILLS?

 They are small glycosylated protein molecules found in brain cells.

Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (TSE)

 A prion disease, create spongy form pathological changes in the brain, resulting in
encephalopathy or brain damage.
 Prion disease are fatal neurodegenerative disorders in humans and other animals.
 are a group of rare degenerative brain disorders characterized by tiny holes that give the
brain a "spongy" appearance

Mad Cow Disease

 Is the best known bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
 An infected cow is observed to be disoriented, irritable and unable to stand or walk
properly.

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)

 Is a chronic, degenerative disease that affects the central nervous system of cattle.
  It is not contagious
 The incubation period takes months or years and the illness is progressively debilitating.
There is no treatment and the infected animal die

Scrapie
 Disease called to affected sheep caused by TSE
Chronic Wasting Disease
 Disease called to affected deer and elk caused by TSE

The first case of BSE in humans

 Was observed in 1989 and was believed to have been transmitted from beef to humans
when contaminated bovine offal was used as animal feed.

SYMPTOMS OF BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY:

● Restlessness
● Aggressiveness
● Loss of Appetite
● Convulsions
● Blindness
● Self-mutilation

What are the clinical signs of the disease?

 the onset of clinical signs normally ranges from four to five years
 Clinical signs of BSE are found in adult animals. Symptoms may last for a period of two
to six months before the animal dies.

How is it spread from Cows to Humans?

1. Persons eat contaminated food. Prions are found primarily in brain or spiral cord tissue from
infected animal.

2. After the person ingested infected meat, prions spread to the brain through the body’s lymph
nodes and immune system, where they can remain dormant for years.

3. Disease attacks nervous system. Outer layer of brain develops tiny holes, looks spongy. Host
goes into seizures; death may occur.

Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD)

 Is a rare and fatal neurodegenerative disease in humans.
 It is not contagious
 People affected usually between 50 to 75 years old.
 The etymology is unknown.

Symptoms:
 In the early stages of the disease, people may have failing memory, behavioral changes,
lack of coordination, and visual disturbances.
  As the illness progresses, mental deterioration becomes pronounced and involuntary
movements, blindness, weakness of extremities, and coma may occur.
 May also experience insomnia, depression or unusual sensations.
 Pneumonia and other infections often occur.

3 MAJOR CATEGORIES OF CJD:

 Sporadic CJD
 Hereditary CJD
 Acquired CJD
Sporadic CJD
 The disease appears even though the person has no known risk factors for the disease.
This is by far the most common type of CJD and accounts for at least 85 percent of
cases.
Hereditary CJD
 The person may have a family history of the disease and test positive for a genetic
mutation associated with CJD. About 10 to 15 percent of cases of CJD in the United
States are hereditary.
Acquired CJD
 The disease is transmitted by exposure to brain or nervous system tissue, usually
through certain medical procedures.

Variant CJD
 A type of CJD that can be acquired by eating meat from cattle affected by a disease
similar bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or, commonly, “mad cow” disease

Spongiform Encephalopathy
 A neuropathlogical examination reveals cortical spongiform changes giving CJD another
name – spongiform encephalopathy.

METHODS ON HOW TO CONTROL MICROBIAL GROWTH:

1. Application of Heat
- Blanching and canning are examples of applying heat.
2. Application of Low Temperatures
 This category includes refrigerating and freezing
3. Controlling of pH Conditions
 Lowering the pH of a food to a level where most microorganisms cannot survive (<4.6)
can be accomplished by fermentation or acidification
4. Reduction of Free Oxygen
 Examples of processes that reduce free oxygen include vacuum- packaging, modern
canning with hermetic seals, and modified atmospheric packaging (MAP).
 Another method to reduce the amount of available oxygen for bacterial growth is to coat
the foods with wax or other edible coatings.
5. Reduction of Available Water
 Drying is one of the oldest methods of food preservation.
 Modern techniques of dehydration still apply the same principle of depriving the
microorganisms of free or available water for growth
6. Role of Other Chemicals
  Besides the chemical additives mentioned in lowering the pH of food, other agents that
may retard microbial growth are nitrates, nitrites, salt, and sugar.
 Antioxidants and antibiotics also affect microorganisms or reduce microbial growth.
7. Safe and Sanitary Food Handling
 Bacteria and other microorganisms cannot move by themselves. They need carriers to
be transmitted to other places, which could be living and nonliving habitats. The most
common carriers of foodborne illnesses are food handlers.
 Kitchen personnel are given an orientation that includes personal hygiene, grooming,
physical safety, etc.

