 

Formation Evaluation

11/16/2017
  2 

11/16/2017
 Courtesy

 Cutting and recovery of formation

rock for geological examination and
measurement of various rock
properties for calibrating well logs,
seismic, and for understanding and
predicting well and reservoir
behaviour
• “Full diameter” continuous cores
cut prior to drilling through
formation of interest
• Sidewall cores taken from
wellbore walls post drilling
• Percussion or rotary drilled
 Removal of core from reservoir
conditions to surface causes
changes in fluid saturations.
 Coring is Expensive, Why Core??

 Ground truth to calibrate other measurements

o Most other measurements are indirect

 Sedimentology
 Mineralogy
 Lithology
 Facies
 Petrophysicalparameters
 Reservoir properties
 Flow behaviour
o Hydraulic flow units

Petronas Rock Properties School

Chapter 1 Page 4
 Selection of coring method
o Conventional or sidewall
 Selection of coring fluid
 Core handling at the wellsite
 Selection of core preservation technique
 Full diameter or plug based analysis
o Full diameter
• Vuggy carbonates, conglomerates, fractured zones, flow evaluation in
cross bedding direction
o Plugs represent homogeneous intervals
 Routine and Special core analysis programme together with
laboratory procedures for measuring them
 CORE ANALYSIS - WORK FLOW
Core layout / depth
checking / orientation

Spectral
Core Gamma
Selecting whole
CT Scan for
cores for preservation
Unconsolidated Core

Trim ends from plug Core plugging ( 1.5" )

use for sedimentology horizontal & vertical Additional plugs
for Residual fluid
Saturation test
Petrographic Plug Solvent Extraction (optional)
( thin section ) with toluene & methanol
Core slabbing
1/3 and 2/3
Grain size Drying sample
analysis oven dried @ 80 °C Probe pemeability profile
(optional)

XRD Permeability, porosity

Core polishing
Grain Density

SEM
Routine Core Analysis
Core Core photography
Final Report sedimentological UV and white light
description
Final Petrographic
report
Final Report
Final Report

Special Core Analysis

Studies
11/16/2017 6
 SCAL provides specific
Types of Core
Analysis information to characterize a
particular rock property, or
through a selection of
Routine Special specialized tests, provides
Core Analysis Core Analysis more complete
(RCA) (SCAL) understanding of a reservoir
rock.

Static Core Dynamic Core

Analysis Analysis

Fluid Flow Formation

Characteristics Evaluation

11/16/2017 7
 RCA
Analysis

ø, air kH, kV, Residual Fluid Lithology

Heterogeneities
Grain Density Saturations Description

Cations
Core Gamma Core
Calcimetry Exchange
Log Photography
Capacity

11/16/2017 8
 Static
SCAL
Analysis

Pore&Bulk Vol
Electrical
Wettability & Compressibility
Capillary Properties
Contact Angle (θ) k & ø vs net
Pressure (PC) (a, R, m & n)
determination Overburden
m vs ø
Press.
Petrography
• Mineralogy
• Thin Section Resist. Index / Sw Geomechanical
• Digenesis
• CT Scan (RI vs Sw) Properties
• Clay
• X-ray Relationship
identification

11/16/2017 9
 Dynamic SCAL Analysis

Fluid Flow
Performance Evaluation
Characteristics

Waterflood Studies,
Liquid Permeability: ko,
water & filtrate
kw & kg
compatibility

Miscible and immiscible

Relative Perm.: kro, krw & Gas Inj. Recovery
krg Lean & Enriched
hydrocarbon Gas, CO2

Chemical Injection
kg/kw, kw/ko,kg/ko
Recovery
(steady/Unsteady State,
Surfactant, Caustic,
Centrifuge)
Polymer

Critical gas and Thermal Recovery

condensate Hot Water, Steam, Insitu
Saturations Combustion

Residual Oil/Gas Thermal Conductivity,

Saturation (Sg) Specific Heat Expansion

11/16/2017 10
 Taking a core requires that the regular drill bit be removed from the
hole. It is replaced with a "core bit", which is capable of grinding out
and retrieving the heavy cylinder of rock.

 The core bit is usually coated with small, sharp diamonds that can
grind through the hardest rock. A core bit cuts very slowly.

 A core is a solid cylinder of rock about 4-5 inches in diameter, and a

single core will usually be about 30 feet long.

