ID#:88106

Course name: MSc. Operational

Maritime Management

Environmental Impacts Course code: MEMT5003 –Marine

Environmental Management I 2019 -
Associated with Oil Spill in the 2020 Term 2

Caribbean Assignment #: 3
Table of Contents

Introduction and Abstract........................................................................................................................................2

The Environment......................................................................................................................................................3
Maritime industry.....................................................................................................................................................3
Marine Environment endangered............................................................................................................................4
Property and characteristic of oil.........................................................................................................................5
The behavior of oil spill into the marine environment and weathering...............................................................7
Environmental and ecological impact of oil pollution..............................................................................................9
Social impact on oil spills in the Caribbean.............................................................................................................11
Income and employment....................................................................................................................................11
The Economic impact of oil spills in the Caribbean (Trinidad and Tobago)..........................................................12
Loss of Confidence and business disruption through public health concerns....................................................13
Tourism and Recreation.........................................................................................................................................13
Economic benefits of marine ecosystems..............................................................................................................14
An overview of the initiative(s); practices and procedures implemented internationally to address oil spills in the
marine environment..............................................................................................................................................15
RAC-REMPEITC Caribe........................................................................................................................................16
Gap analysis............................................................................................................................................................17
Gap Analysis Matrix............................................................................................................................................17
Recommendations.................................................................................................................................................18
References..............................................................................................................................................................19
Introduction and Abstract

The Caribbean area with its 37 nations and abroad domains is eminent for its different marine life, the
rich blending of societies, turquoise waters, and fantastic seashores. As one of the most organically rich
marine conditions in the Atlantic, the Caribbean is home to 10% of the world's coral reefs, 1,400 types
of fish and marine warm-blooded creatures, and broad seaside mangroves. For some, the spotless
seashores, dynamic coral reef frameworks, fascinating marine life, and copious fish speak to heaven.
Some of the benefits are it's marine and waterfront assets of this region, its coral reefs, seashores,
fisheries, and mangroves, fill in as a financial motor, supporting occupations, pay and monetary thriving.
In ongoing decades, the developing effects of unreasonable waterfront advancement, environmental
change, overfishing, and land-based sources of residue and contamination undermine the viability of the
region's marine and beachfront biological systems.

There are various and fluctuated impacts related to the operational attributes of environmental impact,
including port activities for expansion to related mishaps and disasters. This Assignment provides
empirical evidence and data on the implication on the environmental impacts on oil spills as its main
focus also it introduces the ripple effect on the social, economic and environmental concerns of such an
impact. Additionally, there will be a breakdown of the initiatives, practices, and procedures
implemented internationally to address the featured selected environmental impact. A gap analysis will
be undertaken followed by suggestions, with the reason for the initiatives that can be introduced in the
Caribbean region to address the same selected environmental impact.
The Environment

Barrow 2006 environmental management stated that the environment can be described as the total of the
conditions within which organisms live. Similarly, it is the result of the interaction between living and
non- living, physical, and chemical and living components. These elements may be categorized as an
ecosystem: goods, meaning the actual natural resources themselves flora, fauna, soil mineral, air, water,
and services, including the harvestable products crops, timber, processes essential to sustain the
provision of these resources nutrient cycles, climate patterns, flooding control and aesthetic and cultural
benefits of ecosystems (UNEP2002). Marine ecosystems perform several key environmental functions
they regulate the climate, prevent erosion accumulate, and distribute solar energy, absorb carbon
dioxide, and maintain biological control (EU2017).

Maritime industry

Marine industries include all enterprises engaged in the business of designing, constructing,
manufacturing, acquiring, operating, supplying, repairing, and /or maintaining vessels, or part thereof:
managing and/or operating shipping lines, and freight forwarding services and similar enterprises. This
emerging industry also includes a significant component of traditional oil and gas and renewable energy.

