Psychology of Sport & Exercise 36 (2018) 1–7

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Psychology of Sport & Exercise

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport

Feelings of pride are associated with grit in student-athletes and recreational T

runners
Jenna D. Gilchrista, Angela J. Fonga, Jordan D. Herbisonb, Catherine M. Sabistona,∗
a
Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Toronto, Canada
b
School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queens University, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Grit is an adaptive trait that predicts achievement outcomes in various contexts. However, little is known about
Positive emotions the factors that predict grit in achievement domains such as sport and exercise. Using the broaden-and-build
Broaden-and-build theory theory as the guiding framework, we sought to test a model whereby feelings of pride predicted grit across two
Sport separate samples. Undergraduate athletes (N = 109) and recreational long-distance runners (N = 116) com-
Exercise
pleted questionnaires at a single time-point. In study 1, state pride was positively associated with grit (r = 0.26,
Gender
p = .003). No gender differences were observed. In study 2, both global and fitness-related pride were assessed
to determine their association with grit. Inverse associations between global pride and grit were noted for au-
thentic (β = 0.33, p < .001) and hubristic (β = −0.26, p = .003) pride. Only fitness-related authentic
(β = 0.42, p = .003), but not hubristic (β = 27, p = .053), pride was a significant predictor of grit. Findings
provide initial insight into pride and grit in sport and exercise contexts. Partial support for the broaden-and-build
theory was found. Specifically, experiences of pride are associated with grit, but only when success is attributed
to one's own effort. Attributing success to innate ability or superiority may result in reduced persistence and
interest toward goal attainment. Given these findings, it may be important to create opportunities to experience
authentic pride to develop grit.

Goal striving is commonplace in sport and exercise contexts and
requires numerous hours engaged in goal-pursuit. In pursuit of their
goals, individuals are likely to face adversities that may impact the
likelihood of achievement. Possessing sufficient supports and resources
can improve the likelihood that these difficulties are overcome. Grit is
one resource that has been associated with achievement outcomes and
holds considerable relevance for goal attainment (Duckworth, Peterson,
Matthews, & Kelly, 2007). Identifying factors that contribute to grit
could have important practical implications in contexts such as exercise
and sport where goal striving is prevalent.
Grit is a psychological construct consisting of two dimensions: (1)
the enduring motivation to expend effort (i.e., perseverance), and; (2)
sustained interest (i.e., passion) in one's long-term goals (Duckworth
et al., 2007). Specifically, grit enables the capacity to continue to ex-
pend effort on important tasks and forgo immediate rewards for the
sake of pay-offs in the future. Furthermore, individuals high on grit
remain committed and interested in their goals over long periods of
time (Duckworth et al., 2007). As such, grit has been shown to be a key
variable associated with adaptive achievement outcomes in demanding
environments or in contexts where retention is problematic (Credé,
Tynan, & Harms, 2016; Duckworth, Kirby, Tsukayama, Berstein, &
Ericsson, 2011; Duckworth et al., 2007). Thus, while not all contexts
require a gritty disposition to experience success, grit may be particu-
larly relevant in contexts where perseverance and passion help to fa-
cilitate achievement, retention, and maintenance of effortful behaviors.
Grit is thus likely to be adaptive in contexts such as sport and exercise
because of the number of hours that must be spent developing sport
specific skills or the consistent time and effort that is required to
maintain or improve health/fitness. For example, initial evidence sup-
ports a positive association between grit and sport engagement (e.g.,
enthusiasm, dedication), perceptual-cognitive skills, and time spent
involved in sport related activities (Larkin, O'Connor, & Williams, 2016;
Martin, Byrd, Watts, & Dent, 2015). Grit is also important for the
maintenance of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, which is more
effortful and purposeful engagement compared to lower intensity
physical activity (Reed, Pritschet, & Cutton, 2013). With the benefits of
possessing grit noted, understanding the factors that promote grit are
now needed. Drawing from the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson
& Branigan, 2005; Fredrickson, 1998, 2001), positive emotions may
help to facilitate grit.