PREVENTION OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES:

A. Food Preparation Stage
- Refrigerate food promptly.
- Prevent cross-contamination.
- Handle food properly.
- Wash utensils and surfaces before and after use with hot, soapy water. Better still,
sanitize them with diluted bleach one teaspoon of bleach to one quart of how water.
- Wash sponges and dish towels weekly in hot water in the washing machine.

B. Food Processing Stage

 Cook food with the appropriate internal temperature

C. Food Storage Safety

 Keep cold food cold and hot food hot.
 Maintain hot, cooked food at 140°F or higher.
 Reheat cooked food to at least 165°F
 Refrigerate or freeze perishables, produce, prepared food, and leftovers within two
hours.
 Never defrost food on the kitchen counter.
 Never let food marinate at room temperature- refrigerate it.
 Divide large amounts of leftovers into small, shallow containers for quick cooling in the
refrigerator.
 Remove the stuffing from poultry and other meat immediately and refrigerate it in a
separate counter.
 Wash all unpackaged, and packaged and not marked “pre- washed,” fruits and
vegetables, under running water just before eating, cutting, or cooking.
 Dry all produce with a paper towel to further reduce any possible bacterial growth.
 Do not overcrowd the refrigerator. Cool air must circulate to keep food safe.

CHEMICAL HAZARDS

● A chemical hazard is a type of occupational hazard caused by exposure to chemicals in

the workplace. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can cause acute or long-term
detrimental health effects.
 ● The contamination food by chemical is a worldwide public health concern and is leading
cause of trade problems internationally. Contamination may occur through
environmental pollution of the air, water, and soil, such as case with toxic metals,
polychlorinated biphenyls (FCBs) and dioxins, or through the intentional use of various
chemical, such as pesticides, animal drugs, and other agrochemicals.
● All chemicals are poisonous, especially when ingested at toxic levels, with toxicity
defined at many levels depending on the substances deal with.
● Chemical hazards are usually classified as either naturally occurring chemicals or added
chemicals .
● Naturally occurring chemicals include toxin produced by a biological organism. Added
chemicals “include those that are intentionally or unintentionally added to food.

Natural Occurring Added Chemicals

Chemicals
Include toxin Include those that are
produced by intentionally or
biological organisms unintentionally added
to food
Ciguatoxin Cleaning Solutions
Mycotoxin Food additives
Scrombotoxin Pesticides
Shellfish toxins Heavy Metals

NATURALLY OCCURING CHEMICALS

NATURALLY OCCURRING CHEMICALS:
1. Ciguatoxin
DESCRIPTION :An example of a fish-poisoning. Origin of the toxin is from minute sea
creatures called algae. The toxin is heat stable and cannot be destroyed by cooking.
SYMPTOMS Poisoning includes weakness and slight paralysis of the mouth, tongue, throat,
hands, and feet.
COMMON FOOD Marine finfish are the most common causes of ciguatoxin poisoning. It
includes barracudas, groupers, jacks, mackerel, snappers, and triggerfish.
TRANSMISSION IN FOOD The toxin is transferred after their ingestion of toxin-containing
algae.
PREVENTION Purchasing seafood from a reputable supplier is the best preventive
measure.
2. Scombrotoxin
DESCRIPTION Called histamine poisoning, caused by foods high in a chemical
compound called histamine. It is usually produced by bacteria when they decompose food,
also not destroyed by cooking.
SYMPTOMS Unique symptoms of illness include dizziness, burning sensation, facial rash or
hives, and a peppery taste in mouth.
COMMON FOOD Include tuna and mahi-mahi fish. Swiss cheese has also been implicated.
TRANSMISSION IN FOOD
 Over time, bacteria can breakdown histidine in food.
 Temperature abuse also leads to more histamine production.
 PREVENTION
 Purchase seafood from a reputable supplier store
 Store seafood below 41 degrees Fahrenheit and do not accept seafood that has been
previously thawed.

