8

APPENDIX II

CHAPTER 9

TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

FROM: McGaw, D.R. Mellowes, W.A. and Young Hoon, A. 1991. Introduction to
Chemical Engineering. 9: 107-114 St. Augustine, Trinidad: UWI.
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9.1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS

Once a piece of technical work has been completed, it is necessary to communicate the
content of the work to the interested parties, in as efficient a manner as possible. Efficient
communication of the work is just as important as the work itself, whether it be in the
form of a thesis, journal, paper or technical report. There would normally in fact be little
point in carrying out the work in the first place if the results are not communicated to
appropriate interested parties in some form.

One of the most important considerations when writing up the work is to think of the
person who will be reading it. While preparing the document the writer should be
continually asking himself if it is being written in such a manner that the reader will be
able to grasp the information immediately. All the means at the writer's disposal should
be used to present the work as clearly as possible. Before starting to write the document,
the writer should have the basic aims of the work clearly in his mind and should at all
times be sure that the fulfilment of these aims is being transmitted to the reader.

9.2 PROCEDURES INVOLVED IN DEVELOPING A THESIS OR REPORT

The mechanics of taking a piece of finished research work and putting it together in the
form of a written document involves a number of steps which may be summarised as
follows:
(a) Before starting on the thesis or report, ensure that:
(i) Data has been collected and correlated
(ii) Results have been analysed
(iii) Conclusions have been drawn
(iv) Recommendations have been decided upon

At this stage the writer must have readily available all the material which he thinks he is
going to use.
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(b) The first major decision to be made is concerning the layout to be used. At this stage
the writer has to decide on all the Section or Chapter headings appropriate to the work
being reported.

(c) The next step is to examine each of the projected sections in turn and decide on what
material is to go in the section. Each section may then be written up once the organization
of the presentation of ideas in the section has been decided upon.

(d) Read through the Sections in the correct order in order to examine the continuity
between chapters. Each chapter should follow naturally on from the one preceding it.

(e) Rewrite as appropriate until satisfactory.

(f) Detail Tables, Graphs, Plates, Nomenclature and References.

(g) Arrange Typing.

(h) Prepare for Presentation, e.g. Copying and Binding.

It is normal to get someone to read the report at one or more stages before typing. For a
thesis the supervisor should check each section as it is written and advise on redrafting.
He should then reread the finished work before typing.

9.3 LAYOUT

This refers to Section or Chapter headings and the order in which they are used. The
actual choice of headings will depend on the work and the way in which it was carried
out, so there is no absolute laid down procedure. A typical layout for a report on a
technical project may be as follows:
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Title Page
Acknowledgements
Abstract or Summary
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Literature Survey
3. Theory.
4. Apparatus and Experimental Methods (Experimental)
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
8. Recommendations
Appendices
Nomenclature
References (or Bibliography)

It is worthwhile noting the method of numbering the important sections which form the
bulk of the thesis. The sections not numbered are associated with presentation and the
provision of ancillary information. There may be sub-sections within each section which
could also be numbered for easy cross referring.
The emphasis should be on finding the best sequence of Chapter headings to suit your
project.

9.4 INDIVIDUAL SECTIONS IN MAIN BODY OF REPORT

9.4.1 TITLE
The title is the first material that the reader sees and so it should be a clear,
comprehensive yet brief description of exactly what the report contains. It need not be
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written first, it is often written last. It may be taken from the first sentence of the
summary or abstract.

9.4.2 SUMMARY

This is an extremely important section especially in reports and papers, because it tells
very briefly the prospective reader exactly what the ort contains. It should contain a clear
account of the important points of the report. The opening sentence should restate and.
amplify if necessary main purpose of the work as indicated in the title. This is followed
by a statement of more important aspects of the investigation finishing with the main
conclusions and recommendations.

It should be a logical chain of:

(i) Reasoning -What was the question?
(ii) Observation -What was the evidence?
(iii) Deduction -What are the conclusions?
without a single weak link in it.

9.4.3 INTRODUCTION

The introduction should supply the background information necessary to an

understanding of the work described. The considerations used in the development of the
Introduction may be:

(i) A Statement of the general field of interest.

(ii) Purpose of the investigation and the nature of the problem being investigated
(iii) Scope of the investigation including boundaries and other limitations.
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The aim throughout should be to interest the reader and answer the questions:
(a) Why was this work embarked upon?
(b) What was the overall aim of the work?

9.4.4 LITERATURE SURVEY

The Literature Survey should only contain previously reported material which has a
.bearing on the problem which has been investigated. When writing this section, in
particular, the author must keep reminding himself of the overall aims of the work.
Discard any material that does not have a direct bearing on the investigation. The general
method of approach would normally be to begin by summarizing the relevant material
from each paper. The literature survey may then be written in its final form by
comparing, contrasting and critically evaluating all the relevant material in relation to the
problems associated with the investigation.

Unless one of the major objectives of the investigation was the, carrying out of a
literature survey in a fairly broad field then the length of the Chapter should generally be
less than 10-15 pages.