∗
Corresponding author. Faculty of Physical Education and Kinesiology, Department of Exercise Sciences, University of Toronto, 55 Harbord St., Toronto, Ontario, M5S 2W6, Canada.
E-mail address: catherine.sabiston@utoronto.ca (C.M. Sabiston).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.12.009
Received 3 February 2017; Received in revised form 23 October 2017; Accepted 20 December 2017
Available online 25 December 2017
1469-0292/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.D. Gilchrist et al.
Based on the tenets of the broaden-and-build theory, positive
emotions are important in promoting optimal functioning and do so not
just in the present moment, but over time. Fredrickson (1998, 2001)
asserts that positive emotions broaden individuals’ momentary thought-
action repertoires, prompting them to pursue a wider range of thoughts
and behaviors including dreaming big, exploring and learning, and
striving to be better (Fredrickson, 1998, 2001). This broadened per-
spective helps to build personal resources that endure into the future,
but do not themselves directly reflect emotionality (e.g., mindfulness,
better interpersonal relationships, resilience, optimism; Fredrickson,
1998; 2013). Positive emotions are thus valuable because their effects
outlast the transient experience of the emotion. Specifically, the re-
sources gained accrue over time and become durable, allowing in-
dividuals to call upon them as needed. In this way, positive affective
experiences can serve as a basis for the development of physical, social,
and psychological resources that help individuals flourish in their en-
vironment and navigate challenges in goal pursuit. Consistent with this
build hypothesis, people who experience and express positive emotions
are more resilient and better able to find benefits in adversity (Cohn,
Fredrickson, Brown, & Mikels, 2009; Fredrickson, Tugade, Waugh, &
Larkin, 2003; Hart, Vella, & Mohr, 2008). These resources are im-
portant for overall functioning, achievement, and performance. Grit is
another possible resource that could emanate from positive emotional
experiences.
Research on the relationship between affective experiences and grit
is limited. Researchers have documented support for positive affect as a
predictor of grit with small to medium effect sizes noted (rs ranged from
0.38 to 0.45; Hill, Burrow, & Bronk, 2016; Singh & Jha, 2008). How-
ever, the broaden-and-build theory holds that consideration of discrete
emotions (e.g., pride) is warranted relative to valanced approaches
(e.g., positive affect). Specifically, the emotions identified in the
broaden-and-build theory (e.g., joy, gratitude, hope, pride, awe) have
been shown to have distinct phenomenological, cognitive, physiolo-
gical, and behavioral features that may be associated with differing
attributions and consequences (e.g., Ellsworth & Smith, 1998; Shiota,
Neufeld, Yeung, Moser, & Perea, 2011; Tracy & Robins, 2007). For
example, Campos and colleagues (2013) reported that pride is most
closely associated with perceptions of accomplishment and a will-
ingness to take on new challenges compared to other positive emotions
identified in the broaden-and-build theory (Campos, Shiota, Keltner,
Gonzaga, & Goetz, 2013). Thus, even emotions of the same valence are
associated with different cognitive and behavioral consequences and
are likely to facilitate the development of different resources. Based on
tenets of broaden-and-build, we argue that experiences of pride are
likely to facilitate grit.
Pride is an emotional response to success or mastery (Lazarus, 1991)
and has been identified within the broaden-and-build theory as creating
urges to further demonstrate competence – to dream big about ac-
complishing related goals in the future (Fredrickson, 2013). Relative to
other positive emotions such as happiness or enjoyment (which are
associated with short-term pleasure; Katzir, Eyal, Meiran, & Kessler,
2010), pride motivates individuals to engage in hedonically costly be-
havior in the pursuit of long range goals (i.e., expending time and effort
in goal pursuit; Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005; Williams & DeSteno,
2008). From this perspective, examining feelings of pride is particularly
important since the experience directs motivation towards competence
pursuits and further achievement (Lazarus, 1991).
Although a positive emotion, feelings of pride have been associated
with both adaptive and maladaptive outcomes (Carver, Sinclair, &
Johnson, 2010; Tracy & Robins, 2007; Tracy, Cheng, Robins, &
Trzesniewski, 2009). Two different facets of pride have been identified:
authentic and hubristic pride (Tracy & Robins, 2007). Both facets are
elicited in response to a positively appraised event (i.e., success or
achievement), however authentic pride results from attributions to
one's own effort while hubristic pride results from attributions to one's
innate talent and perceptions of superiority (Tracy & Robins, 2007).
2
Psychology of Sport & Exercise 36 (2018) 1–7
Experiences of authentic pride, in particular, are likely to foster grit.
Authentic pride is associated with greater self-control and increased
perseverance while hubristic pride is associated with greater im-
pulsivity and decreased perseverance (Carver et al., 2010; Williams &
DeSteno, 2008). Further, experiences of authentic pride are associated
with adaptive intertemporal choice, or the acceptance of short-term
costs that favor long-term outcomes (DeSteno, 2009). Moreover, Ho,
Tong, and Jia (2016) provided initial support that authentic pride fa-
cilitates the delay of gratification while hubristic pride inhibits the
delay of gratification. Pride has also been associated with the passionate
pursuit of goals (Bureau, Vallerand, Ntoumanis, & Lafrenière, 2012).
Specifically, authentic pride is associated with the passionate pursuit of
goals that are driven by an internal locus of control (i.e., harmonious
passion) while hubristic pride is associated with the passionate pursuit
of goals but is experienced as controlling as individuals display a rigid
persistence towards goal engagement (i.e., obsessive passion, Bureau
et al., 2012). Taken together, these results illustrate the potential of
authentic pride to facilitate grit.
Researchers investigating the outcomes associated with pride have
predominately assessed pride as a disposition assessed at the global
level (e.g., individuals' tendency to experience pride in general, across
domains; Weidman, Steckler, & Tracy, 2016). As such, there is a dearth
of understanding regarding state (i.e., momentary experiences) and
domain-specific (i.e., what experiences of pride are about) pride in
predicting relationships with goal-relevant outcomes. Support for ex-
periences of both authentic and hubristic pride in sport and exercise
contexts have been reported (e.g., sport competition, fitness center;
Castonguay, Gilchrist, Mack, & Sabiston, 2013; Castonguay, Sabiston,
Kowalski, & Wilson, 2016). The authors further identified that feelings
of pride can be experienced when evaluating one's physical fitness or
abilities (i.e., domain specific pride) and calls have been made to ad-
dress feelings of pride in specific domains (Tangney & Tracy, 2012). In
line with the broaden-and-build theory, authentic pride assessed as a
state or trait or in response to domain assessments should function to
facilitate resources such as grit. The main purpose of the current re-
search was to examine the relationship between state and trait pride
(both global and domain-specific) and grit across two studies. Study 1
assessed the association between state pride and grit using a unitary
measure of pride while Study 2 examined the distinct facets of pride
using trait assessments of pride. Based on previous conceptual and
theoretical research (Fredrickson, 1998, 2001; Tracy & Robins, 2007),
it was hypothesized that state experiences of pride would be positively
related to grit (Study 1). When authentic and hubristic pride were ex-
amined separately, it was hypothesized that trait experiences of au-
thentic pride would be positively related to grit while trait experiences
of hubristic pride would be negatively related to grit (Study 2). A si-
milar pattern of relationships was expected for both the global measure
of pride and the domain-specific measure.
Furthermore, gender differences in the experience of pride have
been noted such that males experience more pride (and in particular
hubristic pride) relative to females (Brebner, 2003; Carver et al., 2010;
Conroy, Ram, Pincus, & Rebar, 2015; Orth, Robins, & Soto, 2010; Plant,
Hyde, Keltner, & Devine, 2000; Tracy & Robins, 2007). However, a
recent meta-analysis revealed negligible differences in assessments of
pride between males and females (Else-Quest, Higgins, Allison, &
Morton, 2012). In explorations of gender differences in domain-specific
emotional experiences, males report experiencing pride about their
fitness and ability (i.e., what their bodies could do) while females report
experiencing pride in response to evaluations of their appearance
(Castonguay et al., 2013). Furthermore, males reported experiencing
pride in contexts such as sport more frequently than females
(Castonguay et al., 2013). Based on tenets of the broaden-and-build
theory, individuals who experience positive emotions more frequently
than others build their resources relative to those who experience less
positive emotions. As such, an additional aim of this research was to
examine differences in pride and grit between males and females.
J.D. Gilchrist et al. Psychology of Sport & Exercise 36 (2018) 1–7