3. Shellfish Toxins
DESCRIPTION
- The most common include paralytic poisoning (PSP), diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP),
amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP).
- All involve an accumulation of toxins produced by shellfish.
COMMON FOOD Any shellfish may contain toxins. PSP is more common in mussels, clams,
and scallops. DSP can be caused by mussels, oysters, and scallops. ASP is more common in
mussels while NSP is common in Gulf Coast marine animals.
TRANSMISSION IN FOOD Shellfish toxins are inherent in marine shellfish.
PREVENTION Purchase food from a reputable supplier.

Toxicant Source Associated

Ciguatera Dinoflagellates Tropical
Fish
Shellfish Dinoflagellates Shellfish
Toxins:
- Paralytic
- Neurotoxic
- Diarrheic
- Amnesic
Pyrrolizidine Various Toxic Cereals,
Alkaloids Plants Honey
Histamine Spoilage Fish,
Bacteria Cheese

4. Mycotoxins
 Group of foodborne microorganisms that can cause disease include fungi.
 Fungi include both molds and yeasts. They differ from bacteria, they are larger in size
and usually prefer foods that are high in sugar or starch.
 They can withstand more extreme conditions, such as highly acidic foods and lower
water activity compared to bacteria.
 Foodborne molds can produce chemical compounds that have been linked to cancer.
 Are commonly found dry and/or acidic foods.
 Several mycotoxins cannot be destroyed even after the food has been cooked.
COMMON FOOD Common food containing mycotoxins include corn, nuts, and grains.

Aflatoxin
 A common foodborne mycotoxin is produced by the Aspergillus spp.
TARGET ORGANS OF SOME MYCOTOXINS

Mycotoxin Target Organ

Aflatoxin Liver
Ochratoxin A Kidney
Trichothecenes Mucosa
Ergot Alkaloids Peripheral Vascular
System
Zearalenone Uro-Genital Tract

Added Chemicals
 Intentionally added chemicals may include:
- Food additives, food preservatives, and pesticides.
Pesticides
 Leave residues on fruits and vegetables
 Can usually be removed by a vigorous washing procedure or by
 peeling off the skin

Poisonous Substances

Toxic Plant Material

 Includes solanine in potatoes; hemagglutinins and protease inhibitors in raw beans and
peas; cyanogens in fruit kernels; and phytoalexins in sweet potatoes, celery, and
parsnips. Several of these compounds can be eliminated by preparation methods.
 A poisonous plant is defined as a plant that when touched or ingested in sufficient
quantity can be harmful or fatal to an organism or any plant capable evoking a toxic
and/or fatal reaction.

Solanine in potatoes
 Potatoes, and especially any green part of the plant, contain a toxic chemical called
solanine
 Small green spots and sprouts or eyes should be completely trimmed off, however, if it’s
more than small spots, throw the potato out.
 Cooking cannot destroy solanine toxic.

Solanine
 A poisonous glycoalkaloid (natural bases containing nitrogen found in plants) found in
many species of the nightshade family.
 Solanine is toxic if it's ingested (eaten or in a drink).
 Toxic symptoms appear at doses of 2-5 mg/kg body weight, with lethal doses at 3-6
mg/kg body weight.
 Solanine poisoning is primarily displayed by gastrointestinal and neurological disorders.
 Most solanine occurs in the skin or just under the skin of potatoes.
 Peeled potatoes have been found to contain 30-80% less solanine than unpeeled
potatoes, and green potatoes should always be peeled if they are to be used at all.
 Solanine and chaconine are also present in potato shoots
Symptoms
 Include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, stomach cramps, burning of the throat, headaches
and dizziness. Hallucinations, loss of sensation, and paralysis, fever, jaundice, dilated
pupils and hypothermia have been reported in more severe cases.
 Symptoms usually occur 8 to 12 hours after ingestion, but may occur as rapidly as 30
minutes after eating high-solanine foods

WHY DOES POTATO TURNED GREEN?

