The Psychology of Second-Language Learning: A Declaration of Independence

Author(s): Gilbert A. Jarvis

Source: The Modern Language Journal , Winter, 1983, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Winter, 1983), pp.
393-402
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/327069

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 The Psychology of Second-Language
Learning: A Declaration of Independence
GILBERT A. JARVIS

tualizations. The learning needs - particularly

THE FIRST DRAFT OF THIS ESSAY BEGAN WITH A

traditional mind set: 1) review literature that

in second-language education -of a planet, the
could legitimately fall under the rubric total population of which will increase by
"psychology of second-language teaching"; 2) approximately two billion in just the last two
identify where we are now in developing that decades of the twentieth-century, ought to
knowledge; and 3) project into the future-- energize every educational researcher.2 How
especially endorsing some promising new can one not insist upon improved language
avenue that will notably improve our knowl- education? At the same time we in the United
edge base. It quickly became clear, however, States must begin to hold ourselves accountable
that this approach was doomed to frustrate any for the small number of students who achieve
circumspect reviewer. First, the quality of our significant mastery of our subject matter and
disconcertingly small corpus of research must the small percentage of the population who
make any researcher uncomfortable. Flawed value it highly.3 If some educators do not see
methodology, inexplicably contradictory re- these factors as sufficiently compelling, the
sults, ubiquitous lacunae, and conspicuously looming technological revolution gives added
over-extended extrapolation inevitably create credence to the need for new conceptualiza-
misgivings about the validity of our knowledge. tions. As technologist Kornfeld recently warned
It became clear that in many ways our profes- teachers, "Electronics is the shortest of all multi-
sional literature is becoming overly represented ple-choice exams: Mark here if you elect to get
with reviews of reviews. Periodic reviews, from with it, or mark here if you elect to change pro-
Carroll to Izzo have provided competent fessions."4 The message to researchers has to
analyses of research on factors that may in- be equally blunt: develop a knowledge base that
fluence second-language learning.' Izzo re- adequately describes and predicts the sec-
cently examined research on psychological fac- ond-language teaching-learning process so
tors such as intelligence, language aptitude, that in the design and use of the new tech-
attitudes, motivation, personality traits, age, nologies we do not repeat past failures. The
socioeconomic status, sex, teaching method, argument is for an improved, accurate, and
teacher, time, and setting. The pessimistic-- complete knowledge base; it is not merely for
and therefore frustrating - conclusion that one increased competence of researchers or
must draw from this review, as well as from teachers. The relationship of knowledge to per-
previous reviews, has to be that, by and large, sonnel is a distinct issue and involves an en-
we do not understand a great deal about the tirely different set of factors. Obviously, how-
second-language teaching-learning process. A ever, we want knowledge because it will ulti-
bias-free evaluation of nearly any classroom mately help us improve teaching and learning.
anywhere would unfortunately lead to a similar In teaching roles most of us suffer - perhaps,
conclusion.
inevitably --from professional myopia. Indi-
The juxtaposition of a primitive knowledgevidual and local problems absorb our attention.
base with the urgency to be a more effectiveWe struggle to fill a class that has low enroll-
enterprise argues strongly for radical reconcep-
ment, to diagnose why a student is not learn-
ing, or to construct a valid and reliable mid-
The Modern Language Journal, 67, iv (1983) term test. Broad perspective and theory are left
0026-7902/83/0004/393 $1.50/0
?1983 The Modern Language Journal
to the educational philosopher and researcher,
both of whom represent very small minorities

