Why are we here?

• Obviously, to learn about human anatomy

and physiology.
• But, what does that mean?
• Before we begin, we’ve got to figure a few
things out:
1. What’s a human?
2. What’s anatomy?
3. What’s physiology?
 What are humans?
• Organisms are classified as
human because they are:
– Animals
– Vertebrates
• Possess backbones
– Mammals
• Possess:
– Mammary glands
– Hair
– Endothermy (i.e., we generate heat internally)
– Heterodonty (i.e., we have teeth w/ different shapes and
functions)
– 3 middle ear bones.
What are humans?
– Primates
• Possess:
– Opposable thumbs (can you touch your pinky with
your thumb?). What advantage does this confer?
– 2 clavicles (collarbones)
– Only 2 mammary glands. Why only 2? (Think about
how many kids a woman normally gives birth to.)
– Forward facing eyes with stereoscopic vision (for
depth perception)
– Hominids
• Bipedal (walk on 2 legs)
• Possess a large brain size/body size ratio
• What is anatomy?
– Anatomy is defined as the study of…
• Structure refers to the shapes, sizes, and
characteristics of the components of the
human body.
• The word anatomy comes from 2 words:
– Ana which means “up or apart”
– Tomos which means “to cut”

Why these two words????

 Types of Anatomy
• We can divide our study of structure into 2 parts:
• Study of stuff seen by the naked eye (Gross Anatomy).

• Study of stuff seen ONLY with the microscope (Microanatomy).

– We can divide microanatomy into:
» Histology – study of tissues
» Cytology – study of individual cells.
 Physiology

• Physiology is defined as
the study of function – so
human physiology
attempts to explain how
and why humans function.
• Physiology is where we
figure out how stuff
works.
• How do muscles contract?
• How do we run?
• How does our heart beat?
Some Important Themes

1. Biology is hierarchical with each level building

on the level below it.
2. Each level of biological structure has emergent
properties.
3. Cells are an organism’s basic unit of structure
and function.
4. Structure and function are correlated at all levels
of biological organization!!!!!!!!
5. Regulatory mechanisms ensure a dynamic
balance in living systems.
 Organelle
Levels of Structure
Cell
• In order to understand how
something is built and how
something works, you must
look at all of its components Tissue
and analyze them both
individually and together.
• In doing these collective and
separate analyses, you must Organ
examine things at multiple
structural levels, i.e., one must
break them down from large to Organ System
small – this is called
reductionism
• An organism (such as a human
being) may be broken down as Organism
illustrated on the left.
Levels of Structure

• The basic unit of life is the cell.

• All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
• The human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
• There are about 200 different types of cells in the
human body.
• The different types of cells have different features but
for the most part, all cells are made up of organelles
and various macromolecules (e.g., proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates and nucleic acids).
• Organelles themselves are made of these
macromolecules and macromolecules are polymers of
smaller molecules which consist of atoms of various
chemical elements.
A Prototypical Cell
 Important Organelles
• Plasma Membrane → Separates the cell exterior from the
cell interior (cytoplasm).
• Nucleus → Membrane bound structure that contains
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which is the set of
instructions for the synthesis of all the body’s proteins.
– CAN YOU SEE THE NUCLEUS AND THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE IN THE CELL TO THE
RIGHT?
• Mitochondria → Structure bound by a double membrane
and the site at which the energy stored in sugars and other
organic molecules is transferred to ATP, the chemical
which acts as the “currency” for energy in the cell.
• Ribosomes → Not bound by a membrane. Sites of protein
synthesis. May be free – floating in the cytoplasm – or
bound to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Are the 2 pictures on this page to the same

scale? How do you know?
 Important Organelles
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum →
Membranous set of tubes with
ribosomes studded along its surface.
Site of the synthesis of proteins that are
destined to be exported from the cell.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum → ER
w/o the attached ribosomes. Site of
cellular lipid synthesis, among other
things.
• Golgi Apparatus → Membrane bound
organelle responsible for determining
the direction of proteins synthesized in
the rough ER.
• Lysosomes → Membrane bound
organelle that houses digestive
enzymes that can be used to break
down ingested toxins or worn out cell
parts.
More Levels of Structure
• Similar cells and cell products
come together to form tissues.
• A structure made of 2 or more
tissue types that perform a
particular function is an
organ.
• A group of organs with a
unique collective function is
an organ system. There are
11 of these in the human
body.
 Integumentary System
• Structures:
- Skin, hair, sweat and oil glands
• Functions:
- Forms the external body covering
- Protects deeper tissues from injury
- Involved in vitamin D synthesis
- Prevents desiccation, heat loss, and
pathogen entry
- Site of pain and pressure receptors
 Skeletal System