 The green color of the potato is caused by exposure to light.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU EAT GREEN POTATO?

• Nausea
• Headache
• Neurological problems
PREVENTION:
 Keep them in a cool, dark place with good air circulation.

Cyanogens in Food Kernel
 Also known as cyanogenic glycosides.
 There are approximately 25 known cyanogenic glycosides and these are generally found
in the edible parts of plants, such as apples, apricots, cherries, peaches, plums, quinces,
particularly in the seed of such fruits.
 The seeds are mildly poisonous, containing a small amount of amygdalin, a cyanogenic
glycoside. The quantity contained in the seeds of a single apple is usually not enough to
be dangerous to humans.

Cyanogens
 Contains cyanogens (cyanide) and are usually discarded
 Cyanogenic glycosides are chemical compounds contained in foods that release
hydrogen cyanide when chewed or digested.
 The chemicals are also found in almonds, stone fruit, pome fruit, cassava, bamboo
shoots, linseed/flaxseed, lima beans, coco yam, chick peas, cashews, and kirsch.
 Other food products that may contain cyanogenic glycosides include some food
ingredients with flavoring properties such as ground almonds powder or paste,
marzipan, stone fruit, and alcoholic drinks made from stone fruits.

SYMPTOMS:
• Headache
• Bronchoconstriction
• Weakness

Hemagglutinins in raw beans

 Phytohemagglutinin or hemagglutinin is a toxic plant protein especially that extracted
from the red kidney bean. It has important medical applications, especially in
immunology, because it can induce mitosis and also causes red blood cells to clump
together.
  This toxic agent is found in many species of beans, but it is in highest concentration in
red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris).
 Eat four to five undercooked red kidney beans to get sick.

Hemagglutinins
 A chemical known to cause agglutination of mammalian red blood cells and to disrupt
cellular metabolism
 In preventing this, the recommended procedure is to boil soaked raw beans in water for
a minimum of 10 minutes.
 It is important that the water reach boiling or 100 degrees Celsius (212 degrees
Fahrenheit)
SYMPTOMS:
 Starts 1-3 hours after eating the beans including:
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Abdominal pain

 Although the symptoms may be severe enough to warrant hospitalization, they resolve
spontaneously within a few hours. Everyone is susceptible, regardless of age, gender or
other factors.

PREVENTION:
 Boil raw beans in water for minimum of 10 minutes.

PROTEASE INHIBITOR
 Protease inhibitors are ubiquitous in tubers and plant seeds, and are generally believed
to act as storage proteins and a defense mechanism.
 Protease inhibitors were considered to inhibit the growth of microorganism by
antifeedant mechanism.
 Recently, protease inhibitors have received new interest due to their potent ability to
prevent carcinogenesis in a wide variety of in vivo and in vitro systems.
 In fact, serine protease inhibitors from potato and other plants have also been reported
to have inhibitory effects on tumor cell growth.
 In addition, because serine protease inhibitors can increase the level of cholecystokinin
via the inhibition of trypsin, they may be useful for reducing food intake in humans.
 For protease inhibitors to be used in humans they must be nontoxic and capable of
inhibiting each of the major intestinal proteases, including pancreatic trypsin, α-
chymotrypsin, and elastase.

MYRISTICIN IN NUTMEG
 Myristicin is a naturally occurring compound found in common herbs and spices, the
most well-known being nutmeg.
 Minimum dosage of nutmeg that can cause psychogenic effect is 5 g (ground nutmeg)
with 1 to 2 mg myristicin content and this dosage is considered as 'toxic dose'. At higher
dosage of myristicin death may occur.
SYMPTOMS:
 Ingestion of small amounts of nutmeg is harmless to the body, including the amounts
called for in all standard recipes. However, the consumption of more than 1 teaspoon
ground nutmeg at once can cause side effects within one to six hours after digestion:
• Hallucinations
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Dizziness
• Irregular heartbeat
 Effects can last for several hours, and, when a large amount is used, can lead to organ
failure.
 Pregnant women should not ingest large amounts of nutmeg as they risk birth defects or
miscarriage.