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 394 Gilbert A. Jarvis
in our profession.
tion.6 We operate as ifYet,
we could back the
up a
though abstract, rental truck to acceptance
these departmental offices and o
all teachers should fill it with research understan
reports to take back for ap-
that underlie plication the in thelearning and
language department. It is time
guages. The teacher, to challenge this conceptualization
the admi of our
curriculum builder all seem to assume that knowledge base. Psychology has an important
effectiveness is directly related to an under-
role, but it is not as a supplier of knowledge
standing of the phenomena involved. That is, how to arrange and conduct instruction.
about
however, an unexamined assumption. Psychology's
We role has to be both more basic and
more
would possibly be better off if we asked first whodistant than it is at present from the day-
needs to understand what and how much. To to-day execution of instruction. It can provide
address these issues we must evaluate di- important information about the human organ-
ism as a learner and about types of learning
rectly - and probably ruthlessly --the nature
and quality of the knowledge we have. that humans seem to exhibit. It can help us
In par-
formulate
ticular, we must examine carefully where we hypotheses to test within our own
have in the past sought knowledge, how unique
suit-domain of knowledge. Linguistics, like-
able or valid that knowledge is, andwise,
whatcan give us a description of what lan-
alternatives are available. guage - or a particular language - is like. This
knowledge is certainly important, but on the
PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER FALSE FRIENDS
matter of bringing a monolingual learner to
Language education is frequently charac-
some form of bilingual proficiency it is, at best,
terized as an applied, eclectic profession, uninstructive. At worst, it deflects our atten-
which
must borrow knowledge from other tion and dissipates our energies. We seem bliss-
disciplines.
Colleges of education, logically "responsible" fully unaware offor this fact - though Chomsky's
knowledge about the teaching-learning classic statement
process, made the point years ago.7
are often seen as professional rather Perhaps
than the aca-
problem has been a failure to
demic: they teach practice, not knowledge.
recognize the effects and implications of the
Their faculties have all too often seen them- level of abstraction or generality in what we
selves only as teachers and have failed to perceive
see as relevant knowledge. If we raise the
themselves as researchers. Teachers in schools level of abstraction high enough, psychologi-
are virtually precluded from doing research in cal constructs and principles do appear rele-
modern American education by their teaching vant. Analogously, a tire pump can be viewed
loads and lack of necessary expertise." By and as an effective device for moving air when it
large, research is left to other disciplines. We
is considered at a sufficiently abstract or generic
then send graduate students in language edu- level. It is, however, absurd to assume on the
basis of that abstract description that it can be
cation to these other disciplines to develop ex-
utilized to power a sailboat!
pertise (which we somehow label as language
education expertise once they have transported The ingredients in the psychologist's analy-
sis of learning appear remarkably simple - at
it back to our classrooms). We also cloud the
an abstract level. Gagne, for example, posits
issue with what should be a simple and forth-
right acknowledgement that language teachers"the learner, a stimulus situation, an input from
do need to know "the language." the learner's memory, and a response."8 The
It should be acknowledged that a body of
contrast with what one observes in a mere thirty
general knowledge of the world certainly existsseconds after the beginning bell rings in one
class in one school is striking.
and that it is at least as important to a second-
language teacher as it is to any other educatedAfter the bell rings, three students continue
person. Beyond that, the critical issue becomestheir conversation while standing near their
the nature of knowledge that will convert the desks. The instructor tells them to sit down,
once, twice, and a third time, at which time
proficient speaker of the language into an effec-
tive teacher. they terminate their conversation and sit down
The disciplines to which we most frequently as if all parties understood that the third request
turn are psychology and linguistics, though wewas the only real one. While checking attend-
occasionally turn to general (generic) educa- ance, the instructor begins what sounds like an

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 Psychology of Second-Language Learning 395

ecclesiastical litany of questions have not

inturned
the their
targetattention to solving prac-
language: "How are you today?" tical problems
"Whatbecause
day of they believed that their
the week is it?" "It's nice out, isn't
search forit?" Atheory
general voice was more important.
or two responds partly toNeisser eachasserts
one.thatIn aone
revolution is occurring
corner a student reaches over to the instructor's and attributes it to ethologists whose interest
cassette recorder, apparently poised for a class was in discovering how animals really behaved
activity, turns the tape over to the other side, in natural environments.
and resets the counter. Another student chuck-
Wasps, herring gulls, ducklings, and jackdaws are
les at the thought of the confusion when the a curious base on which to build a scientific revolu-
instructor attempts to play the tape. As the in-tion, but one occurred. The work of the ethologists
structor begins the first structured learning ac-shows that the concepts and methods of learning
tivity, one has the impression that each studenttheory were simply irrelevant to the understanding
is, in effect, experiencing very different instruc-of natural behavior. Every species seems to have a
tion. different set of learning abilities, and to respond to
different sorts of variables. Even in a single species
Each of the twenty-eight students in this class-
room is in some ways like all the others, in someor a single organism, patterns of behavior vary dras-
ways like a few others, and in other ways totallytically with changes in the gross environment . . .
unique. Each interacts with language-learning Notions like "conditioning," "reinforcement," "extinc-
tasks in ways that are different from the waytion," and "generalization" require constant reinter-
pretation if they are to survive at all.9
in which he or she interacts with learning tasks
in other classes. Why? Are some aspects of the
Reinforcement, for example, may have
behavior inevitable, as if students are pro-
known general effects and value, but what con-
grammed in particular ways? Why does the stitutes reinforcement, and how does it inter-
same student appear to manifest different pro-
act with other characteristics of the second-lan-
grams in different classes? If some aspects of
guage classroom? This knowledge is distinct
the behavior are conscious choices, why are
from any general knowledge about the con-
they chosen? Are some of the ostensibly diverse
struct. What is needed is a reanalysis of the
bits of behavior understandable or explainable
nature of various kinds of relevant knowledge
in the same ways? Is the teaching behaviorand a drastic reevaluation of the relative con-
likely to lead to desirable learning?
tributions of each to the language teacher's be-
Questions like these, some would claim, canhavior.
be answered by psychological constructs, prin-
ciples, and theory. One has to agree that any
PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE
such questions that are in no way specific to
a second-language class can sometimes be ad- Smith has conceptualized pedagogical
dressed by "standard" psychological knowledge.edge as comprised of "those concepts a
A classroom observer, however, must be struckciples which guide and illuminate prac
those which provide the overall intellec
by the distance between the events in the class-
room and the prose in the educational psychol-text within which policies and deci
ogy textbook. What constitutes a "stimulusmade" in education. 10 This knowled
situation?" What should it be like? What kind rived from two sources, research and
of memory input can be expected from various experience. This distinction provides a
learners? What should it be like? How is it in- conceptual tool for understanding our
fluenced? What sort of response should be solic-sion's knowledge base.
ited? What constitutes a response in a language In all of education the amount of kn
class, anyway? we have from research appears at firs
Ultimately, questions such as these cannot substantial.
be Smith estimates, for exam
answered by knowledge from psychology, and approximately 150,000 research stud
we have erred in assuming that they could. The been published in education. Any reade
educational psychologist can provide no more literature recognizes the limitations in
this count and understands why only a
than a few general laws of learning that, at best,
inchoately explain classroom phenomena. Neis- percent would meet a criterion of bei
ser has argued eloquently that psychologists ten years after publication. Various re

