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The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite

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Journal of Sports Sciences, January 1st 2008; 26(1): 83 – 95

The development and maintenance of mental toughness:

Perceptions of elite performers

DECLAN CONNAUGHTON1, ROSS WADEY1, SHELDON HANTON1, &

GRAHAM JONES2
1
Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff and 2Lane 4 Management Group Ltd.,
Bourne End, Bucks, UK

(Accepted 1 March 2007)

Abstract
Seven participants from a previous study (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002) agreed to be interviewed about the
development of mental toughness. We also aimed to determine whether mental toughness requires maintenance. Semi-
structured interviews were conducted to elicit the participants’ perceptions of how mental toughness is cultivated and
retained. Findings indicated that the development of mental toughness is a long-term process that encompasses a multitude
of underlying mechanisms that operate in a combined, rather than independent, fashion. In general, these perceived
underlying mechanisms related to many features associated with a motivational climate (e.g. enjoyment, mastery), various
individuals (i.e. coaches, peers, parents, grandparents, siblings, senior athletes, sport psychologists, team-mates),
experiences in and outside sport, psychological skills and strategies, and an insatiable desire and internalized motives to
succeed. It was also reported that once mental toughness had been developed, three perceived underlying mechanisms were
required to maintain this construct: a desire and motivation to succeed that was insatiable and internalized, a support
network that included sporting and non-sporting personnel, and effective use of basic and advanced psychological skills.
Practical implications and future avenues of research are discussed.

Keywords: Definition, attributes, mentally tough, tough-mindedness

opponents at remaining determined, focused, con-

Introduction
Mental toughness has been reported to be the most
important psychological characteristic in achieving
performance excellence (e.g. Goldberg, 1998;
Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987).
However, the literature on mental toughness was
reviewed by Jones and colleagues (Jones, Hanton, &
Connaughton, 2002) and was suggested to induce
confusion rather than clarity. These authors, there-
fore, initiated a programme of research that investi-
gated mental toughness in elite performers, which,
guided by personal construct theory (Kelly, 1955),
provided a clear definition of mental toughness and
12 attributes purported to describe its make-up.
The resultant definition of mental toughness
consisted of having a natural or developed psycho-
logical edge that enables mentally tough performers
to cope better in general than their opponents with
the demands and related pressures that occur at the
highest level in sport. Specifically, these performers
were more consistent than and superior to their
fident, and in control under pressure. It is encoura-
ging to note that this definition appears to have
become accepted in a recent upsurge of research
that has examined the conceptualization of this
construct (Bull, Shambrook, James, & Brookes,
2005; Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007; Thel-
well, Weston, & Greenlees, 2005).
Jones and colleagues (2002) further revealed 12
attributes associated with the mentally tough perfor-
mer that related to, self-belief, desire and motivation,
performance and lifestyle distractions, pressure and
anxiety associated with competition, and physical
and emotional pain. According to Jones et al. (2002),
self-belief had two dimensions: (1) belief in one’s
ability to achieve competition goals and (2) believing
that you are different to, and therefore better than,
your opponents. Having a burning desire and
motivation to succeed coming from deep within
was perceived as an important attribute, especially
when bouncing back from performance setbacks and
alongside finely tuned focusing skills. Three of the

Correspondence: S. Hanton, Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, CF23 6XD, UK. E-mail: shanton@uwic.ac.uk
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2008 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02640410701310958
84 D. Connaughton et al.
attributes related to remaining fully focused despite
competition-specific distractions, while another two
enabled the mentally tough performer to remain
focused in the face of distractions in their personal
life and to be able to switch a sport focus on and off
when required. Not surprisingly, attributes asso-
ciated with thriving on the externally derived
pressure of competition and coping with the intern-
ally derived anxiety response were reported. Finally,
one attribute facilitated the maintenance of techni-
que and effort, while experiencing physical pain (e.g.
fatigue) and emotional pain resulting from failure.
Interestingly, these attributes have recently been
substantiated in a sample of elite English cricketers
(Bull et al., 2005) and professional football players
(Thelwell et al., 2005).
Jones and colleagues’ (2002) research contribu-
ted to a clearer and more concise insight regarding
the make-up of the mentally tough performer and,
importantly, their definition of mental toughness
contained a dimension that relates to successful
outcomes. Thus, Jones et al. (2002) acknowledged
that there may be some subtle differences in the
perceptions held by super-elite athletes (i.e. Olym-
pic/World champions) compared with those per-
formers who have only achieved elite status.
Furthermore, owing to their integral involvement
in the daily lives of athletes, it has been recom-
mended that future research include the views of
coaches and sport psychologists to gain a clearer
and more complete understanding of mental
toughness (Bull et al., 2005; Jones et al., 2002;
Thelwell et al., 2005).
Addressing these issues, Jones et al. (2007)
contacted a super-elite sample of athletes who have
achieved ultimate sporting success in their respective
sports, as well as coaches and sport psychologists
who have worked with these performers on a long-
term basis. The participants revealed that the
definition proposed by the elite performers was an
accurate representation of their personal under-
standing of mental toughness. However, although
both samples were in agreement regarding the
definition, the super-elite performers identified 30
attributes suggested to make up mental toughness
compared with the 12 attributes from the elite
sample. The attributes were found to cluster into
13 sub-components and four dimensions: attitude/
mindset (belief, focus), training (using long-term
goals as a source of motivation, controlling the
environment, pushing yourself to the limit), compe-
tition (handling pressure, belief, regulating perfor-
mance, staying focused, awareness and control of
thoughts and feelings, controlling the environment),
and post-competition (handling failure, handling
success). These findings highlight that super-elite
athletes appear to be able to articulate in more detail
the attributes that make up mental toughness. It
would be of interest, therefore, to examine if the
development of mental toughness is perceived
differently by elite and super-elite athletes.
Jones and Colleagues (2002) recommended
investigating the perceptions of elite performers
with regard to the mental toughness developmental
process and whether it is necessary to maintain
mental toughness once acquired. For instance,
Gould and his associates reported that 82% (Gould
et al., 1987) and 73% (Gould, Dieffenbach, &
Moffett, 2002) of their sample pools (i.e. athletes,
coaches, parents, siblings, significant others) identi-
fied mental toughness as an important characteristic
associated with successful performers. Nevertheless,
despite the weight placed on this construct, only 9%
of coaches stated that they were successful in
developing or changing mental toughness in the
performers with whom they worked (Gould et al.,
1987).
To educate coaches, athletes, and sport psychol-
ogists in the developmental process, our purpose in
this study was to address Jones and colleagues’
recommendations by re-interviewing the elite ath-
letes in their study. We believed that this sample
would provide a greater insight into how each
attribute associated with the mentally tough perfor-
mer is potentially acquired. Moreover, despite our
main focus being on the developmental process, a
secondary aim was to identify whether this construct
requires maintenance (cf. Durand-Bush & Salmela,
2002).
To date, few studies have examined psychological
factors from within a developmental framework.
Hanton and Jones (1999) investigated the perceived
cognitive skills and strategies used to develop and
maintain facilitative interpretations of competitive
anxiety-related symptoms. More recently, Durand-
Bush and Salmela (2002) examined the development
and maintenance of expert athletic performance. In a
related study, Gould et al. (2002) examined psycho-
logical talent and its development. Taken together,
these studies have only examined the experiences of
30 athletes, who were reported to be assisted by
various individuals (e.g. family members, coaches,
support staff), experiences (e.g. performance accom-
plishments, setbacks), psychological skills and stra-
tegies, and several personal qualities – such as
motivation, self-confidence, and mental toughness –
throughout their careers. Interestingly, although the
development of mental toughness was not the central
aim of these studies, Durand-Bush and Salmela
(2002) and Gould et al. (2002) identified mental
toughness as a salient variable in developing talented
athletes, which further strengthens the need to
examine specifically the mental toughness develop-
mental process.