OXALIC ACID AND ANTHRAQUINONE

GLYCOSIDES IN RHUBARB
 Rhubarb is a favorite vegetable of gardeners in temperate climates since it is so easy to
grow. We eat the stems, and know that you should never eat the leaves since they are
poisonous due to high levels of oxalic acid.

SYMPTOMS:
• Burning sensation in the mouth and throat
• Nausea and vomiting; diarrhea
• Abdominal pain; stomach pain
• Breathing difficulties
• Urine has a reddish discoloration
• Contact with the eye may result in pain, redness, watery eyes, and potential damage to the
cornea of the eye
• Lethargy and weakness
• Seizures
• Coma

Chemical Associated Food

Oxalates Rhubarb Tea, cocoa,
Spinach and beet
Glycoalkaloids Green Potato
Cyanoglycosides Lima beans and
Cassava
Phytohaemagglutini Red kidney beans
n and other beans
Various carcinogens Spices and herbs

Apple Seeds
 contains AMYCDALIN
Pears
 contains FORMALDEHYDE
Potatoes
 contains SOLANIN
Courgettes
 contains CUCURBITACIN E

TYPES OF RESOURCES:

The two broad types or resources

- NATURAL
- MAN-MADE RESOURCES
Resources
- Resources is a very broad term it is basically anything that can be considered a valuable
addition.
- Anything from air to gold is all resources.
- Resources are anything that has quality and add is that has quality and add value to
your life air, water, food, plants, animals, mineral, metal and everything else that exist in
nature and has utility to mankind is "resource" the value of each such resource depends
on its utility and others factors for example metal, are gold, silver, copper or bronze have
economic value i.e. they can be exchanged for money .however mountains. River, sea
or forest are also resources but they do not have economic value.
Two Most Important Factor That Can Turn Any Substance into a Resource:
- Time - add to the value of a resource for example fossil deposit of organisms over
hundreds of years can turn into fossil fuels.
- Technology - Humans can transform a natural or man-made substance into a resource
like mineral, fish other marine creatures sourced from the sea can be used for our food
and medicine similarly.
NATURAL RESOURCES

- Anything and everything that is available naturally on earth is natural resource .We can
further divide them into:
 Biotic and Abiotic
 Renewable and Non-renewable
 Potential, Develop and Stock Resources

Biotic and Abiotic:

Biotic - Any life form that lives within nature

Abiotic -available in nature but has no life

Renewable and Non-Renewable

Renewable
- are almost all elements of nature which can renew themselves

Non-Renewable
- Are limited in their quality though these resources take millions of years to form they
would eventually get over within our lifetime if we use continuously.
Potential, Develop and Stock Resources
Potential Resources
- Natural elements which are already easily available but humans are yet to discover their
real power
Develop Resources
- Resources that which humans have discovered and developed over a long time.
Stock Resources
- Resources present in nature, which have enough potential, but we do not have adequate
knowledge or technology to develop it, as a result these remain in nature.
Human-Made Resources
- When humans use natural thing to make something new that provides utility and value to
our lives
Man-Made Resources
- When we use metals, woods, cement, sand and solar energy to make building,
machinery, vehicles, bridges, road, etc.
- mostly renewable, one can be rebuild a building or fixed a broken machine
Human Resource
- because human have the skills, intelligence and knowledge and use technology to
transform a natural resource into usable and valuable things, they themselves become a
resources

Resource Conservation
- we need to understand the value of each natural elements and to conserve those
resources because we should be able to use them throughout our lifetime and also save
them for our future generations
Intentional food additives
 Include GRAS (generally recognized as safe) compounds that may have inadvertently
been added in excessive amounts.
 Is a long list of chemicals added to foods that can pose health risk.
 Intentionally added chemicals are those:
1. Food additives
2. Food preservative
3. Pesticides

Food Additives
 An increasing number of studies suggest some food additives can interfere with a child's
hormones, growth, and development, according to the policy statement and
accompanying technical report. Some may also increase the risk of childhood obesity,
rates of which have tripled since the 1970s.
 It is often the additives that are used to give a food a marketable quality, such as color,
that most commonly cause allergic reactions.