9.4.5 THEORY,
This should contain an explanation of any theoretical concepts and analyses used in the
investigation. If an analysis is relatively short it may be included in full in this section. If
it is many pages long, it may be more convenient to include the derivation of the initial
equations and the final solutions only in the text with the full analysis put in an
Appendix.
It is important to state clearly the assumptions made in any analysis.

9.4.6 APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

This section is relatively straight' forward and may be subdivided typically as follows:
4.6.1 Basic concept of apparatus
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4.6.2 Description of specific piece of equipment being investigated -Engineering

Drawing
4.6.3 Description of complete circuit used including ancillary equipment and
services
4.6.4 Instrumentation -Include estimated accuracy
4.6.5 Experimental Programme -List variables and ranges investigated

9.4.7 RESULTS
All relevant results should be presented in this section. They are usually best
presented in tabular or graphical form for easy understanding. The first tables may
contain the input data for the theory as obtained from the experimental work.
Calculated result will be in the later tables, or in graphical or equation form. Specimen
calculations, if considered necessary may be put in an Appendix.

9.4.8 DISCUSSION
The discussion will vary in scope, length and complexity according to the nature of
the investigation. The discussion should however be well organised, logical and easily
followed. Points worth discussing in this section are:
(i) Accuracy. of each individual reading and the effect on the overall accuracy of
the results.
(ii) Comparison of results with these calculated theoretically and the reasons for
any derivations with possibly special mention of the assumptions made in the
theory.
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(iii) Comparison of your results with other reported theories and/or results and
reasons for any derivations.

(iv) Explain how the results achieved may be equated with the initial aims of the
work.

(v) Discuss the practical application of the results.

(vi) Discuss what further steps may be necessary.

Controversial issues should be discussed lucidly and fairly. Where results differ from
previous ones, an explanation rather than a refutation should be sought. Anomalous
results for which no explanation is readily available may be stressed rather than
concealed, since they may open up new possibilities of exploration.

9.4.9 CONCLUSIONS
All the conclusions may have been reached in the Discussion but it is useful to have them
grouped in one section for easy reference. Make sure that:

(a) They follow logically from the evidence presented in the Discussion.

(b) They are arranged in a logical order, e.g. in decreasing order of importance.

(c) Secondary conclusions not important enough to -have been listed in the summary
are included here.

Every investigation should reach some form of conclusion even though the conclusion is
negative or merely shows that further work is necessary.
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9.4.10 RECOMMENDATIONS
These should follow logically from the Discussion and Conclusions and should be
arranged in a logical order.
This section is often combined with the conclusions section.

9.5 ORGANISATION OF MATERIAL WITHIN CHAPTERS OR SECTIONS

A fundamental mistake made by many inexperienced writers is to sit down with a rough
mental outline of what he has to say, seize a pen and start writing. At the end of the first
page of messy sentences and confused thoughts, he is completely discouraged.

The writer should begin with a list of facts, ideas and logical connections. One suggestion
is to take a clean sheet of paper for each Section or Chapter and write down brief notes in
any order on all the things you consider should be included. The following considerations
then influence the decisions on the items to be included.

(a) Is the item necessary

(b) In what section does it belong
(c) Are all necessary items included
Once all the items have been chosen for each section they are then put in the logical order
within that section before the sentences are composed.

9.6 ANCILLARY SECTIONS

9.6.1 APPENDICES
All material essential for an understanding of the report, which for various reasons cannot
be incorporated into the body of the report, should be included in the Appendices. This
for instance may include extensive theory or lengthy sample calculations and simple
calculations unnecessary in the main text, e.g. derivation of physical quantities under
specific conditions. Some rules that should be used are:
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(a) Each item or exhibit should have a clear and accurate identifying title.

(b) Each item has an identifying letter (A, B, C etc.) that is listed either under
'Appendix' in the table of contents or on a special table of contents preceding the
appendix.

(c) Each item is keyed to the text by a specific reference in the text to the item by
letter.

(d) 'Wherever possible the order of items in the appendix should be in the order in
which they are referred to in the text.

After the written Appendices would be Tables, Figures (Graphs and Drawings) and
Plates. Each one of these should have a number and suitable title.

9.6.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY
This is a list of external published or unpublished material referred to in the text. This
will probably include mainly books and papers. Where the material is used in the text a
superscript I may be used or (Reference 1), written in brackets. The full citation can then
be found in the Bibliography under the appropriate Reference number.
The normal method of giving formal reference is to write the Authors, Title of Article,
Journal, Volume, Number, Page Number and Date. The title of the paper is sometimes
also included, e.g.

BARKER, J.J. "Heat Transfer in Fluidised Beds", Ind. Eng. Chern. 57 (5), 33-39,1965.

For book references, the author, title, edition, publishers and place and date of issue and
page number should be included, e.g.
ROBINSON, C.S. and GILLILAND, E.R. "Elements of Fractional Distillation", 4th
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, 1950, Page No. 51.
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If different pages of the same book are referred to in the text then the page number can be
included in the text rather than in the Bibliography.

9.6.3 NOMENCLATURE

This is a list of symbols used in the text. It may be included early on in the report, i.e. in
theory, but normally is put at the end of the written section, i.e. after Appendices.
It should include the symbol, its description and the units, e.g.
A - area of cross section L2 or m2