Methods
Participants
The respondents in Jones and colleagues’ (2002)
original sample were re-contacted. Seven of the 10
international athletes (two women and five men;
mean age 33 years, s ¼ 5.3) agreed to participate once
more, while the remaining three athletes were unable
to take part due to time demands. Jones and
colleagues’ (2002) criteria for elite status involved
all the participants having achieved full international
honours and represented their country in major
events (e.g. Olympic or Commonwealth Games).
The sports represented were artistic gymnastics
(represented twice), rhythmic gymnastics, swim-
ming, trampolining, triathlon, and rugby union.
The performers had an average of 7 years of
international experience. One participant had com-
peted at an elite standard in two of these sports
during his career and was currently competing. The
remaining six participants were past internationals.
Preparation booklet
Owing to the complex nature of the interview, a
preparation booklet was developed and piloted with
two athletes. Specifically, it provided the participants
with an introduction to the study, a general overview
of the interview guide, and tasks to facilitate memory
recall. So that each participant’s career had a
developmental template, an involvement progression
questionnaire was also integrated into the booklet
that subdivided their careers relative to Bloom’s
(1985) career phases: early (mean age 8.3 years,
s ¼ 1.7), middle (11.1 years, s ¼ 1.9), and later years
(13.7 years, s ¼ 2.1). Early years referred to the
participants’ initial involvement in sport, which
consisted of training once a week. The middle years
were characterized by structured competitions and
training a few times a week. The later years, in
contrast, involved competing at higher competitive
standards, becoming fully committed to sport, and
training most days of the week. A copy of the
preparation booklet is available from the correspond-
ing author.
Interview guide
A semi-structured interview guide was developed to
elicit the relevant data and to facilitate the interview
process, which was characterized by a sequenced
script of questions with a fluid and flexible structure.
In addition to enhancing the depth and comprehen-
siveness of the data (Patton, 2002), this procedural
flexibility was chosen from reviewing interview
guides that have been successfully employed in
previous developmental and maintenance literature
Mental toughness 85
(Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al.,
2002; Hanton & Jones, 1999; Hanton, Wadey, &
Connaughton, 2005).
The collated interview guides further influenced
the content of the questions alongside the attributes
associated with the mentally tough performer
(Jones et al., 2002). The questions in general focused
on what individuals, incidents or strategies were
perceived to help develop, and perhaps used to
maintain, mental toughness. These questions were
primarily open-ended in order to understand the
world as seen by the participants; however, clarifica-
tion and elaboration probes were used to follow up
promising leads (Patton, 2002).
The resultant interview guide consisted of six
sections. Section one outlined the interview process,
the participants’ rights, how the information from the
interview would be used, how confidentiality would
be maximized, and the aims and objectives of the
study. Consistent with the reviewed interview guides,
the subsequent three sections encapsulated the
participants’ respective careers into early, middle,
and later years. Section five aimed to identify
whether mental toughness needed to be maintained
and, if so, the perceived underlying mechanisms
responsible. This section also sought recommenda-
tions for developing future mentally tough perfor-
mers. The final section concluded the interview and
invited the participants to raise any comments. A
copy of the interview guide is available from the
corresponding author.
Procedure
After informed consent was obtained, in line with the
university’s ethical research guidelines, each partici-
pant was sent a copy of the preparation booklet a
week before their interview. All interviews were
conducted either face-to-face or by telephone (cf.
Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1993) by the same
researcher who was a doctoral student and well
trained in qualitative techniques. All interviews were
recorded in their entirety and transcribed verbatim.
Each interview lasted between 100 and 180 min
(mean 144 min, s ¼ 30) and collectively the inter-
views yielded over 500 typed pages.
Data analysis
Trustworthiness techniques adopted in this study
included triangulation, peer-debriefing, referential
adequacy, member checking, thick description, and
stepwise replication (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). These
techniques are illustrated in the following four-step
data analysis procedure, which in general aimed to
analyse deductively the transcripts in accordance with
the 12 mentally tough attributes identified by Jones
86 D. Connaughton et al.
et al. (2002). First, the participants verified the content
of their interview transcripts. Second, the research
team independently (i.e. during data collection) and
then collectively (i.e. after data collection) coded the
participants’ responses. Third, direct quotations from
the transcripts were selected and presented to allow
the reader the opportunity to interpret the data in a
way more meaningful to them (Sparkes, 1998). Lastly,
the final results were sent to the participants to verify
that our interpretation was an accurate representation
of their perceptions of the mental toughness develop-
mental process. No changes were made by the
participants to the final results. Throughout the data
analysis, regular meetings were also held between the
research team and an independent researcher who
was familiar with mental toughness literature to
discuss the unfolding of the study.
Results
In accordance with the design of the study and the
interview guide, the results are presented in four sub-
sections. The first three sub-sections (i.e. early,
middle, and later years) are characterized by the
underlying themes that the participants felt to be
accountable for cultivating mental toughness (for
an overview, see Tables I, II, and III). The final
sub-section discloses their perceptions of whether
mental toughness needs to be maintained once
acquired and, if so, what strategies need to be
utilized. Furthermore, each sub-section includes
verbatim quotes to support and illuminate the
narrative.
Early years
The early years were viewed by the participants to set
the foundations for three mental toughness attributes
(Attributes 1, 2, and 3). Having an unshakable self-
belief regarding the achievement of competition
goals (Attribute 1) was perceived to develop from
watching and learning from superior athletes who
radiated confidence.
In the early stages I would stay behind after class
for one or maybe two hours watching the elite
Table I. Perceived underlying mechanisms of the mental toughness attributes reported in the early years.
Attributes
Having an unshakable self-belief in your ability to achieve your
competition goals (Attribute 1)
Having an unshakable self-belief that you possess unique qualities and
abilities that make you better than your opponents (Attribute 2)
Having an insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed
(Attribute 3)
athletes, seeing how they trained and completed
skills. This knowledge filled me with the belief that
I could eventually progress to their level and
achieve what they’ve achieved. They were also
people who had huge amounts of self-belief and
from watching and being around people like that it
definitely rubs off on you. This is how you have got
to be if you want to achieve your goals. These
people were tremendously important in develop-
ing my mental toughness. (Athlete 01)
The coaches’ leadership skills were further felt to
assist in nurturing this attribute by setting achievable
performance-related challenges: ‘‘In the early part of
my gymnastics development there was the most
wonderful coach. He was skilful at making sure skill
development was dealt with in bite-size chunks,
which increased my self-belief by ensuring successful
achievement’’ (Athlete 01). Lastly, rather than being
pushy and overbearing, coaches, parents, and grand-
parents were reported by the participants to provide
them with an appropriate amount of involvement
and support. These individuals also believed in the
participants’ sporting capabilities and reinforced
their successful progressions in sport. As a result,
these individuals were alleged to be important in
developing this attribute associated with the mentally
tough performer (Attribute 1).
I had a lot of friends in my sport that had parents
who were really over-involved and pushy in their
training, but I was lucky. My parents provided me
with the tools that I needed, in terms of getting to
practice, being supportive, and providing an
optimal level of interest in what I was doing in
those early days. They also believed in me and
encouraged every progression that I made, which
turned me into a confident young kid. (Athlete 02)
Compared with their peers, the participants’
efficiently mastered the skills relevant to their sport,
which made them realize that they had unique
qualities and abilities that made them better than
their peers. Therefore, the participants felt that
mastery had a salient role in developing mental
toughness (Attribute 02). Moreover, the realization
Perceived underlying mechanisms
Coaches’ leadership, social support, vicarious experience
Demonstration of ability, mastery
Coaches’ leadership, critical incidents, demonstration of
ability, enjoyment, mastery, parents’ focus, social support,
vicarious experience