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 396 Gilbert A. Jarvis
research have attempted
hoc analyses of possible similarities across the to
thesize this different knowledge,
areas. bu
assumption seems to have been that the A similar conclusion would be reached if we
knowledge is (and should be) generic." examined what we already know about validity
Clinical knowledge is derived from teaching in research methodology. Ecological validity for
experience. An individual situation is "ob- any second-language research findings can re-
served, analyzed, and a decision is made as to sult only from in situ research dealing directly
what to do. . . . The teacher then tries out his with the second-language teaching or learning
or her hunch and if it works, the hunch is used
process.
again in similar circumstances."12 Long ago,Thus, our pedagogical knowledge has three
teachers began making generalizations about
major components: 1) clinical knowledge, a sub-
what is best in their classrooms. A kind of craft stantial body, largely language-education spe-
knowledge that "consists of distillations fromcific; 2) general research knowledge composed of
decades, if not centuries, of experience passedgeneric-education principles, psychological
on from teacher to teacher through conversa- theory, and some theory from other disciplines.
tion and the printed page" developed --andIt may occasionally be transplanted with little
continues to develop.13 Clinical (or craft) modification but is probably most useful in gen-
knowledge has one additional characteristic that erating hypotheses to test specifically in lan-
Smith does not mention: for secondary- and guage education; and 3) second-language-educa-
college-level instructors it is largely subject- tion research knowledge that deals with the specific
matter specific. It is the substance of most ses- phenomena involved in learning a new lan-
sions at foreign language teacher conferences,guage. Our clinical knowledge is mostly specific
fills many pages in our (and other sub- knowledge. Our literature is now permeated by
ject-matter education) journals, and is much documents in which writers describe programs
less frequently found in "general education" they have implemented, ideas they have tried,
publications. and exhortations for new courses of action. By
Smith does acknowledge the existence of sub- and large, our literature is a literature of craft
ject-matter-specific knowledge. He notes, for knowledge with a conspicuous absence of research
example, that we have recognized for centuries knowledge. The inherent weaknesses of craft
and can now support with research the notion knowledge limit our success and our status. It
that specific instructional behavior will differ is highly idiosyncratic, prone to many sources
across levels of schooling. Moreover, ". . . that of error, and rarely reported with precision or
the character of teaching differs in some impor- even lucidity. The thesis of the present essay
tant respects from one subject to another has is that we must emphasize and vastly increase
been a constant theme of research and peda- subject-matter-specific research knowledge.
gogical education for most of this century.'14 Only our own research can ultimately give
This subject specificity applies to both clinical reality to the now hollow term "psychology of
and research knowledge. second-language learning." In other words, our
Subject-matter-specific knowledge resembles research can someday, perhaps as early as in
in some ways the concept of statistical interac- the twenty-first century, lead to a theory of
tion. When second-language learning tasks are second-language learning. Theory must be
crossed with generic strategies, principles, or understood as the "set of concepts and princi-
arrangements versus specific strategies, the re- ples that explains some phenomena and which
sults will be unpredictable. Generic questioning in its most highly developed form . . enables
strategies applied in a second-language class do us to derive propositions testable by observa-
not lead to hypothesized results if the strate- tion and in consequence to establish unsus-
gies were developed in, for example, a social pected relationships among observable varia-
studies curriculum. Generic strategies or strate- bles."'5 In this sense, one can speak of the
gies borrowed from other subject-matter areas theory of light, Darwinian theory, or the bio-
will often be ineffective, even inappropriate. We medical theory of disease. Theory, in this use,
must therefore reverse our mode of thinking: does not prescribe behavior (as we sometimes
a priori assumptions of similarities, or generic mean when we speak of a "teaching theory"),
models of teaching, must be replaced by post much as the biomedical theory of disease, for