• Structures:
– The 206 bones of the human body
• Functions:
– Protects and supports body organs
• What characteristics might bone have that
allows it to support and protect?
– Provides a framework that muscles can use to
create movement
– Hemopoiesis (synthesis of blood cells)
– Mineral storage
• Bone contains 99% of the body’s store of what
mineral? (Hint  you can get this mineral from
drinking milk)
 Muscular System
• Structures:
– The 600+ muscles of
the body
• Functions:
– Locomotion
– Manipulation of the
environment
– Maintaining posture
– Thermogenesis
(generation of heat)
Nervous System
• Structures:
– Brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves
• Functions:
– Fast-acting control system of
the body
– Monitoring of the internal
and external environment
and responding (when
necessary) by initiating
muscular or glandular
activity
Endocrine System
• Structures:
– Hormone-secreting glands
• Pituitary, Thyroid, Thymus, Pineal,
Parathyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas,
Small Intestine, Stomach, Testes,
Ovaries, Kidneys, Heart
• Functions:
– Long-term control system of the
body
– Regulates growth, reproduction,
and nutrient use among other
things.
 Cardiovascular System

• Structures:
– Heart, Blood vessels (arteries, veins,
and capillaries)
• Functions:
– The heart pumps blood thru the
blood vessels.
– Blood provides the transport medium
for nutrients (glucose, amino acids,
lipids), gases (O2, CO2), wastes
(urea, creatinine), signaling
molecules (hormones), and heat.
Lymphatic/Immune
System
• Structures:
– Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes,
Spleen, Thymus, Red bone marrow
• Functions:
– Returning “leaked” fluid back to the
bloodstream,
– Disposal of debris
– Attacking and resisting foreign
invaders (pathogens i.e., disease-
causing organisms)
 Respiratory System

• Structures:
– Nasal cavity, pharynx,
trachea, bronchi, lungs
• Functions:
– Constantly supply the
blood with O2, and
remove CO2
– Regulate blood pH
 Digestive System
• Structures:
– Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum, salivary
glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
• Functions:
– Ingestion and subsequent breakdown of food
into absorbable units that will enter the blood
for distribution to the body’s cells
 Urinary System
• Structures:
– Kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder,
urethra
• Functions:
– Removal of nitrogenous
wastes
– Regulation of body’s
levels of water,
electrolytes, and acidity
 Reproductive System
• Structures:
– Male:
• Testes, scrotum, epididymis,
vas deferens, urethra, prostate
gland, seminal vesicles, penis
– Female:
• Ovary, uterine tube, uterus,
cervix, vagina, mammary
glands
• Functions:
– Production of offspring
Why Are Levels of Structure Important?
• In this class, we’ll study all levels and see how they work
together to create structures and allow them to function.
• In essence, the combination of these different yet
connected levels allows life to proceed.
• But we must also be aware of emergent properties.
– Things are often much more than simply a sum of their parts.
– Consider a hammer which is made of a head and a handle. Either
piece by itself is of little use to drive a nail – but put together, they
perform the task quite easily.
– Or consider table salt – sodium chloride (NaCl). By themselves,
chlorine is a poisonous gas and sodium an explosive metal. But
when bound together, they create something much, much
different.

We must be aware of emergent properties as well as

reducing structures to their component parts.
Can Anatomy & Physiology Be Separated?
• NOOOOOOO!!!!! Absolutely not!
• Structure and function are undeniably
connected. We cannot divorce them.
• What do we mean by this?
– Can you eat soup with a fork?
– Find 2 everyday items and determine
whether/how their structure (anatomy)
relates to their function (physiology)

When you consider the structure of an organ, cell, or anything for

that matter you must also consider its function!
 Stayin’ Alive
• Your body has about 100 trillion cells in it.
• For your life to NOT end abruptly, these cells
need to have the correct amount of:
• Oxygen
• Nutrients
• Waste removal
• Heat
• Ions (sodium, calcium, etc.)
• Lots of other stuff
 The Cell’s Environment