Table II. Perceived underlying mechanisms of the mental toughness attributes reported in the middle years.
Attributes
Having an unshakable self-belief in your ability to achieve your
competition goals (Attribute 1)
Having an unshakable self-belief that you possess unique
qualities and abilities that make you better than your
opponents (Attribute 2)
Having an insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed
(Attribute 3)
Bouncing back from performance setbacks as a result of
increased determination to succeed (Attribute 4)
Pushing back the boundaries of physical and emotional pain
while still maintaining technique and effort under distress (in
training and competition) (Attribute 5)
Accepting that competition anxiety is inevitable and knowing
that you can cope with it (Attribute 6)
Thriving on the pressure of competition (Attribute 7)
Regaining psychological control following unexpected,
uncontrollable events (Attribute 8)
that one has unique qualities and abilities was
perceived to emanate from achieving success in the
training environment (i.e. demonstration of ability).
Early on I was recognized as one of the best
swimmers. I was 7 and I was swimming with guys
and girls who were 12, and I was better than they
were. Of course, when you are growing up it’s all
age related, a 12-year-old kid should be able to
beat a 7-year-old kid. It’s just the way it is. But,
when you suddenly start winning and beating kids
older than yourself, then, that’s odd. So, that
would have developed my self-belief . . . [by] re-
inforcing to me that I was a good swimmer and I
had something different that made me superior
compared to the other athletes. I just always felt
slightly different from peers my own age. I tended
to do better, which made me believe that I was
better than them. (Athlete 03)
All these perceived underlying mechanisms, to-
gether with enjoyment, were also felt to have an
important influence in developing an overpowering
desire and motivation coming from deep within
(Attribute 3). That is, the coaches’ motivational
leadership skills, being surrounded by determined
full-time athletes, enjoying and having fun at train-
ing, receiving a desired amount of encouragement
for future success, and mastering associated skills,
were all perceived to help by acting as sources of
inspiration in a training environment. This amalga-
mation of factors was viewed by the participants to
lead them ultimately to demonstrate ability within
training and as a result was alleged to develop ‘‘the
desire to win and want to be better and better. You
Mental toughness 87
Perceived underlying mechanisms
Coaches’ leadership, social support, vicarious experience
Demonstration of ability, mastery
Coaches’ leadership, competitive rivalry, critical incidents,
demonstration of ability, enjoyment, mastery, parents’ focus,
social support, sibling rivalry, vicarious experience
Competitive rivalry, insatiable desire and internalized motives
to succeed, social support
Coaches’ leadership, competitive rivalry, enjoyment, insatiable
desire and internalized motives to succeed, social support
Social support
Social support
Social support
win once and because you enjoy the feeling
associated with success you want to do it again,
and suddenly it’s a drug. You’re addicted to
winning, which causes you to work and train harder
to win’’ (Athlete 03).
Another underlying theme that was viewed to
develop a burning desire and intrinsic motives for
success was parental focus (i.e. enjoyment, indivi-
dual improvement): ‘‘They [parents] contributed to
the development of my internalized motives by
providing me with a mindset of just enjoying it
[training] and improving my performance, not
necessarily on winning things’’ (Athlete 04). Lastly,
encountering critical incidents (e.g. disruptions at
school, loss of a peer, parental divorce) in the early
years was felt to have a crucial role in cultivating
mental toughness.
There are some situations that happened outside
of sport which shouldn’t have happened. I did
really well overcoming some difficult times at
home, which helped me become mentally tougher
as it increased my desire to escape from the life I
was having outside of sport, which motivated me
to become a better athlete. (Athlete 05)
Middle years
This phase was viewed by the participants as being
responsible for cultivating six additional attributes
associated with being a mentally tough performer.
Indeed, the participants reported that they started to
experience performance setbacks (Attribute 4), physi-
cal and emotional pain (Attribute 5), competitive
88 D. Connaughton et al.
Table III. Perceived underlying mechanisms of the mental toughness attributes reported in the later years.
Attributes
Having an unshakable self-belief in your ability to achieve your
competition goals (Attribute 1)
Having an unshakable self-belief that you possess unique
qualities and abilities that make you better than your
opponents (Attribute 2)
Having an insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed
(Attribute 3)
Bouncing back from performance setbacks as a result of
increased determination to succeed (Attribute 4)
Pushing back the boundaries of physical and emotional pain
while still maintaining technique and effort under distress
(in training and competition) (Attribute 5)
Accepting that competition anxiety is inevitable and knowing
that you can cope with it (Attribute 6)
Thriving on the pressure of competition (Attribute 7)
Regaining psychological control following unexpected,
uncontrollable events (Attribute 8)
Switching a sport focus on and off as required (Attribute 9)
Remaining fully focused on the task at hand in the face of
competition-specific distractions (Attribute 10)
Not being adversely affected by others’ good and bad
performances (Attribute 11)
Remaining fully focused in the face of personal life distractions
(Attribute 12)
anxiety (Attribute 6), pressure of competition (Attri-
bute 7), and uncontrollable events (Attribute 8). The
middle years were also perceived to nurture further all
the mental toughness attributes (Attributes 1, 2, and
3) established in the early years, due to the partici-
pants reporting that they naturally experienced all the
previous successful underlying themes. For instance,
the participants continued to: demonstrate ability
(e.g. breaking school records); master personal skills,
including new and more complex skills; receive
desirable leadership qualities from their coaches; and
surround themselves with inspirational athletes.
Furthermore, the participants received social support
from in and outside sport, experienced high enjoy-
ment from competing within the UK, had the same
focus provided from their parents, and encountered
critical incidents in and outside sport (e.g. loss of a
parent, household moves, moving clubs).
Two additional perceived underlying mechanisms
were reported in this phase to facilitate having an
insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed
(Attribute 3). The first was competitive rivalry, as the
participants felt that having challenging opponents in
training and competition motivated them to succeed
because it provided them with a target to aim
towards.
Perceived underlying mechanisms
Coaches’ leadership, competitive experience, mental
preparation, physical preparation, reflection, social support,
vicarious experience
Demonstration of ability, mastery
Coaches’ leadership, competitive rivalry, critical incidents,
demonstration of ability, enjoyment, goal setting, mastery,
parents’ focus, reflection, self-talk, sibling rivalry, social
support, vicarious experience
Competitive rivalry, insatiable desire and internalized motives to
succeed, reflection, self-talk, social support
Coaches’ leadership, competitive rivalry, enjoyment, insatiable
desire and internalized motives to succeed, simulation
training, social support
Competitive experience, mental preparation, physical
preparation, social support
Competitive experience, mental preparation, physical
preparation, social support
Mental imagery, pre-performance routine, process goals,
social support
Hobbies, mental imagery, pre-performance routine, process
goals, social support
Mental imagery, pre-performance routine, process goals
Mental imagery, pre-performance routine, process goals
Competitive rivalry, demonstration of ability, enjoyment,
insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed, mental
imagery, pre-performance routine, process goals, social
support
When I joined the swimming club, there were two
other good swimmers, which no doubt increased
my desire to succeed as the goal was to beat these
two. I remember because we got put in lanes and I
was way behind these two, which motivated me to
move up to their lane. I don’t know how long it
took me, but eventually I did get into their lane.
They were a year older than I was, so if I was 10
they were 11, but we were swimming in the 14- to
15-year-old lane. We were swimming way above
ourselves and, because of the competition between
us three, we would quickly dominate that lane.
(Athlete 02)
Second, sibling rivalry was perceived to enhance
mental toughness (Attribute 3). That is, many of
the participants had older siblings who were
proclaimed to be more intelligent or better athletes,
which, rather than turning the participants away to
establish their own niche, fuelled their desire to
emulate their siblings’ achievements in and outside
sport:
I had a real burning desire and self-determination
to be in the national squad. My brother helped
develop this because he was a great sportsman.