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 Psychology of Second-Language Learning 397

example, is limited to making sense

large body "out of
of traditional thatAlthough
wisdom.""7
which is either puzzling or disturbing.
much It ex- is undoubt-
of this traditional knowledge
plains disease; it does not produce remedies
edly clinical knowledge, the pointoris equally ap-
treatments."16 The remedies plicable
andto research knowledge.
applications
in education are separate and distinct
More recently, Hammerly from
has argued vigor-
theory and are equally researchable.
ously for autonomy and for breaking free from
It seems safe to assume that we
"hurtful alreadywith
entanglements" have
other disciplines.
According to Hammerly,
a few shreds of research knowledge. We appearwe even need a dis-
to have identified via our research a few rela-
tinct name for our field such as "languistics,"
tionships, mostly of the means-ends variety. originally proposed by Nelson Brooks.18
Means-ends relationships are important and
THE MODEL: CLASSROOM APPLICATION
are found in all domains of knowledge. Draw-
ing again a parallel to medical science, today's The argument for careful anal
incomplete understanding of the functioning of knowledge base and for increased e
aspirin does not limit the benefits or wisdomlanguage-education-specific resea
of its use. Similarly, when we find a correla- edge has, thus far, been based up
tion between a particular kind of instructional of pedagogical knowledge. One can
arrangement or strategy and a desirable learn- ask whether the same conclusion is reached if
ing outcome for a particular type of student,one begins with an analysis of classroom be-
we have a useful relationship, despite our lackhavior. The answer appears to be affirmative
of understanding of all that is involved in that
and also leads to specifying a legitimate role for
relationship. psychological knowledge.
The distinctions made here within pedagogi- Anyone undertaking an analysis of classroom
cal knowledge are made on the basis of the typebehavior must, first of all, overcome the prob-
of knowledge and its source. Important impli- lems of the complexity of the behavior and
cations for the users of the knowledge also exist.issues involved. A substantial tome could be
Both pre- and inservice teachers react differen- filled with a comprehensive analysis of no more
tially to the various types of knowledge. Knowl- than two or three seconds in any classroom. A
edge that is specific to language education, for few brief paragraphs must therefore be re-
example, is more interesting to teachers and
stricted to a superficial analysis of only one
more readily learned than is knowledge fromdimension of classroom behavior. A useful
outside. It is complete or in useable form anddimension for this purpose is that of "prac-
does not have to be modified to fit their tice"- especially the quantity and quality of it.
empirical observations in language classes. Students in all language classes spend a signifi-
Teacher educators have long been familiar withcant portion of their time in various activities
the difficulties that a young teacher may intended
have to improve their ability to employ new
when forced to extrapolate from generic knowl-vocabulary and grammatical patterns. In a
edge or from applications in other fieldsword, (or they practice. Their learning task is not
even from languages other than those the limited
in- to coming to perform in a prescribed
structor may teach). Likewise, the limitations
and predictable way (as would be the musi-
of the generalist supervisor are well known to the football player's, or the first grader's
cian's,
experienced teachers. Thus, it is reasonableintolearning to print the alphabet). They must
hypothesize that teachers would teach with learn
in- to work with highly variable material used
creased understanding because of enhancedin re-uncountable permutations. In particular, the
ceptivity if we enlarged the specific-knowledge
task involves integrating new material with
component of our professional understanding.previously learned vocabulary and grammar.
The concept of unique phenomena in lan- (Unfortunately, this dominant characteristic of
guage-education is not original. Nearly a dec-
language learning seems frequently overlooked
ade ago, Quinn argued that the language- if one considers as relevant evidence the daily
teaching profession should turn to "therepetition
re- of fixed sentences in so many class-
sources of its own conventional wisdom" be- rooms.)
cause "language teaching is an autonomous art, To simplify the example further, let us
and it has accumulated over long periods a assume a classroom context in which the in-

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 398 Gilbert A. Jarvis

structional sequence
become proficient, is erroneous? was
Probably not. sim
followed by There is ample clinical evidence indicating
practice and a
completeness genuine
and means-end relationship
clarity between prac- in
description tice and learning.
of the The relationship
new is admit-
con
question then becomes what pedagogical tedly confounded with other variables like stu-
knowledge an instructor has available for ar- dent aptitude. Moreover, it may involve a mis-
ranging the conditions and nature of the prac- identification - perhaps the most unfortunate
tice so as to maximize the learning benefit from ever made in our profession--of a funda-
it. mentally different kind of human learning, but
one that in its own way responds to practice.
The first step in answering this question has
to be identification of the kind of human learn- Only at a very abstract level does the creative,
ing involved in developing language skills. unpredictable, and highly synthetic process of
What is it that the student is practicing? Such producing and receiving language never before
definitional issues should involve psychological encountered resemble a motor skill. Rather, it
knowledge. Indeed, describing the human or- appears to match perfectly problem-solving be-
ganism as a learner leads quickly to descrip- havior.