Some of these hypersensitive reactions:

 Digestive disorders
- Diarrhea and colicky pains

 Nervous disorders
- Hyperactivity, insomnia and irritability
  Respiratory problems
- Asthma, rhinitis and sinusitis

 Skin problems
- Hives, itching, rashes and swelling.

Some food additives that may cause problems for some people:
 Flavor enhancers
 Food colorings
 Preservatives
 Artificial sweetener
Food Preservatives
 Food preservatives are substances added to foods to inhibit the growth of micro-
organisms.
 Sustained and excessive consumption of artificial preservatives can weaken heart
tissues which is dangerous especially for the aged people. They could contain BHA and
BHT food additives which could be cancer causing.

7 PRESERVATIVES WE SHOULD AVOID:

1. Benzoate
- found in carbonated drinks, fruit juices, flour, beer, margarine, some shampoos
and even dog food.
2. Bromates
- present in almost all types of bread
3. BHA and BHT
- used in canned meat, beer and snacks.
4. Mono and Diglycerides
- found mostly in snacks such as crackers, candies, pastries, cakes, peanut
butter, vegetables with sauce, margarine, dry roasted nuts, jams, baguettes and
frozen prepared foods.
5. Sodium Nitrite
- Bacon, beef jerky, ham, hot
dogs, lunch meat, salami, and smoked fish.
6. Propyl gallate
- found in almost everything, including chewing gum, pickles, sauces, vegetables
and most meat products.
7. Sulphites
- found mostly in processed foods, corn starch, vinegar, wine and dried fruit.

PESTICIDES
 Leaves residue on fruits and vegetables, and can usually be removed by vigorous
washing procedure or by peeling off the produce skin.
 Pesticides are potentially toxic to humans and can have both acute and chronic health
effects, depending on the quantity and ways in which a person is exposed.
 People who face the greatest health risks from exposure to pesticides are those who
come into contact with them at work, in their home or garden.
  Pesticides are among the leading causes of death by self-poisoning, in particular in low-
and middle-income countries.

Examples of acute health effects:

 stinging eyes
 rashes
 blisters
 blindness
 nausea
 dizziness
 diarrhea
 death.
Examples of known chronic effects:
 cancers
 birth defects
 reproductive harm
 neurological and developmental toxicity,
 immunotoxicity
 Disruption of the endocrine system.

Chemicals created by the process
 Include those created when meat is broiled excessively over hot charcoal and when fat
or oil has been heated excessively or for a long time. Some contaminants produced
include polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines, nitro pyrenes,
nitrosamines, ethyl carbamate (urethane), and chloropropanols

Agricultural chemicals
 Include pesticides and herbicides. With the increased utilization of chemicals in
agriculture and animal husbandry, the chances of chemical food contamination are
growing throughout the world.
Animal antibiotics and other drug residues
 Are also a problem in terms of foodborne illness hazards.
 Drug residues in food can cause violent allergic reactions in sensitive people who
consume these products.
Unintentional additives
 Or accidental addition of toxic substances during food handling in the food service and
food production operations can also occur.
Equipment material
 such as copper or lead from pipes or soldering material, can likewise leach into food and
water causing heavy metal poisoning

Package material
 Can leach as well. In the U.S., in the past, there was concern about the leaching of lead
from the solder of can seams and polychlorinated biphenyls from cardboard packages.
Since then, these compounds have been almost completely eliminated from packaging
systems. However, these types of packaging material may still exist in other regions of
the world. There is also concern over the safety of certain plastics, especially those that
may be used in the heating or reheating of foods in a microwave oven.
Heavy metals and radioactive isotopes
 From industries can also find their way into food, usually through water sources. An
example of this is the level of mercury in fish taken from lakes and rivers. Sometimes, a
poisonous substance in food can be controlled (diminished to a minimal risk) if the food
is washed or heated (cooked) sufficiently. However, the best strategy is for the food
operator to keep harmful substances out of the food by purchasing supplies produced
under controlled growing, harvesting, processing, and storage conditions.