Watching him playing sport helped me to be
more self-determined to succeed and motivated
to train harder as I wanted to be like him.
(Athlete 06)
Having an insatiable desire and internalized
motives to succeed, and experiencing a selection of
the associated underlying mechanisms, was also
assumed to influence how the participants responded
to negative comments (for example, regarding body
weight or individual performances), sport-related
injuries, and poor performances that resulted in
defeat. Specifically, the motivational properties
generated from competitive rivalry and social sup-
port were alleged to help develop the ability to
bounce back from performance setbacks (Attribute
4). For instance:
My dad was usually there at the swim meets when
I was younger and anytime I lost, rather than
having a defeatist attitude, he would tell me to
work out what went wrong and then to work
harder on these areas in training in order to be
successful at future attempts. (Athlete 03)
Similar guidance was also received from other
members of the participants’ social support network
(i.e. coaches, senior athletes), which, in turn,
ultimately allowed them to rationalize setbacks as a
lack of practice rather than a lack of ability in this
phase. Moreover, as well as having an important
mediating role, having an insatiable desire and
internalized motives to succeed was also viewed to
have a direct influence on the development of this
attribute associated with the mentally tough perfor-
mer (Attribute 4).
I didn’t get in the advanced class first time round. I
was disappointed, but disappointment soon turned
to determination. I surprised myself how much I
clearly loved the sport, because I was so deter-
mined that I wanted to get in that class. So, I
practised the skills that I had failed to do
particularly well at that time. I just had an
immense desire to improve my skill level . . . I
think that was one of the times I recognized that I
was going to be a gymnast and that desire helped
me to eventually get into that class. (Athlete 01)
Furthermore, the determination generated from
competitive rivalry and social support, as well as
enjoyment and the coaches’ leadership, was viewed
to assist in pushing through the physically and
psychologically demanding aspects of training and
competition (Attribute 5). The following quotes best
illustrate this contention with reference to enjoyment
and competitive rivalry, respectively:
Mental toughness 89
Enjoying the types of skills being learnt at this
stage motivated me to do more training and more
overload to try more complex skills. Although you
have the downside of being fatigued and doing
things lots and lots of times, the upside of swinging
around a bar and letting yourself fly off outweighed
it all. I used to thrive on it. (Athlete 04)
Every training session I had a network of team-
mates, all of whom would really spur each other on
and, for me, this acted as a real motivating force.
Experiencing that rivalry day in and day out over a
period of years made me mentally tougher. I was
able to push myself to the limit and overcome the
pain and monotony of training as well as the
setbacks that everyone experiences during a sport-
ing career. (Athlete 07)
In addition, in a similar fashion to bouncing back
from performance setbacks, having an insatiable
desire and internalized motives to succeed was
reported to have a direct influence on the develop-
ment of this attribute associated with the
mentally tough performer (Attribute 5): ‘‘The desire
to win pushes back the boundaries because you
learn to associate training hard, which involves
physical and emotional pain, with better results’’
(Athlete 03).
Some setbacks experienced by the participants in
this phase were a direct consequence of having
negative encounters with competitive anxiety and the
pressure of competition. Such destructive experi-
ences were reported regularly during this phase due
to focusing on the outcome of competition, having
unsuccessful experiences with psychological skills,
and being inexperienced in the competitive environ-
ment. The participants, however, were able to
rationalize their thoughts and feelings because of
the guidance they received from members of their
social support network. In turn, these individuals
were perceived to have a salient role in developing
the ability to accept (not cope with) the internally
derived anxiety response (Attribute 6) and deal (not
thrive on) with the externally derived pressures
(Attribute 7).
Talking to professionals and asking them about
their thoughts and feelings during a game helped
improve my performance as it made me realize
that I wasn’t the only one and I wasn’t abnormal
feeling these things. It happens to the best. It also
helped me realize that I’ve got to accept these
symptoms and I’ve got to accept that there’s going
to be pressure in the game, because, if not, I’m not
going to achieve what I want to achieve. It’s just
part and parcel of taking part in competition.
(Athlete 05)
90 D. Connaughton et al.