1. Study 1 2.3. Data analysis

The aim of Study 1 was to examine the association between pride
and grit in a sample of undergraduate students who self-reported as
athletes. Further, gender differences in experiences of pride and grit
were explored. Based on previous conceptual and theoretical research,
it was expected that pride would be positively related to grit
(Fredrickson, 1998, 2001; Tracy & Robins, 2007) and that males would
report higher experiences of pride. No hypotheses were advanced for
differences in grit between males and females.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and procedure
Individuals at a large university in Southern Ontario, Canada en-
rolled in an undergraduate research methods course were given the
opportunity to participate in an online survey. Data collection com-
menced following University Ethics Board Approval and followed a
non-probability based cross-sectional survey design and convenience
sampling procedures. The investigators provided students with in-
formation regarding the study, and posted a private secure online
survey link for students to access. Participants completed the survey on
their own time and the survey was made available for two weeks. All
participants provided informed consent prior to completing the survey.
All students enrolled in the course were eligible to complete the online
survey. One-hundred and fifty-three students opted to complete the
questionnaire, however only those identifying as an athlete were re-
tained for the analysis.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Pride
Participants completed the pride subscale of the State Shame and
Guilt Scale (SSGS; Marschall, Sanftner, & Tangney, 1994). The SSGS is a
self-report measure comprised of three subscales assessing feelings of
shame, guilt, and pride with five items assessing each emotion. Given
the focus on pride in the current manuscript, only the pride subscale of
the SSGS was of interest in the current analysis. Participants were asked
to respond on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not feeling this way
at all) to 5 (feeling this way very strongly) how they feel after completing
an exercise session (e.g., “I feel proud”). Scores were computed by
averaging responses across the five items of the subscale. The estimate
of internal consistency (Cronbach's α; Cronbach, 1951) for the pride
items was α = 0.84 in the current sample. In college-age samples,
support for internal consistency of scores derived from the pride sub-
scale has been documented as well as support for predictive and con-
vergent validity of the scores (Tangney & Dearing, 2002).
2.2.2. Grit
The eight-item Short Grit Scale (Grit-S; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009)
2.3.1. Preliminary analyses
Inspection of missing data and non-response error was assessed. A
multiple imputation procedure using an expectation-maximization
(EM) algorithm was used to replace missing data. Univariate normality
(i.e., means, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis) of the data was
then inspected. Descriptive statistics were calculated for relevant de-
mographic and study variables.
2.3.2. Main analyses
Separate t-tests were calculated to determine differences between
males and females in pride as well grit. To determine patterns of as-
sociation between study variables, Pearson bivariate correlations with
corresponding confidence intervals were reported for the entire sample
and separately for males and females. Fisher's r to z transformation was
calculated as an index comparing correlation coefficients between
males and females. All analyses were conducted using SPSS (Version
24.0).
3. Results
Participants were 109 undergraduate students that self-reported as
athletes (Mage = 19.55, SDage = 1.05; nfemale = 68). Initial inspection of
the data indicated the presence of minimal non-response error with no
more than 2.0% of data missing on any individual item. Distributions
suggested minimal concerns in terms of univariate normality.
Descriptive statistics can be found in Table 1. No statistical differences
were found between males and females in the experience of pride [t
(107) = 0.71, p = .48, CI = −0.17 to 0.35] or grit [t (107) = −0.75,
p = .45, CI = −0.33 to 0.15]. Consideration of effect sizes corre-
sponded to a small effect size for both pride (d = 0.14) and grit
(d = 0.15; Cohen, 1988).
Pearson bivariate correlations and 95% confidence intervals be-
tween study variables across the entire sample and separately for males
and females can be found in Table 1. Pride and grit demonstrated a
small positive relationship across the entire sample (r = 0.26, p = .003;
CI = 0.08 to 0.43). Interpretation of the Fisher r to z transformation
demonstrated no differences in the magnitude of the relationships be-
tween males and females (p = .37).
4. Study 1 discussion
The findings of Study 1 are consistent with the hypothesis that ex-
periences of pride are positively associated with grit. Further, results
support recent meta-analytic results that males and females report ex-
periences of pride to a similar extent (Else-Quest et al., 2012). Given
that there were no differences between males and females in the ex-
perience of pride, it is not surprising that the association between pride
Table 1
Descriptive statistics and correlations study 1.
M SD 1 2

was used to assess participants’ grit. Participants responded to items Total Sample (n = 109)
reflecting the tendency to maintain effort (e.g., “I am a hard worker”) 1. Pride 4.22 0.65 – .26
and interest (e.g., “New ideas and projects sometimes distract me from [.08,.43]
previous ones”) using a 5-point Likert scale with response options 2. Grit 3.45 0.61 –
Females (n = 68)
ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me). A total grit 1. Pride 4.26 0.64 – .28
score was calculated by reverse scoring negatively worded items and [.05, .49]
averaging response options across the eight-items with higher scores 2. Grit 3.42 0.64 –
reflecting greater grit. Internal consistency was α = 0.79 in the current Males (n = 41)
1. Pride 4.17 0.68 – .24
sample. Support for the internal consistency of scores derived from the
[.00, .45]
Grit-S has been reported previously in college-aged and adolescent 2. Grit 3.51 0.57 –
samples as well as support for convergent and discriminant validity
(Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Note. M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation.

