Combustion - PRNT s1

Overview
M2-1: Fuels & Combustion 1 Energy Scenario & Motivation
2 Fuels
Dr. Md. Zahurul Haq
3 Combustion of Liquid and Gaseous Fuels
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET)
Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh 4 Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics
http://zahurul.buet.ac.bd/
5 Practical Combustion Analysis & Correlations
Preparatory Training Program Coal
for Energy Auditor Certification Exam Pure Fluid Combustion Analysis
25 August 2019 Gaseous Fluid Mixture Combustion Analysis
Simplified Correlations
c Dr. Md. Zahurul Haq (BUET) M2-1: Fuels & Combustion 1 / 38 c Dr. Md. Zahurul Haq (BUET) M2-1: Fuels & Combustion 2 / 38
Energy Scenario & Motivation Fuels
Fuels & Desirable Characteristics of Fuels
S003
High energy density (content)

High heat of combustion (release)
Good thermal stability (storage)
Low vapour pressure (volatility)
S001 Non-toxicity (environmental impact)
Fuels Fuels
Petroleum Distillation Refinery
T586
T604
For proper engine performance, fuels must have boiling points within
approximate ranges: from 30o C to 230o C for gasoline, and for 230o C to
370o C for diesel etc.
S004
Fuels Fuels
Typical ASTM Petroleum Distillation Curves

A comparison of some alternative fuels to the traditional petroleum-based
fuels used in transportation
The 10% and 90% evaporation
temperatures, T10 and T90 , are used in
the volatility specifications.
T10 : indicates the start of vaporization,
is used to characterize the cold starting
behaviour,
T90 : indicates the finish of vaporization,
is used to characterize the possibility of
unburned hydrocarbons.
The ASTM drivability index (DI)
is a measure of fuel volatility and is
defined as:
DI = 1.5T10 + 3T50 + T90 T301
T602
Fuels Fuels
Naming Conventions for HC Fuels Gasoline Property Specifications & Test Procedure
T588
T587
Fuels Fuels
Properties of Gasoline Fuels Diesel Fuel Specifications (ASTM D975)
T590
1-D: is a light distillate (∼ C12 H22 ) for cold weather.

2-D: is a middle distillate (∼ C15 H25 ) diesel fuel of lower volatility
and is the most common for vehicles.
T589
4-D: is a heavy distillate fuel used for stationary applications
where the engine speed is low and more or less constant.
Fuels Combustion of Liquid and Gaseous Fuels
Coal Ranking & Analysis Combustion
Combustion of fuel-air mixture inside engine cylinder is one of

the processes that controls engine power, efficiency and emissions.
Combustion commonly observed involves flame, which is a thin
ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials) Classifications: region of rapid exothermic chemical reaction.
1 Anthracitic coals (class I) Flame propagation is the result of strong coupling between
2 Bituminous coals (class II) chemical reaction, transport processes of mass diffusion, heat
3 Submituminous coals (class III) conduction and fluid flow.
4 Lignitic coals (class IV) Conventional spark-ignition (SI) flame is premixed unsteady
turbulent flame, and the fuel-air mixture through which it
propagates is in the gaseous state.
Diesel engine (CI) combustion process is predominantly an
unsteady turbulent diffusion flame, and the fuel is initially in the
liquid phase.
Combustion of Liquid and Gaseous Fuels Combustion of Liquid and Gaseous Fuels
Classification of Flames Typical Premixed Flame

1 Premixed Flame: fuel and oxidizer are essentially uniformly
mixed prior to combustion. It is a rapid, essentially isobaric,
exothermic reaction of gaseous fuel and oxidizer, and flame
propagates as a thin zone with speeds of less than a few m/s.
2 Diffusion Flame: reactants are not premixed and must mix
together in the same region where reactions take place. It is
dominated by the mixing of reactants, which can be either laminar
or turbulent, and reaction takes place at the interface between the
fuel and oxidizer.
1 Laminar: flow, mixing and transport are by molecular process.
2 Turbulent: flow, mixing and transport are enhanced by
macroscopic relative motion of fluid eddies of turbulent flow.
Steady / Unsteady
Solid phase / Liquid phase / Gaseous phase. T874
Typical Diffusion Flame
S002 T876
Auto-ignition & Self-ignition Temperature (SIT) Flammability Limits