• In order to keep the right amount of stuff in the cell,

we’ve got to make sure that all the fluid surrounding
our cells (i.e., the extracellular fluid) has the right
assortment of nutrients, ions, etc.
• We keep both our cells and the fluid surrounding our
cells in a dynamically stable environment via a process
called HOMEOSTASIS.
 Homeostasis
• Defined as the body’s ability to maintain stable
internal conditions in spite of the changing
external conditions.
• We just said that our body needs to have the right
amount of stuff (i.e., temperature, blood [glucose],
pH etc.) at all times in order to function properly.
• First, let’s refer to all this stuff as “different
variables”
Note: the brackets surrounding the word glucose in the above paragraph mean “concentration
of glucose,” i.e., how much glucose is dissolved in a particular fluid (blood in this case)
Let’s use a thermostat
as an example
• In order to keep the temperature in my house at the
right level, the thermostat must first measure the
current temperature in the house.
• After the thermostat measures the temperature, it
compares the current value to a preset standard
value.
– If there is no difference then there’s nothing to do.
– However, if it’s too hot or too cold, the thermostat has to
send a signal to the furnace or air conditioner to change
the temperature of the house so that it equals the standard
value.
 Let’s clarify some stuff.
• In the previous example we had a:
1. Variable  temperature
2. Measuring implement  thermostat
3. Control center  also the thermostat
4. A preset or standard value for the variable
5. Effectors  the air conditioner and furnace
• Similar situations arise in the human body
where there are lots of variables that we
want to maintain at certain precise levels
Blood Pressure
• BP is a variable that we’ve got to
maintain at a certain level
• We have sensory receptors that measure
the BP in the body. They’re located in the
aorta (the big blood vessel coming out of
the heart) and in the carotid arteries (the
large vessels that bring blood to the brain).
• These pressure receptors measure BP and
then send the info (we can call this input)
to a control center in the brain – the
particular BP control center is in the
medulla oblongata of the brain
 Blood Pressure
• We call the connection btwn the receptor
and the control center the afferent
pathway.
• In the control center, the input BP is
compared with a set value.
• If there is a difference between the current
BP value and the reference BP value then
we’ve got an error.
• And we’ve got to fix that error!
 Blood Pressure
• The control center will signal effector
organs – such as the heart in this case – to
alter their activity. This process is called
output.
• The connection between the control center
and the effector organ is called the efferent
pathway.
 Blood Pressure
• Suppose the current BP is too high.
• The effector must act in a way to decrease it – so
the medulla oblongata (the control center) would
signal the heart to decrease the force and rate of its
contractions; this would decrease BP.
• Notice that the original stimulus was an INcrease
in BP and the body’s response was to act so as to
DEcrease BP.
• The stimulus is opposite the response!
 Negative Feedback
• B/c the movement of a variable in one
direction causes the body to enact processes
that cause the variable to move in the
opposite direction (so as to return the value
to the correct level) – we call it negative
feedback
• Let’s look at BP again:
Increased Sensed by pressure
Input sent via
BP receptors in aortic arch
afferent pathway
and carotid sinus
to medulla
oblongata
BP DECREASES
Heart rate & force Current BP
of contraction compared with
decrease set point and
Blood error signal
vessel generated
diameter Output sent along
increases efferent pathway to
heart and blood
vessels
 Why is Negative Feedback so
common in the body?
• Think about it! Every time a variable starts
changing too much, we’ve got to bring it
back to normal. We’ve got to counteract its
change.
• THAT’S NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• Other examples you will encounter:
– Maintenance of blood [Ca2+], blood [Glucose],
blood pH, and many others
When does a negative feedback process end?
THINK ABOUT IT!
• A negative feedback
process begins when a
particular variable leaves
its homeostatic range.
• The process ends when
that variable is back
within its normal range.
• Negative feedback
processes (or loops) are
self-terminating.
MAKE SURE YOU
UNDERSTAND WHY!
 Homeostasis is Important!
• Most of the physiological processes that occur in
your body are designed to maintain homeostasis.
– ALWAYS KEEP THIS IN MIND!
• Question: Does the magnitude (i.e., size) of the
error signal influence the magnitude of the
response?
• Just to recap, let’s look at a couple more figures!
 Homeostasis
is
DYNAMIC!

What this means is that the homeostatic variables are NOT kept
rigidly fixed upon a single value. They are kept within a certain
range, and when they exit that range – that’s when negative
feedback loops turn on to bring them back.
Is your body temperature always exactly 98.6F?
What about Positive Feedback?
• Positive feedback occurs when the response
amplifies or magnifies the stimulus that produced
it.
• In other words, a variable is altered and then the
body’s response alters that variable even more in
the same direction.
• How does this differ from negative feedback?
• Which do you suppose is more common in the
body: positive or negative feedback?
Positive
Feedback
in Childbirth
Positive
Feedback
in Blood
Clotting
 Dangerous Positive Feedback

Rise in body temperature

Increase in body Increase in body

heat metabolism
production
What stops a positive feedback loop?
Water, water everywhere!
• About 60% of the human body is water
• 2/3 of this water is found within your cells
so we refer to it as intracellular fluid
(ICF)
• The other 1/3 is outside your cells so we
call it extracellular fluid (ECF)
• The 2 main types of ECF are:
1. The fluid that surrounds the cells – the tissue
fluid or interstitial fluid
2. Blood!
• Minor types of ECF include cerebrospinal
fluid and intraocular fluid
 Related Fields of Study
• Obviously, anatomy and physiology come
under the rubric of biology – the study of
life.
• An incredibly integral field is pathology –
the study of disease.
– Why is pathology so important in learning A&P?
• Another super important field is
embryology, the study of how a single
zygote (i.e., a fertilized egg) turns into a
fully-fledged human being with trillions of
cells.
– Why is embryology so important to A&P?