tions of the kinds of learning of which the Current directions in educational psychology
organism is capable. After this identification is place increasing emphasis on the higher cogni-
made, language-specific research must then tive processes. In that context second-language
give us information about how to arrange the learning meets directly the criterial attributes
particular conditions for making the learning for problem solving, i.e., "the process of search-
occur in the second-language context. Ironi- ing for and applying an appropriate principle
cally, this appropriate role for psychological or set of principles to arrive at a solution to a
knowledge has not been a part of our history. problem."2' A problem is "any situation in
We have attempted to borrow at an applied which there is a novel or unknown characteris-
level rather than a definitional level when we tic to be ascertained."22
should have done the opposite. Overlooking The psychologist's description of problem
this greatly restricted but extremely important solving can easily be read as a description of
role is particularly serious because all subse- someone who is in the process of developing
quent assumptions, constructs, and teaching proficiency in a new language:
behavior depend on this initial step.
the learners are placed in a problem situation, or find
From the perspective of practice, for exam-
themselves in one. They recall previously acquired
ple, an assumption that language learning is
rules in the attempt to find a "solution." In carrying
primarily motor-skill learning has often been
out such a thinking process, the learners may try a
made and continues to be made.'9 If indeed this
number of hypotheses and test their applicability.
assumption were valid, practice would have a
When they find a particular combination of rules that
relatively simple, though important, role; iffit the situation, they have not only "solved the
not, practice would be for different purposes. problem" but have also learned something new, ...
As Gagne puts it, "the essentiality of practice in the sense that the individual's capability is more
to motor skill learning should not be gener- or less permanently changed.23
alized to other activities. 'Practice makes per-
fect' is not a bad principle so far as motor skills Learning to use a new language is, in these
are concerned. But the same requirements do terms, a continuing stream of encoding or de-
not apply to the learning of other capabilities coding problems. Each new utterance or sen-
such as intellectual skills, information, and atti- tence is a novel problem for the learner. Phil-
tudes. For these types of performances, prac- lips has already succinctly described reading as
tice does not have the meaning of 'repetition "problem-solving behavior, for each sentence
of a set (or sequence) of overt responses.' Nor to be read is potentially a unique arrangement
is their learning characterized by the gradual of words, never before rendered in exactly the
improvement that is so typical of motor skills."20 same way."24 Likewise, in the productive skills
Does Gagn6's distinction imply that current the speaker or writer has ideas to express. The
craft knowledge, which seems to prescribe that goal is the formulation of the sounds or writ-
students practice, practice, practice in order to ten characters in such a way that the ideas are

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 Psychology of Second-Language Learning 399

expressed (as well as appropriate accompany-

advanced levels of instruction. Not only is there
ing paralinguistic messages conveyed
a requirement for some by the
variety; there is also
speaker or writer). This formulation at any moment an must equally demanding
fol- upper
low established rules. The rules that are em- limit upon its amount. New language forms
ployed are, of course, much more than the few
must be used in many different sentence pat-
grammar rules described in basic textbooks. terns and in combination with all possible pre-
They include thousands of usage rules that are
vious forms. Yet, these novel (to the learner)
utterances or sentences must at the same time
usually "caught" rather than "taught." Students
likewise learn to apply many sociolinguisticbe those whose characteristics the learner could
predict on the basis of what he or she has
rules of behaving (sometimes learning new ones
and sometimes learning which rules they may already learned. Otherwise, he or she will be
transfer from their first-language experience).
confused by them. What characteristics and ac-
Identification of the particular rules involved
tivities constitute desirable variety of practice?
and, especially, the arrangement of the most We must ourselves answer that. If we turn to
appropriate conditions to make this learning
our existing language-education research, it is
occur are matters to be determined by our own
clear that we have not yet directly begun to
research.
answer the question. Most reasonable hy-
If one considers second-language practice inpotheses that we can indirectly derive would
light of what we know about problem solving,seem to indicate that the characteristics of com-
one has to hypothesize very different conditions
municative or meaningful activities, as utilized
and arrangements than those that would be in various research projects having other goals,
appropriate if one defined language learning asapproximate that variety.26 Indeed, it is rea-
a motor skill. One can justify, for example, a sonable to wonder whether the facilitative ef-
fects of the various kinds of communicative ac-
need for substantial practice that is sufficiently,
but not excessively, varied in nature. The tivities used in these research projects might
learner must be developing the ability to dealhave been due to variety in problem-solving
with words in continually new arrangements.practice rather than the greater meaningfulness
What the learner hears, reads, says, or writesor depth of processing on which most of the re-
must exhibit variety, or the learner is merelysearchers focused. Meaningfulness and varied
learning "planned parrothood behavior"--anproblem solving were generally confounded in
anomaly in the face of the mountain of novelthis research; in doing meaningful tasks,
utterances that the learner must come to pro-learners also had numerous opportunities to
duce or receive if proficiency is to be developed.
solve a variety of problems.
Teachers know intellectually about creative This analysis is consistent with many
language use, but we often seem to behave in teachers' observations about teaching behavior.
classrooms as if students must learn to produceMany have, for example, rejected sole use of
and receive only a few dozen sentences. We ap- a "direct" method. It is widely recognized that
pear to forget that, as Miller put it, "it wouldany learner who spends considerable time in
take 100,000,000,000 centuries (one thousand contact with the language being used will ex-
times the estimated age of the earth) to utterperience some amount of incidental learning
all the admissable twenty-word sentences of (or, in terms of Krashen's monitor model some
English."25 Second-language proficiency is, then, the
"acquisition").27 Unfortunately, when using a
ability to solve billions of communication problems.direct method there is less control over the
One must acknowledge that a myriad ofkinds of problems for learners to solve, and
other variables are involved in language in-many problems will be beyond the learners'
struction and that they too directly influencesolvable range; the result can be failure, frus-
decisions instructors must make. Only our owntration, or other negative feelings and attitudes.
research will determine how these variables in-Competent instruction will continually confront
teract. The amount of appropriate variety may, learners with carefully structured problems that
for example, be precisely definable in'the ab- extend their ability without repeating problems
stract but may still vary from one student toand without including any that are nonsolva-
the next, from one category of learning prob- ble.
lems to the next, and from beginning to more It is when one begins to ask the other ques-