3
J.D. Gilchrist et al.
and grit did not differ between genders. The results of Study 1 support
Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) assertions that even though emotional ex-
periences are transient and fleeting, the resources accrued are durable.
Although a unitary conception of pride was used, the distribution of
scores is consistent with the distribution of authentic pride scores re-
ported previously (Conroy et al., 2015), suggesting that the SSGS is
likely tapping authentic pride rather than hubristic pride. However, a
more explicit test of this assumption that authentic, but not hubristic,
pride is associated with grit is needed.
5. Study 2
The aim of Study 2 was to examine trait authentic and hubristic
pride (global and domain specific) in the prediction of grit in a sample
of recreational runners and to examine potential differences between
genders. Based on previous conceptual and theoretical research, it was
expected that authentic and hubristic pride would be differentially re-
lated to grit (Tracy & Robins, 2007). Specifically, it was hypothesized
that experiences of authentic pride would be positively related to grit
while experiences of hubristic pride would be negatively related to grit.
A similar pattern of relationships between global and domain-specific
assessments of pride and grit was expected.
6. Methods
6.1. Participants and procedure
Participants were identified through running groups in a large me-
tropolitan city that offered training programs for half-marathon/
marathon races. Participants were approached by the first author about
participating in a related study on running behavior and emotions
(details available from first author). Those consenting to participate
(N = 158) were sent an email with a link to complete an online survey
approximately six months after training for a long-distance race.
Appropriate research ethics board approval was obtained prior to re-
cruitment of participants and the participants provided informed con-
sent prior to completing the questionnaire.
6.2. Measures
6.2.1. Demographics
Participants responded to questions about their age, gender, marital
status, education, and previous race experience.
6.2.2. Global pride
Participants were asked to complete the Authentic and Hubristic
Pride Scale (AHPS; Tracy & Robins, 2007) as a trait measure of pride.
The instrument was designed to assess both authentic and hubristic
pride (7 items each) with adjective items such as “accomplished” and
“arrogant”, respectively. Participants were asked to respond on a 5-
point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely) the extent
to which they generally feel this way. Scores for each facet of pride
were computed by averaging responses across the subscales. Estimates
of internal consistency of subscale scores ranged from 0.91 for au-
thentic pride and 0.75 for hubristic pride in this sample. Structural
validity for scores derived from the AHPS has been reported in previous
research (Tracy et al., 2009). Support for estimates of internal con-
sistency (Cronbach's α, Cronbach, 1951) of scores from the AHPS has
been reported previously (Carver et al., 2010; Sabiston et al., 2010;
Tracy & Robins, 2007).
6.2.3. Fitness-related pride
Participants completed the 8-item Authentic and Hubristic Pride-
Fitness subscale of the Body-related Self-Conscious Emotions instru-
ment (BSE-FIT; Castonguay, Kowalski, & Wilson, 2016) as a domain-
specific measure of pride. The BSE-FIT was developed to assess
4
Psychology of Sport & Exercise 36 (2018) 1–7
individuals' feelings of pride about what their bodies can do and is
consistent with an existing measure assessing what the body looks like
(e.g., Castonguay, Sabiston, Crocker, & Mack, 2014). The measures
were developed in line with theoretical tenets of the multidimensional
model of the physical self as comprised of both an appearance domain
and a fitness or ability domain (Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976).
Participants were asked to report how often they experienced either
facet of pride (authentic sample item: “Proud about my effort to im-
prove my fitness”; hubristic sample item: “Proud of my superior fit-
ness”) on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always) with
higher scores reflecting higher levels of pride. Pride subscales were
computed by averaging responses across the 4-items for authentic and
the 4-items for hubristic pride. The Cronbach's alpha internal con-
sistency coefficients for the authentic and hubristic subscale scores were
0.90 and 0.88, respectively. Scores derived from the BSE-FIT have been
shown to demonstrate a pattern of relationships in the expected di-
rection with constructs theoretically and empirically linked to pride and
support for the internal reliability of the scores have been reported
previously (Castonguay et al., 2016; Mack, Kouali, Gilchrist, & Sabiston,
2015).
6.2.4. Grit
The Grit-S (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009) was used to assess partici-
pants' grit. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.80 in the current sample.
6.3. Data analysis
Data analysis for Study 2 was conducted similar to the strategies
noted in Study 1. In addition, multiple regression analyses were con-
ducted with grit estimated from authentic and hubristic pride. Analyses
were conducted separately for global and domain-specific assessments
of pride. Based on the magnitude of the correlation between the two
facets of fitness-related pride and recommendations from researchers
(e.g., Tangney & Dearing, 2002; Tracy & Robins, 2007), we computed
measures of hubristic-free authentic pride and authentic-free hubristic
pride by saving the standardized residuals from regression equations
predicting authentic pride from hubristic pride and vice versa and using
the standardized residuals in the regression predicting grit. These
measures allowed us to examine each emotion's unique correlates while
controlling for the overlap between the two scales.
7. Results
Participants were a community-based sample of 116 recreational
adult long-distance runners (Mage = 37.59, SDage = 11.11 years;
nwomen = 88; 73% response rate) who reported training for a half-
marathon/marathon in the previous year. The majority of participants
were Caucasian (n = 80.2%) and reported their current marital status
as single (46.7%) or married/common law (43.3%). The majority of
participants (80%) reported competing in previous races and all run-
ners reported intentions to compete in a race again in the future.
Initial inspection of the data indicated the presence of minimal non-
response error with no more than 1.7% of data missing on any in-
dividual item. Inspection of the distributional properties suggested that
all data were normally distributed. Descriptive statistics are presented
in Table 2.
Separate t-tests were conducted to examine differences in study
variables between males and females. While no statistical difference
was found between males and females in the experience of global au-
thentic pride [t (113) = −0.16, p = .87, −0.33 to 0.28], males re-
ported higher experiences of hubristic pride relative to females, [t
(113) = 2.60, p = .01, CI = 0.05 to 0.36]. Consideration of effect sizes
corresponded to an effect of approximately zero for authentic pride
(d = 0.03) and a moderate effect size for hubristic pride (d = 0.54).
There were no differences between males and females in either facet of
fitness-related pride or grit (p > .05). Effect sizes for fitness-related
J.D. Gilchrist et al. Psychology of Sport & Exercise 36 (2018) 1–7