16/11/2017 11
16/11/2017
Whole Core Slab Core 12
16/11/2017 13
 This method is cheaper than the conventional coring.

 Cores can be taken in hours, instead of days.

 In sidewall coring, a slim wireline coring tool is run into the hole. The tool
may be of two general types; either "rotary sidewall" or "percussion".

 Typically, cores about 1" in diameter and 1" to 2" long can be retrieved
with this method.

16/11/2017 14
Percussion sidewall coring tool

Rotary sidewall coring tool

  16 

11/16/2017
  The objective of saturation height function is to provide a relationship
which can be used to predict water saturation aerially away from well
control for any porosity and permeability value at any height above
FWL or at Pc value to be used in static and dynamic modeling.
 Determination of saturation height function involves the prediction of
J-function which is important in the calibration of core and log data.
 Saturation height function should have both porosity and permeability
as input variables, together with height (which may be directly related
to Pc)
 Saturation profiles determined from other models should be compared
with this saturation height function above FWL to observe the trend
shown from all models.

11/16/2017 17
 The capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir are the result of the combined effect of
the surface and interfacial tensions of the rock and fluids, the pore size and
geometry, and the wetting characteristics of the system.
 The general laboratory procedure for capillary pressures to saturate a core sample
with a wetting phase and measure how much wetting measurement phase is
displaced from the sample when it is subjected to some given pressure of non-
wetting phase.
 Displacement takes place when the oil or non-wetting phase just exceeds the
capillary pressure corresponding to the largest pore. In other words the capillary
force will hold the water in the largest pore until the oil pressure is larger than the
capillary pressure of the largest pore.

 Methods to measure Pc in lab:

i. Desaturation or displacement through a porous diaphragm.
ii. Centrifuge or centrifugal method.
iii. Dynamic capillary pressure method.
iv. The evaporation method
v. Mercury Injection.

11/16/2017 18
 The most common procedure for determination of capillary
pressure.

 The procedure was developed to accelerate the

determination of the capillary pressure-saturation
relationship. Mercury is the non-wetting fluid.

 The core sample is inserted into the mercury chamber of a

mercury pump or a mercury porosimeter and evacuated.

11/16/2017 19
 Mercury is the non-wetting fluid, while air (pore space
unoccupied by mercury is wetting phase). The general lab
procedure (or concept used) is to saturate a core sample with a
wetting phase and measure how much wetting measurement
phase is displaced from the sample when it is subjected to some
given pressure of non-wetting phase.
 Displacement takes place when the oil or non-wetting phase just
exceeds the capillary pressure corresponding to the largest pore.
 Mercury is then injected into the core under pressure. The
volume of mercury injected at each pressure determines the non-
wetting phase saturation.
 This procedure is continued until the core sample is filled with
mercury or the injection pressure reaches some predetermined
value.

11/16/2017 20
 Mercury Injection Porosimeter
11/16/2017 21
• Mercury injection
capillary DRAINAGE CURVE

pressure data
IMBIBITION CURVE
can be very useful in
estimating initial water
saturation {Swi} for +Pc
various
• Facies
• Permeabilities
• Heights throughout Sor
A
the reservoir 0% Swi 100 %

-Pc
  TWO TYPES
o Drainage
o Imbibition
 DRAINAGE TESTS SIMULATE
ACCUMULATION OF OIL
o Estimate initial water
saturation
 IMBIBITION TESTS
SIMULATE OIL
DISPLACEMENT
o Predict oil recovery by
water drive
o Estimate residual oil
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES saturation
11/16/2017 24
  25 

11/16/2017
 The calibration of log-core data involve the analysis of
saturation height function including:
 Develop porosity-permeability relationship
 Conversion of Pc laboratory to Pc reservoir
 Determine dimensionless J
 Plot J vs Sw and generate Jfunction
 Determine water saturation from J-function
 Validate Sw_J to Swt_log
 Generate water saturation profile above FWL

11/16/2017 26
 Leverett J method is one of many methods to average the Pc
data.
 The Leverett J-function uses a rock quality term represented by
the ratio of permeability to porosity to normalize the scatter of
capillary data and is expressed as:
Pc k
J 
 cos  

 Leverett’s J-function has proven valuable for correlating capillary

pressure data within a lithologic rock type.
 The Leverette J function is a method for determining water
saturation as a function of porosity, permeability, and capillary
pressure.

