ENGLISH

GRAMMAR
UNIT 2: THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE:
INTRODUCTION TO CLAUSE STRUCTURE
Module 5: Subject and Predicator

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UNIT 2: THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE:
INTRODUCTION TO CLAUSE STRUCTURE
MODULE 5: SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR

The Subject is syntactically identified by the following features:

position, concord, pronominalisation and reflection in question
tags. Semantically, almost all participant roles can be associated
with the subject.

The Predicator syntactically determines the number and type of

Objects and Complements in a clause. It is syntactically identified
by position and concord and it is associated with a number of
semantic domains.

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5.1. THE SUBJECT (S)

5.1.1. Semantic, cognitive and syntactic features

Semantic and cognitive features

– The Subject is the functional category of the clause of
which something is predicated.
– It represents the primary participant in the clause and
has the cognitive status of Topic.
– In basic clauses (finite, active and declarative) the
subject has the semantic function of Agent.

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Semantic and cognitive features

– But the subject can be associated with almost every type

of participant role.
– Examples:

Messi kicked the ball into the net (Agent)

The ball was kicked into the net (Affected in passive clause)
Paul saw a tiger near the lake (Experiencer in a mental
process)
The doctor has been given a dozen roses (Recipient in a passive
clause)

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Syntactic Features
- In English, the Subject is obligatory in declarative and interrogative
clauses, but not in the imperative. When two or more clauses with the
same subject are conjoined, it can be omitted, in all but the first one.

Ex: She enterred the room, closed the door and opened the window.

-In question tags the subject is referred anaphorically by a pronoun.

Ex: His cousin is a pilot, isn’t he?

Laura didn’t mind helping you, did she?

-In declaratives and wh- questions (in which the wh- element is subject),
the subject is placed before the finite verb.

Ex: Unfortunately, everybody was gone when I arrived.

Who called you yesterday?
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Syntactic Features (2)

- In yes/no questions and in wh- questions (in which the wh- element is
not subject), the subject is placed after the finite operator.

Ex: Are you happy with the exam?

What subjects are you taking this semester? (What subjects is Object)

-Subject pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we,…) realise the subject function
whereas object pronouns (me, him, her, it, us, …) are used as Objects.

-The subject determines number (singular or plural) and person

agreement with the verb.

Ex: The student has learned the lesson.

The students have learned the lesson.

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Syntactic Features (3)

-Paradigmatic contrast with a present form is applied with

verb forms that show no number or person contrast.

Ex: The time had all all passed > The time has all passed.

-Subjects determine number, person and gender agreement

with the Subject Complement, and of reflexive pronouns Cs,
Oi and Od.

Ex: John and Paula are his parents.

Why don’t you give yourselves (Od) a break?

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5.1.2. Realisations of the Subject

A. Nominal Groups
These are the most prototypical function of the subject as they mainly
refer to persons and things. They can range from simple heads to
complex NG structures.
Ex: Alcohol abuse can cause liver problems.
The total amount of alcohol abuse related diseases is uncertain.
B. Dummy it
Non-referential or semantically empty use of the pronoun it that occurs in
expressions of time, weather and distance.
Ex: It’s close to midnight.
It’s snowing.
It’s seventy-two kilometres from Toledo to Madrid.
C. Unstressed there
It cannot be replaced by a pronoun but it fulfils the following criteria:
position, inversion with auxiliaries and repetition in tag questions.
Ex: There were only five people in class yesterday, weren’t there?

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5.1.2. Realisations of the Subject (2)

D. Prepositional phrase and Adverbial group as subject

It usually specifies time and place but it can also denote
instrumental meanings and idiomatic manner uses.
Ex: By Monday would be an appropriate time. (PP of time)
By bus is cheaper than by train. (PP of means)
Just over there will be a great place to sit. (AdvG of place)
E. Adjectival head
When preceded by a definite determiner, certain adjectives
that represent conventionally recognised classes of people
(the elderly) or abstractions can function as heads of (non-
prototypical) NGs.
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5.1.2. Realisations of the Subject (3)

F. Embedded clauses
Both finite and non-finite clauses are subject of embedding.
- Types of finite clauses: that-clauses and wh-clauses (nominal or
relative).
Ex: That he didn’t accept the job surprised everyone. (that-clause)
Why the bank closed for the week was not explained (wh-
interrogative)
What she did shocked me (wh-nominal clause)
The fact that he didn’t accept the job surprised everyone. (NG)

- Types of non-finite clauses: to-infinitive and –ing clauses.

Ex: To do all the work at once was rather stupid. (to-inf. clause)
What to do with the kids is the problem. (wh- + to-inf. clause)
Having to return for the papers was a hassle.
Call his parents home was what he did. (bare infinitive clause)

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5.1.2. Realisations of the Subject (4)

G. Anticipatory it + extraposed subject

Extraposition is frequent in speech and writing, especially to avoid
long and heavy subjects.
Ex: It was surprising that you mentioned that.
- Extraposed subjects can be the complement of a noun or
adjective SPCs structures.
Ex: It’s easy to miss a class. (To miss a class is easy)
It’s a pity that you are not going to attend the party. (That
you are not going to attend the party is a pity)
- Extraposition is obligatory in clauses with it + verbs of seeming
(seem, appear) and happening (happen, turn out).
Ex: It seems that they were fine after all. (*That they were fine
after all seems).
It so happened that the pilot lost the race. (*That the pilot lost
the race happened).
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5.2. THE PREDICATOR (P)

The Predicator is present in all major types of clause, including the
imperative. It may be transitive, intransitive or copular.
-It may constitute the whole of the predicate as in The students arrived in
Paris.
-It is identified by its position in relation to the subject.
-Its function is realised by both finite (e.g. sees) and non-finite (seeing) lexical
and primary verbs.
-In functional terms, finiteness is usually carried out by an auxiliary verb, such
as has, had, to specify tense and voice (be + gerund/past participle) and then
followed by the predicator (is cooking, was cooked).
-Semantically, it encodes the following types of process:
•Material processes of “doing” (make, catch, go);
•Mental processes of “experiencing”, with verbs of perception (see),
cognition (know), affectivity (like) and desideration (hope); and
•Relational processes of “being” (be, belong).
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