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 400 Gilbert A. Jarvis
tions that an instructor must answer in order chological knowledge to that of under
to structure classroom practice activities that human learning. That role is import
the uniqueness of the knowledge involved be- our history of ignoring it has been co
comes even more striking. The instructor musthave advanced our own idiosyncrat
consider, for example, questions such as the fol-ries - as if a person learning a new
lowing: were not a person learning! These idio
* Which aspects of the new content are "easier" to tic conceptualizations and various ente
associated with them have become vested in-
learn than others because of similarity to what the
learner already knows or because of inherent sim- terests within our profession. Separating vested
plicity? interests from dispassionate inquiry is always
* What sequence of practice activities is best, con- troublesome and will continue to be so for us.

sidering other related variables (e.g., instructor Second, an analysis of pedagogical knowl-
skill with various types of activities, learner atten- edge in our field leads to the conclusion that
tion span, time available, etc.)? we have very little research knowledge about
* With whom should the learners practice (whole the second-language teaching-learning process.
class, small groups, computer, etc.)? That knowledge cannot be borrowed --as we
* How much structure should be provided at the var- seem to have assumed it could --but must be
ious stages of practice? developed by our own research.
* Which skills should be emphasized? When? What Arguments for increased language-education
is the best combination of skills?
research are not politically opportune in 1983.
* With what other language forms should the new Research requires special expertise and
content be practiced? What is the best sequence?
funds - both of which have been in short supply
* How interesting to the learners are the topics that
in our profession. Research on the second-lan-
can be talked about, read about, and written about
with this new content?
guage teaching-learning process that utilizes
modern analytical tools is scarcely more than
* How does this topic relate to cultural or sociocul-
a decade old. The numbers of language edu-
tural goals of the program?
cators trained with the needed skills remains
* To what extent do published or other ready-made
materials foster the desired practice, or must prac-
woefully small, for even our largest lan-
tice activities be designed for the particular stu- guage-education doctoral programs remain
dents? constrained and influenced by their "roots." Re-
search still is largely dissertation research with
These questions are not the type that can be all its inherent characteristics (apprentice ef-
asked once at the beginning of a course and forts, short-term, low-budget, etc.). United
then ignored. In one way or another every in- States Department of Education requests for
structor must face such questions every day for proposals often advertise as few as four grants
each segment of teaching while planning instruc- available averaging $36,000 each for a nation
tion. Once in the classroom an entirely new of well over 230 million people. Anyone who
wave of decisions faces the instructor: when to
is asked to evaluate candidates for promotion
correct, when to repeat an explanation, who and tenure at various institutions across the
should respond, when to add visual support, country cannot avoid a negative conclusion
how much time to allow for any segment of in- about our collective research activities. Candi-
struction, how long any given pause should be dates are strong (remarkably so) in teaching
(such as after having called on a student to re- and service activities but frequently must at-
spond), etc. In 1983 there is simply no basis tempt to interpret development, evaluation, or
for assuming that these decisions should be service activities as research in order to show
made on the basis of the same criteria as simi-
strength in the area.
lar decisions in other subject-matter areas or As an additional factor, we have to recog-
even across multiple levels of our own instruc-nize the excessive teaching demands made
tion.
upon most language teachers today. When
more than eighty percent of each day is ac-
CONCLUSION
counted for by instruction (typical of high school
The argument presented here is teachers) or by instruction, advising, and ad-
essentially
ministrative
twofold. First, we must restrict the role ofresponsibilities
psy- (typical of college