Some examples of marine industries in Trinidad as an example

includes:

 Chagterms for port operations (Shore Base for Oil and Gas)
 CMA. (Container Shipping)
 Caribbean Dockyard (Drydocking & Ship repairs)
 Cargo Consolidators (freight forwarding services)
Marine Environment endangered

Human exercises are currently undermining a large number of the world's remaining marine biological
systems and the advantages they give. Beachfront advancement, population development,
contamination, and other human exercises. Half of the salt marshes, 35% of mangroves,29% of
seagrasses, and 80% of living coral in the reefs of the Caribbean has been lost in the past 20 years. This
unprecedented rate of degradation has seen some reefs change from 50% cover with live coral
organisms to just 10%.
Similarly, overfishing has been a constant and developing issue in marine conditions, and loss of
fisheries is likewise connected to declining water quality through the expanding event of destructive
algal sprouts, seaward contamination, and oxygen exhaustion. Each of these formations is showing signs
of significant damage as a result of human activities, with serious implications for the future capacity of
the ecosystem to provide income from tourism and fishing. It has been estimated that the continued
decline of coral reefs could cost the region between U.S. $350 million and U.S. $870 million per year by
2050.

Impacts of oil spills into The Marine Environment

Human pressures impact on the ocean in many and complex ways. When oil is spilled along coastal
environments, through oil extraction, exploration or transportation, toxic oil negatively affects coastal
environments and can take effect directly as when an oil spill kills sea-birds and sessile benthic biota or
indirectly as when climate change results in changes to the stratification of seawater, with an adverse
effect on the nutrient cycle and the production of the plankton on which fish feed (Sumaila et al. 2012).

Each spill will affect different aspects of the environment differently. Plants in coastal wetlands, for
example, can experience widespread impacts such as “reduced plant photosynthesis, transpiration, shoot
height, stem density, and biomass, as well as impaired growth and regrowth, and even complete
mortality depending upon the oil type, degree of oil weathering, spill volume, mode of contact with the
vegetation, oil penetration of the soil, and other factors” (Lin and Mendelsshon 2012, p. 3738). Lin and
Mendelsshon (2012) also note that the recovery of coastal wetlands ranges from years to decades. Oil
spills can also cause a range of socioeconomic, cultural, and psychological impacts, as well. There are
many avenues in which oil can enter into the marine environment and many approximations as to by
how much. The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection
(GESAMP) report estimated that the average annual worldwide release of oils into the marine
environment was approximately 1.3 million tons, with the potential to be significantly higher.

The main source categories are as follows:

 Natural seeps 46%

 Operational discharge from ships and land-based sources 37%
 Accidental Spills from ships 12%
 Extraction of oil 3%

Concerning the shipping GESAMP estimated discharge of approximately 457,000 tons/year; this in
taking into consideration the discharge of machine space bilge water, fuel oil sludge, and oily ballast
water from fuel tanks. Other principal inputs will include the operations of oil cargo tankers and
accidental spillages resulting from tanker and non-tanker accidents.

On the topic of tanker accident and example to look at would be the Atlantic Empress. At 1900 hours on
July 19, 1979, the 288,000-dead weight-ton (dwt) Atlantic Empress and the 207,000-dwt Aegean
Captain collided in the twin island nation Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean Sea. In the fiery
aftermath of the accident, 27 crewmen lost their lives.

Property and characteristic of oil

The significant spills of raw petroleum and its items in the ocean happen during their transport by oil
tankers, loading and emptying operations, blowout, and so forth. When presented in the marine
environment the oil experiences an assortment of change including physical, substance, and organic
procedures. Physical and chemical processes starting to work before long oil is spilled on the ocean.
These incorporate evaporations, spreading, emulsification, dissolution, ocean air trade, and
sedimentation.

Compound oxidation of a portion of the segments of oil is likewise initiated within the sight of daylight.
The debased items of these procedures incorporate gliding tar protuberances, broke down, and
particulate hydrocarbon materials in the water segment and materials stored on the bed. Natural
procedures however moderate additionally act at the same time with physical and chemical processes.
The significant natural procedures incorporate debasement by microorganisms to carbon dioxide or
natural material in transitional oxidation stages, take-up by huge life forms and resulting metabolism,
stockpiling, and release.

There are two main categories of oil: crude oils, which have a wide range of physical and chemical
properties, and refined products, which have defined properties irrespective of their origin and include
gasoline, naphtha, diesel, and tars.