Adverse Food Reaction
 About 196 of the population is allergic to compounds (usually certain proteins) found in
food.
 Allergic reactions may be caused by many types of foods.
 Allergic reactions vary with each individual's sensitivity.
 Some people are very sensitive. If they consume an offending food, life-threatening
anaphylactic shock can occur within minutes after the food is ingested.
 Some allergic reactions are mild:
- Watery eyes
- Nasal discharge
- Headaches
Compressed Gases
 There are three main groups of compressed gases stored in cylinders:
o liquefied,
o Non-liquefied
o Dissolved gases.
1. Liquefied gases
 Are gases that can become liquids when they are inside cylinders under pressure. They
exist inside the cylinder in a liquid-vapor balance or equilibrium.
2. Non-liquefied gases
 Are also known as compressed, pressurized or permanent gases. These gases do not
become liquid when they are compressed at normal temperatures, even at very high
pressures.
3. Dissolved Gases
 Acetylene, used in oxy-acetylene welding, is the only commonly used dissolved gas.
Acetylene
 Is chemically very unstable. Even at atmospheric pressure, acetylene gas can explode.
Flammable and Combustible Materials
 Flammable materials are substances that can ignite easily and burn rapidly. There are
many commonly used flammable materials at most work sites.
Gases
 Natural gas, propane, butane, methane, acetylene, carbon monoxide and hydrogen
sulfide. Flammable gases are usually gases with a lower explosive limit of less than 13%
in air or have a flammable range in air of at least 12%.
Liquids

 Gasoline, many solvents oil-based paints, paint thinners, adhesives, degreasers, certain
cleaners, waxes and polishes. Flammable liquids have a flashpoint below 37.8°C
(100°F).
Solids
 Some types of coal, pyrophoric metals, and solid wastes that are soaked with flammable
liquids, gunpowder, matches.

Corrosive Materials
 Are present in almost every workplace. These materials can chemically destroy exposed
tissues. Corrosives can also damage or even destroy metal. They begin to cause
damage as soon as they touch the surface.

*Most corrosives are either acids or bases.*

Acid
 An acid is a chemical that donates protons or hydrogen ions and/ or accepts electrons.
Common acids include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, chromic acid, acetic
acid and hydrofluoric acid.
Base
 A base (or alkaline material) is a chemical that donates electrons or hydroxide ions or
that accepts protons. Common bases are ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
(caustic potash) and sodium hydroxide (caustic soda).

pH (potential of hydrogen)
 The pH scale is used to measure how acidic or basic a liquid is. The pH scale goes from
0 to 14. Distilled water is neutral and has a pH of 7. Acids have pH is between 0 and 7,
bases are from 7 to 14.
Poisons/Toxins
 Toxicity is a measure of the poisoning strength of a chemical. Chemicals that are only
weakly toxic need large doses to cause poisoning. Strongly toxic chemicals only need
small doses to cause poisoning.
Oxidizers
 Oxidizing materials are liquids, gases or solids that readily give off oxygen or other
oxidizing substances, such as bromine, chlorine or fluorine.
 They also include materials that react chemically to oxidize combustible materials. This
means that oxygen combines chemically with the other material in a way that increases
the chance of a fire or explosion. Oxidizing liquids and solids can be severe fire and
explosion hazards.
Dangerously Reactive Materials
 Generally, dangerously reactive liquids and solids are chemicals that can:
- undergo vigorous polymerization condensation or decomposition