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 Psychology of Second-Language Learning 401

instructors), there is littlemotion,

opportunity for
are not enough the
today. At other levels,
generation of new knowledge. secondary Most language
school teachers, community college
instructors are not, moreover, trained
instructors, tocollege
and small do faculty have
educational research.28 neither the time nor the expertise to be expected
These factors are not easily or quickly
to do the needed research; they must, however,
changed from within (though they may bebecollaborators who facilitate research being
abruptly influenced by events such as elec-
done in their classroom, especially by language
tions). Some actions that can help us to develop
education faculty in universities; 5) creating op-
a better knowledge base and thereby improve portunities for dissemination of research results. This
could be done by increasing the number of
our status are feasible. They include: 1) recog-
journal
nizing that an underlying knowledge base is critically pages devoted to research, creating a
important, that it is developed by research, andresearch
that journal that emphasizes research on
the teaching-learning process, creating a sec-
much of it is specific to the second-language teach-
ing-learning process. This change is one of tion atti- in all our journals for short research re-
tude, perception, and value judgment. Yet,ports we (e.g., 500 words), devoting more confer-
know that such perceptual changes do shapeence be- sessions to research, or by other means.
havior; 2) reevaluating the wisdom of devoting These
so actions would themselves strengthen the
much of our energies to development activities. It reward
may system for research; 6) anticipating the
be short-sighted to focus most of our attention potential of high technology, particularly microcom-
on innovative programs and new ideas puters. for The vastly increased potential for new
Monday morning. This mentality has created kinds of computer-assisted instruction will also
a credibility problem, because most innovative bring a potential for automated data collection
efforts have become the next year's failures. and analysis. Because of the nature of likely in-
More seriously, this frantic activity hasstruction, de- the data available from learners are
flected energy away from research; 3) redirect- very closely linked to the psychology of lan-
ing lobbying efforts for funding away from program
guage learning; 7) preparing personnel who are truly
support to the support of research projects. Although
capable of doing research in second language educa-
no one can expect any immediate payoff from
tion. This need is met by strong doctoral pro-
funded activity, both government agencies grams
and and employment opportunities that in-
private foundations must evaluate whether they
clude research responsibilities.
are wisely using the meager funds that have
Actions such as these are merely steps in a
been allocated to second-language activities.
new direction, steps that cause gradual change
When we have claimed to support or identify and that require patience. The change is funda-
exemplary programs, we run the risk of merely mental rather than superficial. It moves us in
showcasing glamorous but short-lived efforts or
a direction that seems right for the mid-1980s
even delightful or aggressive personalities;29 4)
and parallels that happening in other profes-
recognizing the realities of expectations, expertise,sions.
and It is unfortunate that we must admit that
roles. Universities expect research publication
attention to knowledge prior to attention to
from language-education faculty as never novel
be- programs and techniques is unprece-
fore. Service activities and good teaching, dented in our history.
which were once sufficient for tenure and pro-

tion: A Provisional Report of Findings (Essex, CT: Interna-

NOTES
tional Council for Educational Development, 1981).
3See, for example, George H. Gallup, "The Twelfth
Annual Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitudes Toward the
'John B. Carroll, "Research in Foreign Language Teach-Phi Delta Kappan, 62 (1980), pp. 33-46.
Public Schools,"
ing: The Last Five Years," Language Teaching: Broader Con-
4Cited in Sharon T. Lobello & Marjorie Blair, "From
texts, ed. Robert G. Mead, Jr. (Middlebury, VT: North-
the Seeds of Our Past, Little Computers Will Grow," Elec-
east Conference, 1966) and Suzanne Izzo, Second Language
tronic Education, 2 (1982), p. 18.
Learning: A Review of Related Studies (Arlington, VA: Na-
5Gilbert A. Jarvis, "Action Research versus Needed Re-
tional Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, 1981)
search for the [ED
1980s," Proceedings of the National Conference
213 267]. on Professional Priorities, ed. Dale L. Lange (Hastings-on-
2Phillip H. Coombs, Future Critical World Issues in Educa- Hudson, NY: ACTFL Materials Center, n.d.).