Crude oil is a complex mixture of individual chemical compounds involving thousand of different
organic molecules. Approximately 75% of these are hydrocarbons with at least 4C atoms per molecule.
Non-hydrocarbons, therefore, represent up to 25% of the oil and include inter alia Sulphur, vanadium
compound, nitrogen, oxygen, and a range of organometallic compounds.

Complexity makes it difficult to generalize about the behavior of oil as molecules can be arranged in
different ways, from straight chains to branched chains, to cyclic chains with the level of toxicity and
volatility dependent upon the arrangement. Essentially all oils can be characterized and defined by
various inter-related measures, as follows:

 Specific Gravity: refers to the density of the oil and in particular it is measured of the relative
density of the petroleum liquid and the density of the water as stated.

 Volatility: Oil refining is of course based on the process of distillation where the different
components of a parent oil reach boiling point and become gaseous at different temperatures.

 Viscosity: The viscosity of the oil is its resistance to flow and measured in centistokes. High
viscosity oils flow with difficulty whereas low viscosity oils flow easily. Viscosity is inversely
proportional to temperature and therefore reduces as the temperature of either the sea or the
atmosphere increases.

 Pour point: The temperature in which oil will not flow i.e. behaves like a solid
  Half-Life: Is associated with the persistence of a substance that can be measured by its half-life.
In case of an oil spill, this is the time take to remove 50% of the oil from the sea surface

The behavior of oil spill into the marine environment and weathering
Oil is a complex mixture, the composition of which affects its nature and the active process which
changes from time oil is spilled. After oil is spilled in the environment, it immediately begins to
undergo a wide variety of physical, chemical, and biological processes that begin to transform the
oil.

Oil weathering can have a significant impact on the properties of a slick and affect dispersant
performance. Oil in the water column will appear anywhere from milky-white to red-brown to
orange after being treated with dispersant. If some dispersant lands near a slick in open water, it
rapidly dilutes below acute toxic thresholds and begins to biodegrade.

These processes can be described as:

Spreading - Spreading of crude oil on water is probably the most important process following a
spill. Apart from the chemical nature of oil, the extent of spreading is affected by wind, waves, and
currents. Under the influence of hydrostatic and surface forces, the oil spreads quickly attaining an
average thickness of less than 0.03 mm within 24 h. Once a spill

has thinned to the point that surface forces begin to play an important role, the oil layer is no longer
continuous and uniform but becomes fragmented by wind and waves into islands where thicker
layers of oil are in equilibrium with thinner films rich in surface-active compounds.

Evaporation - Evaporation, and dissolution are the major processes degrading petroleum

crude when spilled on water. The composition of oil, it's surface area, and physical properties,

wind velocity, air and sea temperatures, turbulence and intensity of solar radiation, all affect

evaporation rates of hydrocarbons. Evaporation alone will remove about 50% of hydrocarbons in an
"average" crude oil on the ocean's surface. The loss of volatile hydrocarbons increases the density
and the kinematic viscosity of oil. As more volatile hydrocarbons are lost, the viscosity of the
resulting oil increases and this results in the breakup of slick into smaller patches. The agitation of
these patches enhances the incorporation of water due to increased surface area.
Photo-oxidation - The natural sunlight in the presence of oxygen can transform several

petroleum hydrocarbons into hydroxy compounds such as aldehydes and ketones and

ultimately to low molecular weight carboxylic acids, As the products are hydrophilic, they

change the solubility behavior of the spill.

Dispersion - Dispersion is oil-in-water emulsion resulting from the incorporation of small

globules of oil into the water column. Oil begins dispersing immediately on contact with water

and is most significant during the first ten hours or so.

Dissolution - Dissolution is another physical process in which the low molecular weight

hydrocarbons, as well as polar non-hydrocarbon compounds, are partially lost from the oil to

the water column.

Degradation – Bio-degradative processes influencing the fate of petroleum in the aquatic

environments include microbial degradation, ingestion by zooplankton, uptake by aquatic

invertebrates, and vertebrates as well as bioturbation. Microorganisms capable of oxidizing

petroleum hydrocarbons and related compounds are widespread. The rate of

microbial degradation varies with the chemical complexity of the crude, the microbial

populations, and many of the environmental conditions.