In a similar vein, receiving social support after
encountering uncontrollable events was perceived to
help the participants to change how they reacted to
these situations by rationalizing their thoughts and
feelings. That is, rather than losing psychological
control after experiencing similar unexpected events,
the participants felt able to regain their focus during
competition (Attribute 8).
I remember one of my first competitions where I
dropped the ball. I started crying my eyes out . . . I
thought my world was going to cave in, but my dad
and I talked afterwards and he said, ‘‘You’ve got to
concentrate and carry on with your performance
no matter what happens. You’ve got to be able to
pick yourself up after making mistakes’’. He drove
it into me that it was part of development and part
of growing up and because I respected him so
much I took everything he said on board. As a
result, I learned to rationalize my thoughts and
feelings as I started to realize how I thought and
felt would influence my performance. So, if things
were not going right I’d learn from them, utilize
them to my advantage, and then concentrate on
the rest of the game, which was quite a mature
thing to do for someone of my age at that time.
(Athlete 05)
Later years
This phase was reported by the participants to
develop all the remaining mental toughness char-
acteristics (Attributes 9 – 12), as well as continuing to
nurture the existing attributes (Attributes 1 – 8). In
relation to the latter, all the perceived underlying
mechanisms that were reported in the early and
middle years, regarding Attributes 1, 2, and 3, were
reported again by the participants during this phase.
That is: demonstration of ability; mastery of ad-
vanced skills; coaches’ leadership; vicarious experi-
ence (i.e. world’s greatest athletes); social support
from peers, parents, siblings, experienced perfor-
mers, national level coaches, and sport psychologists;
greater enjoyment from competing around the
world; parents’ focus (e.g. enjoyment, individual
improvement); experiencing critical life-changing
incidents; competitive rivalry with international
athletes; and sibling rivalry in and outside sport.
However, three additional perceived factors were
reported during this phase to help develop further
having an unshakable self-belief in one’s ability to
achieve competition goals (Attribute 1): (a) reflec-
tion, as it drew out the positive and successful
experiences from an event; (b) increased competitive
experience, as it led to feeling comfortable in the
competitive environment; and (c) physical and
mental preparation, which provided a mindset for
success. The following quotations address physical
and mental preparation, respectively:
Personally, I have to know that the training has
gone very well and that I am physically in the best
shape I can be. And it takes time to develop your
physiology to that level and, then, that’s when the
psychology comes in. For instance, if I am
anywhere near my competitors they’re in trouble,
because the confidence I get from being that fit I
know that I can beat them. I totally believe I can. I
had it in the British Championships and then again
at the World Cup, which was the World Cup I
won. It’s an arrogant attitude. (Athlete 03)
This sport psychologist talked to us about how to
mentally prepare. In the early phases there was a
lot for this stuff going on unconsciously, but, from
talking to a sport psychologist, I became more
aware and started to use the tools much more . . . I
would rehearse routines in my head in bed, on the
way to college, and before the competition itself. I
would always run through different scenarios and
that would make me feel really confident because I
was programming myself to know that I could
succeed. (Athlete 06)
Two strategies that the participants utilized within
their mental preparation included goal setting and
self-talk, which, alongside reflection, were alleged to
help develop further having an insatiable desire and
internalized motives to succeed during this phase
(Attribute 3). One participant stated the following in
relation to goal setting:
When we got into the elite standard of training we
were very structured in our training. My coach and
I would plan out the training month by month.
These are the goals for the month and these are the
goals for the year. So we would be very methodo-
logical. It was definitely during that period that
things like goal setting provided the motivation
and desire to succeed and improve. As when I
achieved these goals my motivation and self-
determination to improve my performance in-
creased and as a consequence we set more difficult
goals and, therefore, my mental toughness im-
proved again. (Athlete 04)
In a similar vein to goal setting, the process of
reflection was perceived to unearth performance-
related factors that demand attention, thus acting
as motivational targets to strive towards. With
reference to self-talk, the participants assumed that
this mental skill increased their motivation to
succeed by reminding them of previous successful