Table 2
Descriptive statistics and correlations study 2.

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5

Total Sample (n = 116)

1. Global Authentic Pride 3.40 0.72 – .05 .41 .41 .32
[-.13, .23] [.25, .55] [.25, .55] [.15, .47]
2. Global Hubristic Pride 1.28 0.36 – .02 .21 -.24
[-.16, .20] [.03, .38] [-.40, −.06]
3. Fitness-Related Authentic Pride 3.46 0.87 – .76 .28
[.67, .83] [.10, .43]
4. Fitness-Related Hubristic Pride 2.88 0.95 – .17
[-.01, .34]
5. Grit 3.51 0.62 –
Females (n = 88)
1. Global Authentic Pride 3.40 0.72 – .12 .39 .44 .34
[-.09, .32] [.20, .55] [.25, .59] [.14, .51]
2. Global Hubristic Pride 1.23 0.73 – .01 .18 -.20
[-.20, .22] [-.03, .38] [-.39, .01]
3. Fitness-Related Authentic Pride 3.46 0.84 – .73 .36
[.62, .81] [.16, .53]
4. Fitness-Related Hubristic Pride 2.87 0.91 – .25
[.04, .44]
5. Grit 3.52 0.62 –
Males (n = 28)
1. Global Authentic Pride 3.39 0.73 – -.12 .49 .33 .26
[-.47, .26] [.14, .73] [-.05, .63] [-.13, .58]
2. Global Hubristic Pride 1.44 0.40 – .04 .31 -.33
[-.34, .41] [-.07, .61] [-.63, .05]
3. Fitness-Related Authentic Pride 3.47 0.98 – .83 .05
[.66, .92] [-.33, .42]
4. Fitness-Related Hubristic Pride 2.88 1.10 – -.01
[-.38, .36]
5. Grit 3.45 0.65 –

Note. M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation.

authentic pride (d = 0.00), hubristic pride (d = 0.01), and grit
(d = 0.14) were negligible to small.
Bivariate correlations between study variables are presented in
Table 2. In line with previous research examining trait assessments of
global pride, the two facets of pride were not significantly associated
with one another (r = 0.05, p = .286; CI = −0.13 to 0.23). Similar to
previous research (Mack et al., 2015), the two facets of fitness-related
pride were strongly correlated (r = 0.76, p < .001; CI = 0.67 to 0.83).
Consistent with hypotheses, global authentic pride was positively as-
sociated with grit (r = 0.32, p < .001; CI = 0.15 to 0.47) while global
hubristic pride was negatively associated with grit (r = −0.24,
p = .005; CI = −0.40 to −0.06). Fitness-related authentic pride was
also positively associated with grit (r = 0.28, p = .001; CI = 0.10 to
0.43) while fitness-related hubristic pride was not (r = 0.17, p = .031;
CI = −0.01 to 0.34). Interpretation of the Fisher r to z transformation
demonstrated no differences in the magnitude of the relationships be-
tween grit and global authentic pride (p = .35), global hubristic pride
(p = .27), fitness-related authentic pride, (p = .07), fitness-related hu-
bristic pride (p = .12) between males and females.
The overall model examining global pride was significant and ac-
counted for 17% of the variance in grit [F (2, 115) = 11.54, p < .001].
Authentic pride was a positive predictor of grit (β = 0.33, p < .001,
CI = 0.14 to 0.44) while hubristic pride was a negative predictor
(β = −0.26, p = .003, CI = −0.74 to −0.15). Furthermore, the overall
model examining fitness-related pride was significant and accounted for
8% of the variance in grit [F (2, 112) = 4.817, p = .01]. Authentic
pride was a significant predictor of grit (β = 0.42, p = .003, CI = 0.09
to 0.43). Hubristic pride was a marginally significant predictor of grit
but the confidence intervals spans zero (β = 0.27, p = .053,
CI = −0.002 to 0.34).
8. Study 2 discussion
Study 2 extended the findings of Study 1by examining the different
facets of pride and their association to grit. In line with the findings of
Study 1, no gender differences were observed for either facet of fitness-
related pride or grit. However, there were differences between parti-
cipants' scores for the global hubristic pride subscale, consistent with
previous findings (Tracy & Robins, 2007). However, no differences
were observed for the correlations between pride and grit for either
males or females. Consistent with the hypotheses, authentic, but not
hubristic, pride was a positive predictor of grit. This finding is in line
with previous research demonstrating the functional benefits of ex-
periencing authentic pride in goal pursuit (Carver et al., 2010; Ho et al.,
2016; Williams & DeSteno, 2008). This finding also lends support for
Duckworth and colleagues' (2007) theorizing that grit may be de-
termined in part by the beliefs one holds about attributions for success
and failure. Authentic pride results from successes that are attributed to
one's own hard work and effort while hubristic pride results from at-
tributions to one's own talent and innate abilities (Tracy & Robins,
2007). Attributing success to one's own effort leads individuals to view
effort and hard work as instrumental in achieving important goals and
is associated with more favorable achievement striving, even in the face
of failure or when encountering difficulties in goal pursuit (Dweck &
Leggett, 1988; Dweck, 1975; Mueller & Dweck, 1998). Thus, attributing
successes to effort rather than ability appears to be an important dis-
tinction for facilitating grit.
9. General discussion
The purpose of this research was to test the association between
experiences of pride and grit in samples of sport and exercise partici-
pants. Given identified gender differences in the experiences of pride,
mean scores and associations were tested for differences between males
and females. Based on the results, experiences of pride may facilitate a
gritty disposition, regardless of gender. Further, these results held
whether pride was assessed as a state or a trait, and when assessed
globally or in a specific domain. More specifically, authentic, but not