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 402 Gilbert A. Jarvis
6Kenneth D. 23Gagne (note 8 above),
Chastain, Towardpp. 156-57. a Philo
guage Learning and24June K. Phillips, "Second Language Reading:
Teaching Teach-
(Boston:
7Noam Chomsky, "Linguistic
ing Decoding Skills," Foreign Language Annals, 8 (1975),Theor
ing: Broader p. 228.
Contexts, ed. Robert G. M
VT: Northeast Conference,
25George A. Miller, "The Psycholinguists," The Psychol- 1966
frankly, rather skeptical
ogy of Communication: Sevenabout the
Essays, ed. G. A. Miller (New sign
ing of languages,York:
of Basic Books,
such 1967), pp. 79-80, cited in Wilga M.
insights and
been attained inRivers,
linguistics and psy
"Psychology and Linguistics as Bases for Language
gRobert M. Gagne, The
Pedagogy," Learning Conditions
a Second Language: Seventy-ninth Yearbook o
(New York: Holt, Rinehart,
of the National Society for the Study of Education, ed. Frank M.1977),
9Ulric Neisser, Grittner (Chicago: Univ. of
Memory Chicago Press, 1980), p. 53.
Observed: Rem
Contexts (San Francisco:
26See, for example, Diane W. Birckbichler,Freeman,
"The Effects
10B. O. Smith, A of Orienting Tasks Requiring
Design forDifferent Types
a and Levels
School of
ton: GPO, 1980),
of Cognitivep.
Processing69.
on Measures of Student Achieve-
"For ment in Beginning
example, W. Doyle, College French," Diss., Ohio State
"Paradigm
Teacher Univ., 1975; Gilbert A. Jarvis,
Effectiveness," Review"A Comparison of Con-of Res
ed. L. S. Shulman
textualized(Itasca,
Practice with Particularized IL:
Referents F.
vs. Prac- E.
Gage, The tice with Generic
Scientific Basis Meaning of
in the Teaching
the of Beginning
Art o
Teachers College CollegePress, 1977);
French," Diss., Purdue R.
Univ., 1970; Elizabeth G. S
sey, "Generalization of versus
Joiner, "Communicative Measures
Non-Communicative Lan- of
Review of Educational guage Practice in the Teaching of Beginning College
Research, 46
12Smith (note 10 French: Aabove),
Comparison of Two Treatments,"
p. 49. Diss., Ohio
13Smith (note 10 above),
State Univ., 1974; Martha L. Knorre,p. 50.
"The Role of Cogni-
14Smith (note tive 10 above),
Processing in Second-Language p.Learning:101.
A Study of
15Smith (note 10 the Effectsabove), p.
of Depth of Processing and 72.
Task Type on Meas-
16Smith (note 10 above),
ures of Student p.College
Learning in Elementary 71. Spanish,"
17Terence J. Quinn, Diss., Ohio State Univ., 1975; Reiner H. Schaeffer, "Com-
"Theoretical Fou
tics and Related Fields," puter-Supplemented Responding
Structural Drill Practice versus to
bert A. Jarvis (Skokie, Computer-Supplemented IL: Semantic Drill
National
Practice by Be-
p. 350. ginning College German Students: A Comparative Experi-
"'Hector Hammerly, Synthesis in Second Language Teach- ment," Diss., Ohio State Univ., 1979.
ing: An Introduction to Languistics (Blaine, WA: Second Lan- 27Stephen D. Krashen, "The Monitor Model for Adult
guage Publications, 1982). Second Language Performance," Viewpoints on English as a
19For example, Steven H. McDonough, Psychology in For- Second Language, ed. Marina Burt, Heidi Dulay & Mary
eign Language Teaching (London: Allen & Unwin, 1981), p. Finocchiaro (New York: Regents, 1977), pp. 152-61.
34. 28Jarvis (see note 5 above).
20Gagn6 (note 8 above), p. 228. 29For example, Renate Schulz, "Survey of Successful
21Margaret M. Clifford, Practicing Educational Psychology Undergraduate Foreign Language Programs in U.S. In-
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981), p. 286. stitutions of Higher Education," Final Narrative Report pre-
22J. P. Chaplin, Dictionary of Psychology (New York: Dell, pared for the National Endowment for the Humanities,
1968), p. 409. EH-27125-77-67 (March 1978).

1984 French Sports Calendar

PAST CHAMPIONS OF SUMMER AND WINTER SPORTS famous sports champions, scientists, writers
events are featured on the new 1984politicians,
poster- singers, religious figures, artists
and actors of the francophone world. Th
calendar offered by the American Association
of Teachers of French (Washington calendar
State also indicates the national holidays o
francophone
Chapter). Entitled Tous Champions, the French regions, besides the importa
calendar displays twelve gold, silver, and
professional meetings for language teacher
bronze medal winners from 1900 through The1980
calendar can be used daily and in month
from francophone regions of the world. units to teach culture regularly in the clas
Illus-
trated by artist Philippe Plouchart of room.
Nancy,Details on price may be obtained from
France, the 2' x 3' poster-calendar is Susan Redd/AATF Calendars, Department
printed
on heavy sandy-rose colored paper. WithForeign
even Languages, Western Washington Uni
more entries than those of past years, versity,
calendar Bellingham, WA 98225.
editor Susan Redd lists many more dates for

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