Figure 1 shows the Summary of the oil

weathering process oil spilled
into the environment.
(API, 1999)

Figure 1
This chapter aims to explain how the selected environmental impact has affected (directly or indirectly)
environmentally, socially, and economically on the people of the Caribbean.

Environmental and ecological impact of oil pollution

Given all the information thus far on what we know about the behavior of oil, the properties,
characteristics, and the impacts of oil in the marine environment we can safely say oil is one of the most
extraordinary forms of marine pollutions. When oil is discharged in the marine and coastal environs it
causes a pollutant that smothers organisms by clogging filter feeders and reducing photosynthesis by
increased turbidity and reducing light intensity and transparency within the water columns.

On December 17th, officials first discovered a massive oil spill in the Caribbean-island nation of
Trinidad and Tobago. Since then, a series of oil spills have been discovered, coating beaches, sullying
mangrove forests, and very likely decimating wildlife in Trinidad’s Gulf of Paria. The oil spills have
been linked to the state-owned oil company, Petrotrin, which has claimed that sabotage is behind at least
two of the spills. The spills have been at several locations, including the Petrotrin Point-a-Pierre
refinery, where the main one took place. Seven thousand and five hundred barrels were lost due to a
faulty transmission line. Mangrove forests hugely important ecosystems for fisheries and biodiversity as
well as beaches were hit hard by this lack of vigilance by accountable persons.

The mangrove areas affected by oil are characterized by an absence of life. Where there should be an
abundance of crabs and snails there are none, except for a few oil-slicked survivors. Even the ever-
present mosquitoes, which should descend by the hundreds, were all gone due to this magnitude of
events. The mangroves are home to Trinidad and Tobago’s state bird, the scarlet ibis. Beaches were
severely affected, Cleanup operations removed the oil affected top layer of sand, but hydrocarbons have
soaked down to lower layers affecting all the tidal zone ecology.
 Figure 2 Affected Mangrove

Figure 3 Clean up attempts of the mangrove

Figure 4 Bird Covered in oil

Similarly, 0n April 27, 1986, about 75,000 to 100,000 barrels of medium-weight crude oil spilled into
the Caribbean Sea from a refinery in Bahia Las Minas, Panama. After weathering for 13 days in warm,
sunny conditions, the oil reached the intertidal reef flat and biological reserve at Punta Galeta. This
impact, resulting in extensive deforestation of around 5 to 7% of mangrove forests, respectively. The
first spill in 1968 was caused by the sinking of the oil tanker, 'Witwater'. The second was caused by the
rupturing of a land tank at the Refinery Panama. These studies also described the recovery of deforested
gaps, particularly the 1986 ones, showing that while most sites had significant recruitment and growth of
seedlings, there was notable growth suppression directly related to the concentration of residual oil in
the sediment. In parallel with this response, mature trees that survived the 1986 spill were also found to
have reduced canopy leaf biomass. And, there were strong indications that their condition would
deteriorate further.

Social impact on oil spills in the Caribbean

In ongoing decades, social impacts are effects on individual communities and society and are considered
to encompass both markets and non-market goods and services. Environmental change, overfishing, and
land-based sources of residue and contamination all undermine the viability of the region's marine and
beachfront biological systems.

Income and employment

Employment is recognized as the most significant method by which to satisfy material prosperity, just as
being integral to the singular character and societal position and a significant supporter of physical and
emotional wellness. It can likewise add to the advancement of social capital and network union. On the
other hand, joblessness can be inconvenient to the singular character and societal position, physical and
psychological well-being, just as a key reason for hardship, frail social capital, and network union.
Fisheries have always been a source of livelihoods and sustenance for the people of the region,
contributing towards food security, poverty alleviation, employment, foreign exchange earnings, and the
development of rural and coastal communities, recreation, and tourism. There is a sizeable fishing
community in Trinidad due to the country's convenient location between the Caribbean Sea and the
Atlantic Ocean. The fishermen who live in the affected region have been struggling to support
themselves and their families since the spill. Many of them are struggling to get their boats running in
the oil-soaked water and the ones who can get the boats working are only catching a few fish. The
company has promised to reimburse any fishermen who have received a loss of income as a result of the
oil spill.