If the temperature of an air-fuel mixture is raised high enough, the As the combustible mixture gets too rich or too lean, flame
mixture will self ignite without the need of an external igniter. The temperature decreases and consequently, flame cannot propagate
temperature above which this occurs is called the SIT. when the equivalence ratio is larger than an upper limit or smaller
If the mixture temperature is lower than
than a lower limit.
SIT, no ignition will occur and the
mixture will cool off. These two limits are referred to as the rich and the lean
flammability limits (RFL and LFL respectively), and they are
If mixture temperature is above SIT,
often expressed as fuel percentage by volume in the mixture.
self-ignition will occur after a short time
delay called ignition delay (ID).
The higher mixture temperature above
SIT, the shorter will be the ID.
ID depends on initial temperature,
pressure, density, turbulence, swirl,
e732
fuel-air-ratio presence of inert gases, etc. T356
Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics
Combustion Stoichiometry Mole fraction of fuel in stoic fuel-air mixture

1
Ys =
1 + 4.76as
Cα Hβ Oγ Nδ + as (O2 + 3.76N2 ) −→ n1 CO2 + n2 H2 O + n3 N2 Mass fraction of fuel in stoic fuel-air mixture
| {z } | {z } | {z }
fuel air complete combustion product
1
as = α+ β
− γ Xs =
C: α = n1 4 2 1 + (A/F)s
H: β = 2n2 n1 =α
⇛ n2 = β/2 φ ≡ fuel-air equivalence ratio, simply equivalence ratio
O: γ + 2as = 2n1 + n2
N: δ + 2 · 3.76 · as = 2n3 n3 = δ/2 + 3.76 α + β
− γ λ ≡ relative air-fuel ratio or excess-air factor
4 2

(A/F)s ≡ stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (A/F) (F/A)  < 1 : lean mixture
s a
φ = λ−1 = = : φ= = 1 : stoichiometric mix.
−1 (A/F)a (F/A)s 
A F 28.85(4.76as ) > 1 : rich mixture
= =
F s A s 12α + β + 16γ + 14δ
Major products of lean combustion are H2 O, CO2 , O2 and N2 ;
while, for rich combustion these are H2 O, CO2 , CO, H2 and N2 .
Heating Values of Fuels QHV,P − QHV,V = −P(Vprod − Vreac ) = −Ru (nprod − nreac )To
Reactants
U
or
H
Products
−(U )V,To
or
−(H)P,To
To T
T296 d001
The heating value is the heat release per unit mass of the fuel
initially at 25o C reacts completely with oxygen (or air) and the
products are returned to 25o C. T308
T307
Heating value at constant pressure ≡ QHV,P = −(∆H)P,To Constant Pressure Flame
Heating value at constant volume ≡ QHV,V = −(∆U)V,To Constant Volume Bomb Calorimeter Calorimeter
Heat of Formation & Combustion
The enthalpy of formation of a

compound represents the amount of
energy absorbed or released as the
component is formed from its stable
T302
elements during a steady-flow process
at a specified state.
T299 T304 The enthalpy of combustion

represents the amount of energy
mH2 O released as a fuel is burned during a
QHHV,P = QLHV,P + hfg,H2 O
mf steady-flow process at a specified
T303 state.
QHHV,P ≡ Higher (Gross) Heating Value
QLHV,P ≡ Lower (Net) Heating Value X X
Heating Value = |hc | = |HP − HR | = | ni Hi − ni Hi |
mH2 O /mf ≡ mass ratio of water produced to fuel burned. P R
Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Fuels in vapour form and enthalpy of vaporization:
Name Formula h o (MJ/kmol) h fg (MJ/kmol) Reactants
f U
or
Methanol CH3 OH -201.17 37.92 H
Ethanol C2 H5 OH -234.81 42.34 or
Products
UoR = Uprod (Tad , V = onstant )
URo HRo
Gasoline C7 H17 -267.12 38.15
Iso-Octane C8 H18 -224.14 35.11
Diesel C14.4 H24.9 -100.00 74.08
HoR = Hprod (Tad , P = onstant )
To Tad T
Gaseous fuels/species at 298 K: d003
Gas H2 N2 O2 H2 O CO CO2 CH4 Adiabatic Flame Temperature is the product temperature in an

o
hf (MJ/kmol) 0.0 0.0 0.0 -241.8 -110.5 -393.5 -74.8 ideal adiabatic combustion process. Actual peak temperatures in
engines are several hundred degrees less due to:
Water: heat loss from the flame,
fg = 44.02 MJ/kmol = 2.445 MJ/kg
h combustion efficiency is less than 100%: a small fraction of fuel
does not get burned, and some product components dissociate
(endothermic reaction) at high temperatures.
Typical Equilibrium Combustion Product
100 100 100