performances. Moreover, the motivational properties
associated with reflection and self-talk, alongside
previous underlying factors (i.e. competitive rivalry,
social support, insatiable desire, and determination
to succeed), were also felt to assist in providing the
determination to bounce back after experiencing
setbacks (e.g. negative comments, poor perfor-
mances, sport-related injuries; Attribute 4). The
following quote supports this contention in terms
of reflection:
When you go through your sporting career you
have more knock-backs than you have out-and-out
successes. I think it’s those who don’t quit, but
who learn from setbacks that ultimately succeed.
During this phase there were a lot of experiences of
improvement in some areas, but also instances that
weren’t particularly successful. However, through
reflection I strived to try and understand why the
poor things happened and as a result increase the
number of times where the good things happened.
What went wrong? What processes or elements?
Then, I’ll go back in training and use this
knowledge to motivate me to work harder on
making sure that they were sorted, so I could be
successful at the next competition. (Athlete 02)
Maintaining technique and effort while pushing
back the boundaries of physical and emotional pain
(Attribute 5) was reported to develop further
throughout this phase, as all the perceived underlying
mechanisms encountered in the middle years were
prevalent again (i.e. insatiable desire and internalized
motives to succeed, coaches’ leadership, competitive
rivalry, enjoyment, social support). One underlying
mechanism, however, that was introduced during the
later years that was perceived to have a salient role on
this mental toughness attribute was simulation
training.
In my sport the ability to push back the boundaries
of physical and emotional pain is very important.
The problem though is that you cannot train in
that state all the time, otherwise you would
completely burn out! What I started to do though
was to simulate in my mind myself being able to
perform successfully under these challenging con-
ditions, which gave me the belief that I could push
these boundaries back. (Athlete 04)
Having a social support network was again alleged
in this phase to help accept and deal with the anxiety
and pressure associated with competitive sport.
Specifically, the individuals in the participants’
support network helped them to rationalize any
negative thoughts or feelings. However, the partici-
pants perceived that coping with the internally derived
Mental toughness 91
anxiety response (Attribute 6) and thriving on the
externally derived pressures (Attribute 7) were a
direct result of increased competitive experience and
physical and mental preparation. Gaining increased
competitive experience was assumed by the partici-
pants to allow them to learn to associate competitive
anxiety and pressure as a prerequisite to successful
performance.
Increased experience helps you understand and
realize that you need to learn to cope and thrive
on the pressure and nerves in order to succeed.
And, if you win with all the pressure on you and
the whole anxiousness of competing in that
environment, the feeling at the end of the race,
the sheer elation of winning, is so worth it. I’d
hate to turn up to a race with no pressure and not
be nervous and win it. You would not feel the
same at the end. It’s just part of competition. It
should be there. If it wasn’t there, I would be
worried. (Athlete 03)
In contrast, physical preparedness was alleged to
facilitate these mentally tough attributes by increas-
ing one’s self-belief: ‘‘I was able to thrive on the
pressure of competition due to endless repetitions I
performed over weeks which provided me with the
self-belief that I could perform successfully in any
situation’’ (Athlete 06). Mental preparation – invol-
ving basic (goal setting, imagery, self-talk) and
advanced (cognitive reconstruction, pre-perfor-
mance routines, simulation training) psychological
skills – was also perceived to help develop the ability
to cope with competitive anxiety (Attribute 6) and
thrive on the pressure of competition (Attribute 7) by
increasing individuals’ self-belief in their ability to
achieve their competition goals. One participant
provided the following example in relation to
cognitive reconstruction:
I certainly found that some competitions you
could get into a mindset of dreading them, like,
‘‘I really don’t feel prepared’’. But, rather than
letting myself get into that sort of mindset, I would
cope with these negative thoughts by stopping
them and replacing them with positive ones.
‘‘Come on, this is a great opportunity. I’m really
going to look forward to this competition. I’m
going to be really excited’’. I really used to try and
gee myself up psychologically. (Athlete 06)
The participants reported learning techniques in
this stage that were perceived to help them regain
psychological control (Attribute 8), switch a sport
focus on (not off; Attribute 9), and to remain fully
focused in the competition venue despite distractions
both in (e.g. crowd, team-mates, other competitors;
92 D. Connaughton et al.
Attributes 10 and 11) and outside (e.g. intimate