More horrendously an open flame ban was imposed on the residents of La Brea a village in Trinidad,
which is one of the communities that is situated nearest to Petrotrin's oil refinery, directly following the
spill. This ban prevented the people of La Brea from cooking any meals. Petrotrin has been providing
the people of La Brea with three meals a day to compensate for the inability to cook which ultimately
still could not compensate for the freedom to engage cooking on your own time.

The Economic impact of oil spills in the Caribbean (Trinidad and Tobago)

Contamination of waterfront zones with high courtesy value is a typical component of many oil spills.
Notwithstanding costs brought about by tidy up exercises, genuine financial misfortunes can be
experienced by ventures and people reliant on seaside assets. For the most part, the tourism industry and
fisheries divisions are where the greater effects are felt. In any case, there are additionally numerous
different business exercises and areas that can conceivably endure interruptions and loss of profit.

Fisheries make a significant positive contribution to the balance of trade of the Caribbean region, even
though the quantity of imports by weight considerably exceeds that of exports. According to statistics
from the UN FAO, approximately 360,000 tons of fish and fishery products, worth some U.S. $410
million, were imported in 2000, while exports amounted to around 200,000 tons, worth U.S. $1.2
billion. Trinidad and Tobago’s Environmental Management Authority has recently slapped the company
Petrotrin who was ultimately responsible for the spill with a $3.1 million fine by for the damage, so far
Petrotrin has reimbursed the fishermen $2.6 million.
Loss of Confidence and business disruption through public health concerns

The Occurrence of contaminated seafood follows a major oil spill can lead to public health concerns and
may cause a substantial economic loss to the fisheries and mariculture activities. This public health
concern and taint are likely to lead to produce being withdrawn from the market spiraling to a loss of
market confidence and also leading to price reductions or rejection of seafood products by commercial
buyers and consumers.

Petrotrin Case
Quoted by a fish vendor: He said since the oil spill, not only were La Brea and Cedros residents affected
but fishermen in the entire gulf." Marabella, San Fernando, and Claxton Bay fishermen are also feeling
the pinch, from the fishermen to the vendors to the consumers because fish is not selling. People don't
want to buy fish because they are saying it is from the gulf and that it is contaminated. The catch rate is
already low. “It is not feasible to go to sea when you purchase $400 in fuel... buy ice and nets... it is not
profitable. Ninety percent of the fishermen in Claxton Bay are not working because they are afraid of the
oil contaminating their boats and nets. “We are calling on Petrotrin to put their business in order and see
what best they can do to help fishermen, Source: http://www.guardian.co.tt/article-6 (2017).

Tourism and Recreation

Recreation and tourism-related jobs and income are linked to the amenity value or cultural service
provided by the Caribbean Sea biological system. As the quickest developing financial action in the area
and, to be sure, in numerous singular nations, the travel industry segment contributes a lot by method for
work, outside trade profit, and, in certain nations, significant financial linkages with other parts, for
example, agribusiness and development. The travel industry moreover can be the primary motor of
economical financial development and advancement in numerous Caribbean islands.

As per information from the Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO 2002) very nearly 25 million
tourists headed out to destinations in the CARSEA district during the year 2000. The most well-known
destinations were Puerto Rico (3.3 million), Dominican Republic (3.0 million), Cancun (2.3
million), Cuba (1.8 million), Bahamas (1.6 million), and Jamaica (1.3 million). The complete number of
journey transport traveler appearances in the Caribbean Sea was 14.6 million, with the most regular
ports of call being in the Bahamas (2.5 million), U.S. Virgin Islands (1.8 million), Cozumel (1.5
million), Puerto Rico (1.3 million), and Cayman Islands (1.0 million).