N2 N2 N2
1750 K 2250 K 2750 K
O2 O2 O2
10−1 10−1 10−1
H2 O H2 O H2 O
CO CO CO
CO2
CO2 CO2 H2 H2
NO
Mole fraction
Mole fraction
Mole fraction
H2
10
−2
10
−2
NO 10
−2
OH
NO O
OH
10−3 10−3 10−3
OH H
H
10−4 10−4 10−4

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
φ φ φ
T1054 T1055 T1056
T840
iso-octane at 30 bar
Combustion Efficiency in ICEs

Exhaust gas of an ICE contains incomplete combustion products
Major products of lean combustion are H2 O, CO2 , O2 and N2 ;
(e.g. CO, H2 , unburned hydrocarbon, soot) as well as complete
while, for rich combustion these are H2 O, CO2 , CO, H2 and N2 .
combustion products (CO2 and H2 O). The amounts of incomplete
Maximum flame temperature is at slightly rich condition
combustion products are small in case of lean mixture, however
(φ ≃ 1.05) as a result of both the heat of combustion, ∆Hc and
these amounts become more substantial under fuel-rich conditions.
heat capacity of products decaying beyond φ = 1.0.
Between 1.0 ≦ φ ≦ φ(Tmax ) heat capacities decays more rapidly HR (To )−HP (To )
with φ than ∆Hc and beyond φ(Tmax ), ∆Hc falls more rapidly ηc = mf QHV
than does the heat capacity. ηc ≡ combustion efficiency
Increase in temperature promotes dissociation (endothermic) To ≡ ambient temperature
reactions and increase in pressure decreases dissociation. HR ≡ enthalpy of reactants
HP ≡ enthalpy of products
mf ≡ mass of fuel
QHV ≡ heating value of fuel
e694
Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics Practical Combustion Analysis & Correlations Coal
Coal Combustion Analysis

As-burned mass fraction = [dry, ash-free mass fraction][1-M-A]
As-burned HHV = [dry, ash-free HHV][1-M-A]
FC ≡ mass fraction of fixed carbon
VM ≡ mass fraction of volatile matter
A ≡ mass fraction of ash
M ≡ mass fraction of moisture
T868 HHV −LHV = 2400(M+9H
2) (kJ/kg)
Fuel Symbol (A/F)s as LHV Tad,P SIT O2
HHV = 33950C + 144200 H2 − 8 + 9400S (kJ/kg)
(MJ/kg) (K) (K)
⊲ Example – Coal Combustion:
Hydrogen H2 (g) 34.01 0.5 119.95 2383 673
Methane CH4 (g) 17.12 2.0 50.0 2227 810 Proximate analysis of dry, ash-free coal:
VM = 54.0% & FC = 46.0%
Methanol CH4 O(l) 6.43 1.5 19.9 2223 658
Gasoline C7 H17 (l) 15.27 11.25 44.5 2257 519 Ultimate analysis of dry, ash-free coal:
Octane C8 H18 (l) 15.03 12.50 44.4 2266 691 C = 72.4%, H2 = 4.7%, O2 = 18.6%, N2 = 1.5% & S = 2.8%
Diesel C14.4 H24.9 (l) 14.3 20.63 42.94 2283 483 As received condition: M = 39% & A = 8.0%
Practical Combustion Analysis & Correlations Pure Fluid Combustion Analysis Practical Combustion Analysis & Correlations Gaseous Fluid Mixture Combustion Analysis
Combustion of Gaseous Mixture
⊲ Example – Methane-Air Combustion: n