5
J.D. Gilchrist et al.
hubristic, pride was a positive predictor of grit. Taken together, the
results provide partial support for the broaden-and-build theory that
positive emotions, such as pride, are associated with resources that
promote achievement (Fredrickson, 2013).
Although hubristic pride is conceptualized as a positive emotion, the
results demonstrate that feelings of hubristic pride about one's fitness
are not associated with grit while individuals' tendencies to experience
hubristic pride in general are negatively associated with grit. This
suggests that although experiences of hubristic pride in a given domain
(i.e., fitness) may not associated with grit, individuals' tendencies to
experiences hubristic pride in general may be maladaptive and asso-
ciated with reduced passion and persistence towards long term goals.
Thus, hubristic pride may be one positive emotion that does not build
psychological resources. This finding is consistent with previous re-
search that hubristic pride is the less prosocial, achievement oriented
facet negatively associated with adaptive personality traits (Carver
et al., 2010; Tracy & Robins, 2007) when compared to authentic pride.
Because hubristic pride is associated with a desire for self-affirmation
(Tracy et al., 2009), and given the fragility of the ego among those high
in hubristic pride, these individuals avoid situations that do not provide
positive feedback about the self. As such, those high in hubristic pride
tend to seek immediate gratification and validation and may be less
likely to persevere in situations that lack positive feedback about the
self (Carver et al., 2010).
Although the broaden-and-build theory does not distinguish be-
tween authentic and hubristic pride, the findings support Fredrickson’s
(2013) assertion that positive emotions may not broaden and build
equally and there may be boundary conditions of the benefits of posi-
tive emotions. For example, Gruber, Mauss, and Tamir (2011) proposed
that positive emotions may be subject to boundary conditions de-
pending on the amount experienced, when it is experienced, how it is
pursued, and which types are experienced. This line of research also
highlights that positive emotions must be regulated appropriately to
produce beneficial outcomes. Either too much positive emotion or too
much variability in positive emotional responding can be maladaptive
(Gruber, Johnson, Oveis, & Keltner, 2008; Gruber, Kogan, Quoidbach, &
Mauss, 2013). In our study, fitness-related hubristic pride was not
associated with grit while individuals' tendencies to experience
hubristic pride in general was associated with a reduction in grit.
Thus, the facet of pride experienced seems to be an important boundary
condition in the promotion of grit. Further, experiencing hubristic pride
across domains may result in detriments to grit while the experience of
hubristic pride in particular domains (i.e., fitness) seems to neither
build nor detract from grit. Implications from this line of work caution
against an unremitting promotion of positive emotions in all contexts,
at all times, for all individuals.
There was a high degree of statistical overlap between the two fa-
cets of pride when assessed at the domain level. The magnitude of the
relationship is a departure from associations typically noted between
global assessments of authentic and hubristic pride (Tracy & Robins,
2007). It is possible that authentic and hubristic pride are experienced
to a similar extent when the specific domain of fitness is considered.
This finding is in line with participant responses to the BSE-FIT in this
study and previous research reports of correlations of a similar mag-
nitude (Mack et al., 2015). For recreational runners, the two facets of
pride may operate in tandem given the specific focus on the individual's
fitness. As measurement is an on-going process (Messick, 1995), addi-
tional construct validation research is recommended.
The consideration of emotional experiences represents a novel ap-
proach towards investigating certain factors that serve to promote grit.
However, to advance this line of research, it is important to acknowl-
edge the limitations of the current study. First, the samples were vo-
lunteers, primarily female participants so caution should be taken when
generalizing the results. Secondly, the model positions pride as building
the resource of grit. However, the cross-sectional design does not allow
for such conclusions to be made. Given the correlational nature of the
6
Psychology of Sport & Exercise 36 (2018) 1–7
data, it could be that grittier individuals feel more proud. There is
reason to suggest that both interpretations are plausible as Fredrickson
asserts a reciprocal relationship between positive emotionality and in-
creases in personal resources (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002). Further,
although support for the broaden-and-build theory was found, these
studies were not designed to explicitly test the theory. Tests of the build
hypothesis require repeated measurements of positive emotions in ad-
dition to sufficient time for resources to accrue. However, the findings
do provide initial support for a relationship between pride and grit.
Based on these findings, future research aimed at elucidating the pre-
cise nature of this relationship through a more explicit test of the
broaden-and-build theory is warranted. Finally, differences in the re-
lationship between pride and grit were not tested based on the sport
played (Study 1), competitive level, or how often participants engaged
in training. These are all variables that could potentially influence the
pattern of results observed and need to be examined.
Overall, pride explained a small amount of variance in grit across
both studies. The magnitude of the associations is consistent with past
research that has examined other personality indices in relation to pride
(Tracy & Robins, 2007). In line with existing research on personality
factors, recent research has shown that approximately one-third of the
variation in grit is attributable to genetics (Rimfeld, Kovas, Dale, &
Plomin, 2016). Given the relatively stable and heritable nature of grit,
that experiences of pride accounted for significant variance is an im-
portant finding. Although this is a relatively small proportion of var-
iance accounted for, even small associations can be important in ap-
plied settings, particularly when the predictor variable is amenable to
simple, inexpensive interventions.