Table 1

Economic benefits of marine ecosystems

The marine and coastal resources of this region, its coral reefs, beaches, fisheries, and mangroves, serve
as an economic engine, supporting jobs, income, and economic prosperity. Perhaps more than any other
region, the Caribbean is highly dependent on its marine and coastal resources. 70% of its population
lives along the coast and tourism, the region's largest economic sector, is inextricably linked to a healthy
and thriving marine and coastal environment.
 Tourism in the Caribbean generates US $25B of revenue annually, supporting 6 million jobs and
accounting for nearly 50 %of total income.
 Marine life attracts 60% of the world's scuba divers, generating tens of millions of dollars and
thousands of jobs annually.
 Coral reefs and coastal mangroves coastal communities, hotels, roads, and other infrastructure
along shorelines from storm damage.
 Fisheries (fish, lobster, and conch) provide US $400M of revenues across the region, livelihoods,
and food security for millions.
  The total annual value of Caribbean coral reefs is estimated at approximately US $2B (from
tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection services).

Figure 5

An overview of the initiative(s); practices and procedures implemented

internationally to address oil spills in the marine environment.

The largest oil spill was from the Atlantic Empress oil tanker in an accident near the island of Tobago in
the West Indies in 1979. The Atlantic Empress leaked more than 287,000 tons of crude oil that caused
major damage to the marine environment. The United Nations officially adopted the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1982. Presently, 123 countries have accepted this
constitution of the oceans. After UNCLOS included the concept of exclusive economic zones (EEZs),
the signatories delimited their EEZs and limited the economic activities of other countries in their EEZs.

Further to the above, the European Union (EU) banned single-hull oil tankers from ocean shipping in
2000, modifying the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
As a result, the regulation led to the effective abandonment of single-hull oil tankers. Since 2010,
MARPOL has stipulated that single-hull oil tankers should no longer be used in shipping.

RAC-REMPEITC Caribe

The Regional Marine Pollution Emergency, Information, and Training Center was established in June
1995, within the framework of the IMO and the Caribbean Environmental Programme (UNEP-
CAR/RCU). This Regional Activity Center is currently supported by the host government of Curacao
and secondments from the U.S. (U. S. Coast Guard) and France (in cooperation with the French oil
company, Total). Financial support for projects and activities is provided by the IMO, the UNEP-
CAR/RCU, and more recently by the UNDP under the R3I.

The Center is designed to promote and facilitate international cooperation and regional assistance to
states for the development and maintenance of their full capability to respond effectively to marine
pollution incidents involving oil, hazardous and noxious substances, and other marine environmental
threats from ships, and thus contribute to the sustainability of the marine environment in the WCR.
RAC/REMPEITC-Caribe operates within the Cartagena Convention area, which includes the following
countries: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica,
Dominican Republic, El Salvador, France, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica,
Mexico, Kingdom of the Netherlands, Nicaragua, Panama, St. Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, St. Vincent
and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United Kingdom, United States of America and
Venezuela.
Gap analysis

In management literature, gap analysis includes the examination of actual execution with potential or
desired performance. On the off chance that an association doesn't utilize current assets, or forgoes
interest in capital or innovation, it might create or perform beneath an idealized potential.

The most significant was the SS Atlantic Empress which occurred off the coast of Trinidad and Tobago
and is regarded as the largest shipping related oil spill in known maritime history.
Although the impacts of oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea are recognized, after careful examination of
the actual execution several initiatives management can apply to better combat the environmental impact
this includes:

Gap Analysis Matrix

Current Activity Gaps
Ecological, Social and  Lack of information
Economic Impact of oil spills in  Lack of specialized
the Environment knowledge modern and
effective solutions
 Lack of cooperation
(Integrated response)
Action Required
(a) More readily available
information on potential oil
spill risk from shipping
(b) Increase emphasis on
management interventions using
scientific modeling

 Governance (c) Effective utilization of this

information in policy decisions
Recommendations

After examining the current gaps, the authors' suggestions to address some of the shortcomings of
current management of the Caribbean Sea ecosystem, (i.e., the Wider Caribbean) includes:

• To monitor and assess the condition of the Caribbean Sea as an ecosystem, and to use that information
to inform policy in the region.

• To assess the effectiveness of existing programs at all levels

To initiate studies on specific policy options available to decision-makers in the region, for example,
economic policy instruments to enhance the protection of ecosystem functions.

• To promote greater co-operation with states outside the region, whose activities have an impact on its
ecosystem.

• To provide continuing analysis of the impacts of policies and programs, so that the correct
lessons can be fed back into design of future measures.
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