11/16/2017 27
  28 

11/16/2017
 Core permeability (Cperm) is plotted against core porosity
(Cpor) obtained from RCA (routine core analysis).
 Cpor at x-axis (linear) and Cperm at y-axis (logarithm)
 Relationship : Cper = constant * Cpore ^ constant
 Calibrate Cpor with PHIT_log
 Calibrate Cperm with k (phi-k)
 Poro-Perm Core data A27 in I68
y = 8 E- 0 9 x 7 . 5 7 0 3
2
R = 0 .8 9 59
10000
S e rie s1
P owe r P orosit y - K
1000
Perm (md)

100

10

1
10 15 20 25 30 35

0.1

Porosity (%)

11/16/2017 30
 Porosity-Permeability Plot

10000

y = 1E+10x14.284
1000

y = 435.56x1.0466
Core Permeability (mD)

100

10
y = 2E+06x7.7367

0.1
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
Core Porosity (Fraction)
Facies 1: k<20mD Facies 2: 20mD<k<200mD Facies 3: k>200mD Power (Facies 3: k>200mD)
 The conversion of capillary pressure data from laboratory analysis (air-
mercury) of core samples to reservoir condition

For reservoir system consists of gas-water,

Pclab ( air hg )
Pcres ( gas  water )    cos  res ( gas  water )
 cos lab ( air hg )

For reservoir system comprises of oil/gas-water,

Pclab ( air hg )
Pcres ( oil  water )    cos res ( oil water )
 cos lab ( air hg )

where  cosres (oil water ) and  coslab( air hg ) are given from core analysis

11/16/2017 32
 0.216  Pc k
J 
 cos 

Where

Pc = reservoir capillary pressure (psi)

σ = internal tension
θ = contact angle
k = permeability (mD)
Ø = total porosity

σ cos Ø (dynes/ cm) is measured at laboratory and given from core analysis.

11/16/2017 34
 J from dimensionless J and Sw from capillary pressure
analysis
 Sw (wetting phase) at x-axis and J at y-axis
 Generate J-function equation relationship to obtain ‘a’ and
‘b’.

J  aSwb

11/16/2017 35
 J-Function
2000

1800

1600

1400

1200
J-function

y = 0.2666x-1.62
1000
2
R = 0.8224
800

600

400

200

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Water Saturation, fraction
core data J-Function

11/16/2017 36
 1b
 a   cos  
S w _ J    
 0.216 Pc k
Sw_J = water saturation in fraction
a and b = constants from J-fuction equation
Pc = h * (gw – ghc)
h = height above FWL (ft)
gw = water gradient (psi/ft), given from core analysis
ghc = hydrocarbon gradient (psi/ft) from core analysis
Ø = porosity calculated from well log
k = from porosity-permeability relationship

 Normally gradient for water, oil and gas are given by 0.433 psi/ft, 0.346
psi/ft and 0.1 psi/ft, respectively.

11/16/2017 37
 6. Bound water (Swb) or Irreducible water (Swir)
 Swb or Swir needs to be included in equation no. 5.

7. Validate Sw_J to Swt_log

 Plot Sw_J and Swt_log in one track with depth, also compare with CSw (Core
Sw) if available
 Until good match between Sw_J and Swt_log or back to no. 4.

8. Generate Water Saturation Profile

 Select range of field permeability.
 Select h from FWL to field vertical relief
 Calculate Sw_J, refer no. 5
 Calculate Pc res. For every h, refer no.5.
 Plot Sw_J vs h
 A new well is drilled in offshore sabah. The equation derived
from the J-function plot is given by equation 1 as follows:

2.58
J  0.13Sw
 Byusing the J-function equation and data given in
Table 2, calculate the value of pseudo water
saturation, Sw_J from depth 1200 m to 1210 m.

Table 2 Core Analysis Data for Well Merah-1

Pseudo Water
Depth Porosity Permeabili Capillary σ cos θ Saturation, Sw_J
(frac) ty Pressure (frac)

(milidarcy) (psi)
1200 0.21 0.1 116.71 45
1202 0.29 494.02 113.90 45
1204 0.30 1340.32 111.84 45
1206 0.28 444.26 110.53 45
1208 0.24 8.56 108.84 45
1210 0.21 0.49 104.53 45
Considering the general equation for J-function to be as
follows:
  45 

11/16/2017