9.1. Conclusion
These findings provide support for the proposed relationship be-
tween pride and grit. Experiences of authentic pride may be important
targets to facilitate goal-striving and goal attainment in sport and ex-
ercise contexts. There is preliminary evidence to support the effec-
tiveness of interventions designed to increase similar resources such as
resilience and social and personal skills through increasing positive
emotionality (Cohn, Fredrickson, Brown, Mikels, & Conway, 2009;
Fredrickson et al., 2003; Gable, Gonzaga, & Strachman, 2006). Ex-
periences of authentic pride seem to be an important route through
which to develop grit. Targeting attributions for success by focusing on
an individual's effort may be one way in which to accomplish this aim
(Tracy & Robins, 2004). Consideration of the coaching climate may be
another plausible route through which to increase authentic pride by
influencing achievement goals in a way that optimizes emotional re-
sponding to success and failure (Conroy, Kaye, & Coatsworth, 2006;
Rebar & Conroy, 2013). Finally, adopting a self-compassionate ap-
proach to setbacks and failures is another approach capable of pro-
moting authentic pride (Mosewich, Kowalski, Sabiston, Sedgwick, &
Tracy, 2011). The value added from this line of research extends the
availability of existing emotions and strategies to call upon for im-
proved well-being and increased in engagement in sport and exercise.
Funding acknowledgements
Funding for this study was provided to Jenna D.Gilchrist by the
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).
The Canada Research Chairs program supports Catherine Sabiston.
References
Brebner, J. (2003). Gender and emotions. Personality and Individual Differences, 34,
387–394.
Bureau, J. S., Vallerand, R. J., Ntoumanis, N., & Lafrenière, M.-A. K. (2012). On passion
and moral behavior in achievement settings: The mediating role of pride. Motivation
and Emotion, 37, 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9292-7.
Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is
J.D. Gilchrist et al.
shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight
positive emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 27(1), 37–52.
Carver, C. S., Sinclair, S., & Johnson, S. L. (2010). Authentic and hubristic pride:
Differential relations to aspects of goal regulation, affect, and self-control. Journal of
Research in Personality, 44, 698–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.09.004.
Castonguay, A. L., Sabiston, C. M., Kowalski, K. C., & Wilson, P. M. (2016). Introducing an
instrument to measure body and fitness-related self-conscious emotions: The BSE-FIT.
Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 23, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.
2015.10.003.
Castonguay, A. L., Gilchrist, J. D., Mack, D. E., & Sabiston, C. M. (2013). Body-related
pride in young adults: An exploration of the triggers, contexts, outcomes and attri-
butions. Body Image, 10, 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.03.001.
Castonguay, A. L., Sabiston, C. M., Crocker, P. R., & Mack, D. E. (2014). Development and
validation of the body and appearance self-conscious emotions scale (BASES). Body
Image, 11, 126–136.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cohn, M. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., & Conway, A. M. (2009).
Happiness unpacked: Positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resi-
lience. Emotion, 9, 361–368.
Conroy, D. E., Kaye, M. P., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2006). Coaching climates and the de-
structive effects of mastery-avoidance achievement goals on situational motivation.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 28, 69–92.
Conroy, D. E., Ram, N., Pincus, A. L., & Rebar, A. L. (2015). Bursts of self-conscious
emotions in the daily lives of emerging adults. Self and Identity, 14, 290–313.
Credé, M., Tynan, M. C., & Harms, P. D. (2016). Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic
synthesis of the grit literature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika,
16, 297–334.
DeSteno, D. (2009). Social emotions and intertemporal choice. “Hot” mechanisms for
building social and economic capital. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18,
280–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01652.x.
Duckworth, Kirbyb, T. A., Tsukayama, E., Berstein, H., & Ericsson, K. A. (2011).
Deliberate practice spells success. Why grittier competitors triumph at the National
Spelling Bee. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2, 174–181. https://doi.org/
10.1177/1948550610385872.
Duckworth, Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and
passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92,
1087–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087.
Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit
scale (Grit–S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 166–174. https://doi.org/10.
1080/00223890802634290.
Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned
helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 674–685. https://doi.
org/10.1037/h0077149.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and
personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.
95.2.256.
Ellsworth, P. C., & Smith, C. A. (1998). From appraisal to emotion: Differences among
unpleasant feelings. Motivation and Emotion, 2, 271–302.
Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C. (2012). Gender differences in
self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138,
947–981. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027930.
Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology,
2, 300–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The
broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218.
Fredrickson, B. (2013). Advances in experimental social psychology. Academic Press.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of atten-
tion and thought-action repertoires. Cognition & Emotion, 19, 313–332. https://doi.
org/10.1080/02699930441000238.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward
emotional well-being. Psychological Science, 13, 172–175.
Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What good are
positive emotions in crisis? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following
the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365–376.
Gable, S. L., Gonzaga, G. C., & Strachman, A. (2006). Will you be there for me when
