ENGLISH

GRAMMAR
UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS
Module 2: Linguistic Forms and Syntactic Functions

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MODULE 2:
LINGUISTIC FORMS AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

This module outlines the basic syntactic concepts on which the

structural analysis is based. These include the structural UNITS
which can be arranged by RANK, the CLASSES into which these
units can be divided, and the ELEMENTS of which they are
composed.

A UNIT will be defined as any sequence that constitutes a

semantic whole and which has a recognised pattern that is
repeated regularly in speech and in writing.
– Each unit consist of one or more units of the rank below.
– Units may be “embedded” within other units.

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TESTING FOR CONSTITUENTS
In order to check if a particular sequence of words is functionig as a
constituent of a higher unit or not, there are five types of tests which
can be applied. If two or more of the operations can be carried out
satisfactorily, we can be quite sure that the sequence in question is a
constituent of a larger unit. Types of tests:

1. COORDINATION: only units that realise the same function can

be conjoined (Muriel saw the man in the bar and the woman in
the shop.)
2. WH-QUESTION (Who did Muriel see? The man in the bar.)
3. CLEFTING (It was the man in the bar that Muriel saw.)
4. PASSIVISATION (The man in the bar was seen by Muriel.)
5. FRONTING (The man in the bar Muriel saw.)

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2.1 CLASSES OF UNITS

• FOUR STRUCTURAL UNITS can be arranged in a relationship

of componence on what is called a RANK-SCALE:
2.1.1 CLAUSE
2.1.2 GROUP
2.1.3 WORD
2.1.4 MORPHEME

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2.2.1 CLASSES OF CLAUSES

A. FINITE AND NON-FINITE CLAUSES

• The verb is the central element of the verbal group and defines
the status of the clause.
• Finite verbs and therefore also finite clauses, are marked for either
tense or modality, but not both.
• Both lexical verbs and finite operators can carry tense.
• Modality is marked by the modal verbs, which also function as
operators.
• If the verb-form does not signal either tense or modality, the verb
and the clause are non-finite. The non-finite verb forms (non-
tensed forms) are:

– the (bare) infinitive Tim helped her carry her bags upstairs.
– the to-infinitive They want to hire a caravan.
– the participial –ing form We found Ann sitting in the garden.
– the past participial form (-en) The invitations were sent written by hand.
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2.2.1 CLASSES OF CLAUSES

B. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Independent clause Dependent clauses

An independent clause is A dependent clause is
complete in itself, it does not typically related to an
form part of a larger independent clause.
structure.
All grammatically independent Dependent clauses may be
clauses are finite. finite or non-finite.

• Only independent clauses have the variations in clause structure that

make for the different clause types or mood structures: declarative,
interrogative, imperative and exclamative.

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2.2.1 CLASSES OF CLAUSES

C. FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES (I)

1. CIRCUMSTANTIAL CLAUSES : Subordinate finite clauses which are

normally signalled by means of subordinating conjuctions
(subordinators) such as where, if, before, as soon as.

As soon as she got home, Ann switched on the television.

2. RELATIVE CLAUSES: Subordinate finite clauses which are normally

signalled by “relativisers” such as which and that.

Paul took the apple that his wife had bought.

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2.2.1 CLASSES OF CLAUSES

C. FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES (II)

3. Nominal clauses which fulfil the function of Subject, Object and
Complement (embedded clauses). Main types:
– That-clause He saw that the bottles were empty.
(A Nominal Clause functioning as an Object)
– Wh-nominal relative clause
What I don’t understand is why you have to come here.
(Nominal relative clause + Dependent wh-interrogative !!!)
– Wh-interrogative clause
I’ll ask where the nearest Underground station is.
– Dependent exclamative
She said how comfortable it was.

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2.2.1 CLASSES OF CLAUSES

C. FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES (III)

4. Comparative clauses occur following the comparative forms of adjectives

and adverbs. The comparative clause, introduced by than, provides the
basis of comparison.
The results are much better than we expected.

5. Supplementive units add supplementary information (they are

subordinate but not embedded).
– They are set off from the main clause by commas, or by a dash, and have
their own intonation contour.
– They are mostly used in spoken discourse and in written texts that imitate
spoken language.
– Not only clauses, but other units can have the status of “supplementives”.

Built of cypress, brick and glass, the house is breath-taking.

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2.2.1 CLASSES OF CLAUSES

C. FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES (IV)

6. Verbless clauses are a subsidiary type of clause.

– They lack a verb and often a subject too.
– The omitted verb is typically a form of be and it is recoverable from the situational
or linguistic context.

Book your tickets well in advance, whenever possible (= whenever it is possible).

7. Abbreviated clauses consist of a Subject + Finite operator alone.

– The rest of the clause is ellipted because it is known.
– They typically occur as responses in conversational exchanges and as tags, but can
also express such speech acts as reprimand (Must you?).

Can you? I won’t, has she?