relations, critical incidents; Attribute 12) of sport.
However, unlike the previous mental toughness
attributes that were alleged to develop over a longer
period of time and incorporated a broader range of
factors, these remaining attributes were reported to
develop in this phase by the same three perceived
underlying mechanisms: mental imagery, preperfor-
mance routines, and process goals. In terms of
mental imagery, one participant stated: ‘‘It was
daunting when you were competing with the Soviet
gymnasts, but imagery helped me to stay focused on
my performance as it removed everything around
me. It didn’t matter who I was competing against
(Athlete 04)’’. The following quote addresses pre-
performance routines and process goals:
I started setting a pre-performance routine so that
I was thinking about my competition, rather than
the crowd or things happening outside sport . . . It
worked by minimizing the competitive situation
and making sure I prepared myself with the right
focus . . . My coach also taught me to make sure
that I focused on the key parts of the skill by
providing me cues to think about when I’m
performing, which also helped me remain fully
focused. (Athlete 07)
Although these three perceived mechanisms were
reported to help develop the ability to remain fully
focused in terms of personal life distractions
(Attribute 12) while at a competition, other factors
were felt to be pertinent in relation to training. To
remain fully focused and not be deterred from
training, for instance, by offers to go out and
socialize, the participants reported the importance
of having an insatiable desire and internalized
motives to succeed: ‘‘There was more of a desire
to make the Olympic Games than there is to have
any normality in life. There are some times when
you miss out, but I always wanted to be a swimmer
in the end and that increased my focus’’ (Athlete
02). Furthermore, this determination was reported
to have a mediating role in the other four perceived
underlying factors that were felt to enhance this
mentally tough characteristic: (a) previous successes
(i.e. demonstration of ability) helped by motivating
the participants that all the training would be worth
it in the end; (b) enjoying their respective sports
more than the distractions facilitated this attribute,
as they would be more motivated to be at training
than, for instance, socializing with their friends;
(c) competitive rivalry had a salient influence, as all
the athletes at training were in the same predica-
ment; and (d) receiving support and encouragement
assisted by motivating them in terms of future
success.
I just left a team with all my mates. It was difficult,
as some of the boys had a go at me. They were
saying I was glory hunting . . . It did affect me,
because rugby was my life and they were my rugby
mates . . . My new coach, however, helped me to
stay focused by making me look at the bigger
picture, which motivated me to prioritize rugby
over and above the views of my so-called mates.
(Athlete 05)
In a similar vein, mental imagery, pre-performance
routines, and process goals were assumed to be
responsible for switching a sport focus on at
competition; however, other mechanisms were felt
to be responsible for turning a sport focus off
(Attribute 9). Specifically, the participants perceived
that their support network enabled them to switch off
between events (e.g. team-mates) and to switch off
completely (e.g. family, friends). For example: ‘‘He
[grandfather] was there to help me escape from
rugby whenever I needed to. In that sense, just
chatting about other things, doing other things
together kept me sane as rugby had taken over my
life’’ (Athlete 05). In addition, taking an interest in
various hobbies (such as fishing, business ventures,
reading) was alleged to facilitate this mentally tough
attribute: ‘‘At the end of the season I definitely do
switch off for a couple of weeks. I am the hobby king,
I do all sorts! During the season, if I am traveling or
something and I want to switch off, I will read
books’’ (Athlete 03).
Maintenance years
It was felt that mental toughness would be at its
pinnacle approximately 3 years after competing at a
high competitive standard (i.e. later years). However,
to prevent any potential lapses or minor losses of
mental toughness, it was perceived that this construct
does require maintenance. Specifically, three per-
ceived underlying mechanisms were reported: (1) an
insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed,
(2) social support network, and (3) basic and
advanced mental skills. As well as helping to develop
many of the characteristics associated with the
mentally tough performer, having a burning desire
and intrinsic motives to succeed was also felt to be
essential in maintaining mental toughness.
The reason why I have got to where I am is
because I’ve had the desire and motivation to get
to where I am. And I continue to have the same
feelings as I had back in the early years, where I
wanted to win and be the best I could be. I know
you have a lot less to worry about as a child, but I
have the same feelings where I just love the
sport. I think this definitely gets the best out of