things go right? Supportive responses to positive event disclosures. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 904–917.
Gruber, J., Johnson, S. L., Oveis, C., & Keltner, D. (2008). Risk for mania and positive
emotional responding: Too much of a good thing? Emotion, 8, 23–33.
Gruber, J., Kogan, A., Quoidbach, J., & Mauss, I. B. (2013). Happiness is best kept stable:
Positive emotion variability is associated with poorer psychological health. Emotion,
13, 1–6.
Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A dark side of happiness? How, when, and
why happiness is not always good. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 222–233.
Hart, S. L., Vella, L., & Mohr, D. C. (2008). Relationships among depressive symptoms,
benefit-finding, optimism, and positive affect in multiple sclerosis patients after
Psychology of Sport & Exercise 36 (2018) 1–7
psychotherapy for depression. Health Psychology, 27, 230–238.
Hill, P. L., Burrow, A. L., & Bronk, K. C. (2016). Persevering with positivity and purpose:
An examination of purpose commitment and positive affect as predictors of grit.
Journal of Happiness Studies, 17, 257–269.
Ho, S. Y., Tong, E. M., & Jia, L. (2016). Authentic and hubristic pride: Differential effects
on delay of gratification. Emotion, 16, 1147–1156. https://doi.org/10.1037/
emo0000179.
Katzir, M., Eyal, T., Meiran, N., & Kessler, Y. (2010). Imagined positive emotions and
inhibitory control: The differentiated effect of pride versus happiness. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1314–1320.
Larkin, P., O'Connor, D., & Williams, A. M. (2016). Does grit influence sport-specific
engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite youth soccer? Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology, 28, 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2015.
1085922.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion.
American Psychologist, 46, 819–834. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.8.819.
Mack, D. E., Kouali, D., Gilchrist, J. D., & Sabiston, C. M. (2015). Pride and physical
activity: Behavioural regulations as a motivational mechanism? Psychology and
Health, 30, 1049–1062. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2015.1022547.
Marschall, D., Sanftner, J., & Tangney, J. P. (1994). The state shame and guilt scale. Fairfax,
VA: George Mason University.
Martin, J. J., Byrd, B., Watts, M. L., & Dent, M. (2015). Gritty, hardy, and resilient:
Predictors of sport engagement and life satisfaction in wheelchair basketball players.
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9, 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2015-
0008.
Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from
persons' responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning.
American Psychologist, 50, 741–749.
Mosewich, A. D., Kowalski, K. C., Sabiston, C. M., Sedgwick, W. A., & Tracy, J. L. (2011).
Self-compassion: A potential resource for young women athletes. Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology, 33, 103–123.
Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children's
motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 33–52.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33.
Orth, U., Robins, R. W., & Soto, C. J. (2010). Tracking the trajectory of shame, guilt, and
pride across the life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 1061–1071.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021342.
Plant, E. A., Hyde, J. S., Keltner, D., & Devine, P. G. (2000). The gender stereotyping of
emotions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 81–92.
Rebar, A. L., & Conroy, D. E. (2013). Experimentally manipulated achievement goal state
fluctuations regulate self-conscious emotional responses to feedback. Sport, Exercise,
and Performance Psychology, 2, 233–249.
Reed, J., Pritschet, B. L., & Cutton, D. M. (2013). Grit, conscientiousness, and the trans-
theoretical model of change for exercise behavior. Journal of Health Psychology, 18,
612–619.
Rimfeld, K., Kovas, Y., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2016). True grit and genetics: Predicting
academic achievement from personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
111, 780–789.
Sabiston, C. M., Brunet, J., Kowalski, K. C., Wilson, P. M., Mack, D. E., & Crocker, P. R.
(2010). The role of body-related self-conscious emotions in motivating women's
physical activity. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 32, 417–437.
Shavelson, R. J., Hubner, J. J., & Stanton, G. C. (1976). Self-concept: Validation of con-
struct interpretations. Review of Educational Research, 46, 407–441.
Shiota, M. N., Neufeld, S. L., Yeung, W. H., Moser, S. E., & Perea, E. F. (2011). Feeling
good: Autonomic nervous system responding in five positive emotions. Emotion, 11,
1368–1378.
Singh, K., & Jha, S. D. (2008). Positive and negative affect, and grit as predictors of
happiness and life satisfaction. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology,
34, 40–45.
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York: Guilford Press.
Tangney, J. P., & Tracy, J. L. (2012). Self-conscious emotions. In M. Leary, & J. P.
Tangney (Eds.). Handbook of self and identity (pp. 446–478). (2nd ed.). New York:
Guilford.
Tracy, J. L., Cheng, J. T., Robins, R. W., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2009). Authentic and
hubristic pride: The affective core of self-esteem and narcissism. Self and Identity, 8,
196–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860802505053.
Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: A
theoretical model. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/
s15327965pli1502_01.
Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2007). The psychological structure of pride: A tale of two
facets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 506–525. https://doi.org/10.
1037/0022-3514.92.3.506.
Weidman, A. C., Steckler, C. M., & Tracy, J. L. (2016). The jingle and jangle of emotion
assessment: Imprecise measurement, casual scale usage, and conceptual fuzziness in
emotion research. EmotionAdvance online publicationhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037/
emo0000226.
Williams, L. A., & DeSteno, D. (2008). Pride and perseverance: The motivational role of
pride. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 1007–1017. https://doi.org/
10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1007.