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2.1.2 CLASSES OF GROUPS

• We have four classes of GROUPS:

– Nominal groups (NG): wonderful films by Fellini

– Verbal groups (VG): will return
– Adjectival groups (AdjG): quite good at languages
– Adverbial groups (AdvG): very fluently indeed

• These groups have a head/main element which cannot be omitted and

which can have the same syntactic function as the whole group.

• A Prepositional Phrase (PP) is NOT a syntactic “group” because it is a unit

formed by two obligatory elements: a preposition and its complement.

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2.1.3 CLASSES OF UNITS: WORDS

• Classes of WORDS: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,

prepositions, pronouns, articles and conjunctions.

They can be divided in two main classes:

– Open classes: Those that freely admit new members such as nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

– Closed classes: Those that do not easily admit new members such as
prepositions, pronouns and articles.

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2.1.4 CLASSES OF UNITS: MORPHEMES

• Words are made up of morphemes. A morpheme is defined

as 'the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning'.
Morphemes represent an abstract category and they are
realised by morphs.

• MORPH = The phonological or orthographical representation

of a morpheme (how the morpheme is said or written).

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2.2 THE CONCEPT OF UNIT STRUCTURE

The term “structure” refers to the relationships that exist between the
small units that make up a larger unit. “Grammar” is a structure in
which each “element” is given its position and its “function”.

Linguistic structures are described in terms of

– the semantic and syntactic functions of their various elements.
– the syntactic forms (or realizations) and the relationships
which express them.

There is no a one-to-one correspondence between the class of unit

and its function. While it is true that certain classes of unit “typically”
realise certain functions, many classes of unit can fulfil many different
functions.

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2.2.1 SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF CLAUSES

• Clauses have the greatest number of syntactic elements or functions of all classes
of unit (+Info about the syntactic elements and structures of the clause > Unit 2):
– Subject (S)
– Predicator (P)
– Direct Object (Od)
– Indirect Object (Oi)
– Prepositional Object (Op)
– Subject Complement (Cs)
– Object Complement (Co)
– Locative/ Goal Complement (Cloc)
– Circumstantial Adjunct (A)
– Stance Adjunct (A)
– Connective Adjunct (A)

• The type of structures used in a clause depends to a great extent on the verb
chosen (+Info about complementation of the verb > Unit 3).

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2.2.2 SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF GROUPS

NOMINAL GROUPS, ADJECTIVAL GROUPS AND ADVERBIAL GROUPS
Nominal groups, adjectival groups and adverbial groups are composed of three
primary elements:
– a head (h)
– preceded by a pre-modifier (m)
– and followed by a post-modifier (m). This last element is sometimes called
a “qualifier”.
• A complement (c) is a special type of post-head element. Complements of
nouns and adjectives are introduced by a preposition (good at chess) or by a
that-clause which is controlled by the head-word of the group (the belief that
he is right).
• In the case of nominal groups, we also distinguish between “modifiers”, which
describe or classify the head, and “determiners” (d), which specify it in terms
of definiteness, quantity, possessiveness, etc…
• Examples: NG: dmhm: those | beautiful| paintings| by Goya
AdjG: mhc: expremely | difficult | to translate

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2.2.2 SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF GROUPS

VERBAL GROUPS
• The lexical verb is the main element (v) in verbal groups, either
alone (whether finite or non-finite form) or preceded by auxiliaries
(x).
• The auxiliary or the first auxiliary is called the “finite operator” (o)
and it encodes the information about the tense, modality, number
and person; it also helps to make the VG finite and fully operative.
v: plays
ov: has | played [have + -en]
oxv: will | be | playing [will + [be + -ing]]
oxxv: must | have | been | played [must + [have + -en][be + -en]]

• Additionally, finite operators make the clause interrogative and/or

negative, and they also make ellipted responses:
Do you enjoy driving? Yes I do.

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2.2.2 SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF GROUPS

VERBAL GROUPS
• The lexical verb is sometimes followed by an adverbial particle
as in ring up, break out or take over. Often these
combinations form semantic units in which the particle
frequently forms an integral part of the meaning of the lexical
verb (ring up = telephone).
• Lexical verb + adverbial particle (p) = PHRASAL VERB

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2.2.2 SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF GROUPS

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
• Prepositional Phrases (PP) have two obligatory elements:
– A prepositional head (h)
– A complement (c)

• They also can have an optional modifier (m), which is typically realised by
an adverb degree (e.g. right, quite):
mch right | across | the road
quite | out of | practice

• Prepositional Phrases (pp) = (optional modifier (m)) + prepositional head

(h) + complement (c)

• The syntax of phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs will be discussed in

Unit 2.
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 UNIT 1 > MODULE 2: BASIC CONCEPTS

SUMMARY
In module 2 we have seen…

1. The syntactic categories and relationships.

2. Classes of units: Clauses, groups, words and
morphemes.
3. The concept of unit structure and the synctactic
elements of clauses and groups.

These concepts will be further developed in

Chapters 2 and 3.

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