Polymerization
 Is a chemical reaction where many small molecules together to form a large molecule.
Condensation
 Is a chemical reaction where two or more molecules join together to form a new
substance.
Decomposition
-Is a chemical change where a molecule breaks down into simpler molecules.
- become self-reactive under conditions of shock or increase in pressure or temperature
- react vigorously with water to release a lethal gas
 Physical Hazards

Physical hazards
 Are either foreign materials unintentionally introduced to food products or naturally
occurring objects that pose threats to the consumer.
 A physical hazard can become included in food product at any stage of production.
 A foreign object that causes injury or harm is easily identified and is the most frequent
reason of consumer complaints.
 Statistically, physical hazards may not be as important as other food hazards. However,
they can be considered obnoxious, irritating, unsightly, and inconvenient, and can cause
the commercial food establishment to lose its customers.

MAIN TYPES OF PHYSICAL HAZARDS IN FOOD

1. Food
 Common sources are egg shells, fruit and vegetable peels, inedible seeds, and fish
scales.
2. Glass
 Common sources found in food processing facilities are light bulbs, glass containers,
and glass food containers.
3. Metal
 Common sources of metal include metal from equipment such as splinters, blades,
broken needles, fragments from worm utensils, staples, etc.
4. Plastic
 Common sources of soft and hard plastics include material used for packaging, gloves
worn by food handlers, utensils used for cleaning equipment, and parts of tools used to
remove processed food from equipment.
5. Stone
 Field crops, such as peas and beans, are most likely to contain small stones that are
picked up during harvesting. Concrete structures and floors in food processing facilities
can also be a source of small stones.
6. Wood
 Common sources of wood come from wood structures and wooden pallets used to store
or transport ingredients or food products.
7. Clothes
 Common sources of fragments of rags, hot pads, and sponges.
8. Insects and Rodents
 Common sources are fur, hair, fecal pellets, eggs, wings, legs, nesting materials, and
discarded seed shells.
9. Personal Effects
 Common sources are the food handlers themselves. This would include their hair, nails,
jewelry, bandages, and cigarette butts.

Examples of injuries as a result of physical hazards

 cuts to the mouth or throat
 damage to teeth and gums
 cuts in the hand
 infection
 burns
 damage to the intestines
  Choking
- Life threatening and is considered the most serious consequences, even resulting in
the filing of legal suits
 In severe situations, physical hazards can even cause death, in which financial
obligations by the party involved would be tremendous.
Choking
 Occurs when food or small objects gets caught in the throat or block the airway,
preventing oxygen from traveling to the lungs and brain.
 After more than four minutes without oxygen, brain damage or death may occur.
Person Vulnerable to Choking or Asphyxiation
 Infants
 young children
 the elderly
 a person suffering from dysphagia (impaired swallowing reflex)

Thermal hazards
 Include serving very hot food that, when consumed or spilled on people, can cause
severe burns or tissue injury.
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PREVENTION OF COMMON PHYSICAL HAZARDS
 Inspect raw materials and food ingredients for field contaminants that were not found
during the initial receiving process.
 Follows good storage practices and evaluate potential risks in storage areas and use
protective, acrylic bulbs or lamp covers.
 Develop specifications and control for all ingredients and components, including raw
and packaging materials.
 Set up an effective detection and elimination system for physical hazards in your facility
 Properly and regularly maintain the equipment in the facility to avoid sources of physical
hazards, such as foreign object that may have been accidentally added to the food.
 Periodic employee training on shipping, receiving, storing, handling, maintaining, and
calibrating of equipment will also help prevent physical hazards from being introduced to
food products.

DETECTION AND ELIMINATION OF PHYSICAL HAZARDS

 Metal detectors are used to detect metal in food products.
 Magnets can be used with metal detectors on food production lines to attract and
remove metal from products.
 X-ray machines can be used on food production lines to identify hazards such as stones,
bones, and hard plastics, as well as metal.
 Food radar systems transmit low power microwaves through food products to identify
foreign bodies such as metals, plastics, bones, kernels, and organic materials in food on
production lines.