me and helps maintain my tough-mindedness.
(Athlete 03)
The participants’ social support network was
reported to assemble over many years; however, the
size of the network did not appear to matter. What
was important was that the network encompassed
individuals from in and outside sport who were
trustworthy and dependable. The following account
demonstrates the perceived significance of this net-
work in terms of maintaining the mentally tough
attributes:
Having a support network helps prevent any blips
in mental toughness as there is always someone
there to back up your self-belief, dispel any doubts
that may arise, and deal with any possible
distractions that could disrupt your focus. To a
large extent, having a support network helps
maintain all of the mental toughness character-
istics in some way, either directly or indirectly.
(Athlete 07)
Despite initial unsuccessful attempts, it was
stressed by the participants that it takes a great deal
of time, patience, and effort to master psychological
skills. However, to sustain their effectiveness and
thus maintain mental toughness, the participants felt
that they must be practised religiously.
My psychological skills helped maintain my mental
toughness. I used self-talk, I used controlled
imagery, I set realistic goals, and I stopped
negative thoughts and brought in positive ones.
This allowed me to control my self-confidence and
be more positive during pressure situations. But,
they only helped because I kept working at them.
It’s like anything. Your psychology training is the
same as your physical training. You need to keep
working at it. (Athlete 05)
Discussion
Our aim in this study was to examine the perceptions
of elite athletes regarding the mechanisms underlying
the development and maintenance of mental tough-
ness. At present, researchers and applied practi-
tioners are only endorsing mental skills training to
cultivate and retain mental toughness (e.g. Bull,
Albinson, & Shambrook, 1996; Clough, Earle, &
Sewell, 2002); however, it is evident from the current
findings that, despite mental skills having a salient
role, there are many more perceived factors that need
to be highlighted.
Despite the interview guide being structured
around Bloom’s (1985) three career phases, it was
Mental toughness 93
clear from the findings that mental toughness was
perceived by the participants to develop within these
stages (i.e. early, middle, and later years). In the early
years, many underlying mechanisms that operated in
a combined rather than independent manner were
viewed to facilitate the development of mental
toughness. Consistent with Gould et al. (2002),
these factors provided a motivational climate that
was challenging, rewarding, and enjoyable. Encour-
agement from significant others who acted a resource
of knowledge and inspiration was also reported to
enhance this environment. Furthermore, the experi-
ence of critical incidents was felt to have a powerful
influence in cultivating mental toughness during this
initial developmental stage (cf. Hanton, Cropley,
Neil, Mellalieu, & Miles, 2007; Khoshaba & Maddi,
1999). Interestingly, all of these perceived underlying
themes were again reported throughout the middle
and later years to intensify further the attributes
associated with the mentally tough performer. How-
ever, these subsequent stages were also reported to
provide their own unique impression in the devel-
opmental process.
The middle years were more competitive and as a
result brought with them a host of demands (e.g.
anxiety, pressure, setbacks) that could be used to an
athlete’s advantage by learning from significant
others (such as senior athletes, coaches, parents)
and having a heightened determination to succeed.
Indeed, gaining knowledge from more experienced
individuals has consistently been documented in the
literature to be a salient mechanism in the develop-
ment of positive psychological qualities (Durand-
Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 2002; Hanton &
Jones, 1999). In addition to these perceived mechan-
isms, the later years were alleged to help develop fully
mental toughness through increased competitive
experience, which recent researchers have high-
lighted as having an important role from a psycho-
logical development perspective (Mellalieu, Hanton,
& Fletcher, 2006), and the use of basic and advanced
psychological skills and strategies.
Once mental toughness had been developed fully
in the later years, three perceived mechanisms were
assumed to underlie the maintenance of this con-
struct. One that had an important influence on
maintaining mental toughness was a burning desire
and intrinsic motives to succeed. Another factor
that Durand-Bush and Salmela (2002) also reported
to have a positive effect on maintaining expert
athletic performance was having a strong support
network inclusive of sporting (e.g. coaches, senior
athletes, sport psychologists, team-mates) and
non-sporting (e.g. peers, parents, grandparents,
siblings) personnel. Lastly, in a similar vein to
Hanton and Jones (1999), who found psychological
skills to maintain facilitative interpretations of the
94 D. Connaughton et al.
competitive anxiety response, the effective employ-
ment of basic and advanced mental skills was
reported to help retain mental toughness.
Practical implications
It is clear that coaches and governing bodies should
encourage athletes to be aware of the importance of
learning from significant others and, similarly, such
individuals (e.g. senior athletes) should appreciate
how they can assist in athletes’ development.
Athletes should also increase their awareness of the
range of psychological skills available to them and
how particular skills could enhance the development
and maintenance of mental toughness. However,
athletes must be cognisant that such strategies do
require continual practice to be effective. It is also
apparent from the findings that coaches should aim
to possess appropriate leadership skills, as well as
creating a motivational training climate that exposes
competitive stressors and encourages friendly rivalry.
Parents should be encouraged to promote enjoyment
and individual improvement for their children and,
alongside all the other individuals mentioned in this
study, should be educated in the importance and
benefits of providing support and encouragement.
Although all these recommendations are directed at
the athletes themselves or at various individuals in
and outside sport, it is also important to highlight the
role of the sport psychologist. For instance, the sport
psychology practitioner, as well as teaching basic and
advanced mental skills, can assist athletes and
coaches to understand the developmental process,
how the underlying mechanisms work collectively,
and how these practical implications can be adapted
to their respective sports. Moreover, during data
collection the participants were asked to provide
recommendations from their experiences to develop
future mentally tough performers. The general
consensus was that sport psychologists could assist
in the development of mental toughness by being
involved in athletes’ careers from a young age, rather
than beginning when they achieve elite status. For
example:
I think mental toughness is something that can be
trained as a habitual process, but I think it has to
be done young enough so that is becomes second
nature and natural when you’re older. So, get
sport psychologists with them as early on as
possible. Obviously, don’t apply too much pres-
sure to them, but give them an idea of how they
should be thinking. Develop the right thought
processes early on. Get athletes at 10 or 11
learning from studies like this on elite level
athletes. Use our experience and knowledge, and
deliver it to these youngsters. Talk them through
self-belief, focus, desire and motivation, dealing
with pressure and anxiety, physical and emotional
pain, and reinforce these all the way through their
careers. (Athlete 03)
Future research
This study was based on the experiences of just seven
elite performers, and therefore future research
should aim to build upon the present findings.
Furthermore, as it was not feasible in this study, the
perceptions of super-elite athletes, coaches, and
sport psychologists with regard to the development
and maintenance of mental toughness should also be
sought. Although these areas of research would be of
great benefit and warrant attention, there is also a
demand to develop a valid and reliable measure of
mental toughness (cf. Middleton et al., 2004).
Indeed, such a measurement tool will allow research-
ers to conduct more fine-grained individual analyses
regarding mental toughness. Finally, it was apparent
throughout the transcripts that the participants felt
that the attributes associated with mentally tough
performers could facilitate life outside of sport;
therefore, mental toughness could be explored as a
life skill.
Conclusion
Researchers and applied practitioners at present are
exclusively recommending mental skills training to
develop and maintain mental toughness (e.g. Bull
et al., 1996; Clough et al., 2002). However, it is clear
from the present findings that athletes, coaches, and
sport psychologists need to become cognisant that
the development and maintenance of mental tough-
ness is an extensive process. Indeed, it requires a
multitude of underlying mechanisms, which, rather
than working separately, operate collectively to have
a combined and, therefore, more substantial effect.
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