X
CH4 + as (O2 + 3.76N2 ) −→ n1 CO2 + n2 H2 O + n3 N2 (HHVv of mixture)Pr ,Tr = (HHVv )i,Pr Tr (Vi )
i
as = 2.0, n1 = 1.0, n2 = 2.0, n3 = 7.52
P Tr

(HHVv )PT = (HHVv )Pr Tr Pr T
=⇒ Lower Heating Value (LHV): Water is in gaseous form i.e. H2 O(g)
HHVm = (HHVv )PT (v)P,T
LHV = |HP − HR | = |{(−393.52) + 2(−241.83)} − (−74.85)| = 802.33 V RT Ru T
v= m = P = PMmix
LHV = 802.33 MJ/kmol = (802.33/16.0) MJ/kg = 50.14 MJ/kg ◭
n
X
=⇒ Higher Heating Value (HHV): Water is in liquid form i.e. H2 O(l) Mmix = X i Mi
HHV = LHV + mmH2O
f
hfg = 50.14 + 2 × 18 /16 × 2.445 = i
55.64 MJ/kg ◭
⊲ Example – Gaseous Fuel-mix Combustion: Calculate the HHV, in kJ/m3
and kJ/kg at 10o C and 3 atm for gaseous mixture with the following
composition: 94.3% CH4 , 4.2% C2 H6 and 1.5% CO2 . Volumetric HHV for
methane and ethane are 37030 and 64910 kJ/m3 , respectively.
Practical Combustion Analysis & Correlations Simplified Correlations Practical Combustion Analysis & Correlations Simplified Correlations
Generalized A/F Ratio

Actual, molar, dry, air-fuel ration, (A/F)A,M,D
(%N2 )(Zc )

A ZN 1
Theoretical, gravimetric (mass), dry, air-fuel ration, (A/F)T,G,D = −
F A,M,D (%CO + %CO2 ) 2 0.79

A 2.66C + 7.94H2 + 0.998S − O2 )(1 − M − A)
= ( AF )A,M,D
F T,G,D 0.232 Dilution Coefficient, DC =
( AF )T,M,D
where, the moisture and ash values are as-burned values and all Percent excess air = 100(DC − 1)
other values are dry, ash-free values. ⊲ Calculate the theoretical, gravimetric, dry air-fuel ration when burning
a LPG composed of 40% propane and 60% butane
For gaseous and liquid fuels:
⊲ A natural gas with the following molar analysis is burned in a furnace:
ZH Zo 28.97 AF T,M,D

Zc + + ZS − CO2 = 0.5%, CO = 5.0%, CH4 = 87.0%, C2 H4 = 3.0% and N2 = 4.5%.

A 4 2 A
= , = An exhaust analysis gives the following results: 9.39% CO2 , 3.88% O2
F T,M,D 0.21 F T,G,D Mfuel
and 0.83%CO. Estimate actual-air fuel ratio and percent excess air.

Combustion - PRNT s1

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Overview

M2-1: Fuels & Combustion 1 Energy Scenario & Motivation

Energy Scenario & Motivation Fuels

Fuels & Desirable Characteristics of Fuels

High energy density (content)

Petroleum Distillation Refinery

Typical ASTM Petroleum Distillation Curves

Properties of Gasoline Fuels Diesel Fuel Specifications (ASTM D975)

1-D: is a light distillate (∼ C12 H22 ) for cold weather.

Coal Ranking & Analysis Combustion

Combustion of fuel-air mixture inside engine cylinder is one of

Classification of Flames Typical Premixed Flame

Typical Diffusion Flame

Auto-ignition & Self-ignition Temperature (SIT) Flammability Limits

Combustion Stoichiometry Mole fraction of fuel in stoic fuel-air mixture

Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics

Heat of Formation & Combustion

The enthalpy of formation of a

T299 T304 The enthalpy of combustion

Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics

Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Gas H2 N2 O2 H2 O CO CO2 CH4 Adiabatic Flame Temperature is the product temperature in an

Typical Equilibrium Combustion Product

100 100 100

10−1 10−1 10−1

10−4 10−4 10−4

Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics Combustion Chemistry & Thermodynamics

Combustion Efficiency in ICEs

Coal Combustion Analysis

Combustion of Gaseous Mixture

⊲ Example – Methane-Air Combustion: n

Generalized A/F Ratio

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