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JULIA CHAHINE SECTION:002
Introduction to Cell Transport
Different Equations involved in Ionic transport
Structure of a Neuron
Membrane Permeability in Neurons
Presentation
Outline
Graded Potentials
Action potentials
Release of Neurotransmitter
Structure and Function of a Neuron
Central Nervous System
Sensory Neurons & Receptors
Receptive Fields
Dynamic Range and Discrimination
Vertebrate Olfactory System
Olfaction and Pheromones
Invertebrate Olfactory System
Gustatory System
Signal Transduction in Taste receptor cells
Gustatory System in Invertebrates
Lateral Line System
Photoreceptors
Electroreceptors
Magnetoreceptors
 NEUROPHYSIOLOGY Introduction to Cell Transport

ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
Energy is used to transport molecules against a gradient

Primary Active Secondary Active

transport transport

movement of one
exergonic energy is used molecule gives energy for
ex. ATP hydrolysis movement of another
ex. symporter, antiporter

(MOYES & SCHULTE,80-81)

 Introduction to Cell Transport

But with charged molecules... it is much more than just a

concentration gradient

Electrochemical gradient:
concentration and electrical gradient
Equilibrium potential: the membrane
potential when an ions electrochemical
difference=0

Membrane potential: electrical concentration that balances the

concentration gradient, established by Na+/K+
 NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

DIFFERENT EQUATIONS INVOLVED IN IONIC TRANSPORT

Membrane potential, Goldman
equation

Electrochemical potential
difference (Δμ)

= RT ln[X+] o/ [X+]I +zF(Eo-EI)

(Wikipedia contributors, 2020)

Equilibrium potential, Nernst equation Key:

E ion= (RT/zF) * ln [X] outside/[X]inside
R= ideal gas temp (8.315 joules/Kmol)
T= temp in Kelvin
z=valence of ion
Pion= permeability of the membrane to that ion
Moyes & Shulte, 81-83)
STRUCTURE OF A NEURON

presynaptic terminal

(KHAN ACADEMY, 2020)

 MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY IN NEURONS

Na+/K+ ATPase is important for maintaining resting

membrane potential

01 Increase permeability of K+
causes hyperpolarization

The resting membrane potential of

a neuron is ~ -70mV
02 Increase permeability of
Na+ causes depolarization

03
Na+/K+ together repolarizes
the cell after depolarization
or hyperpolarization

(MOYES & SCHULTE, 160-161)

 Graded Potentials

Why is ion permeability important in excitible

cells?

The changes in permeability will change the

membrane potential

electrical signals called graded potentials

occur in the dendrites and cell bodies

(Moyes & Schulte, 162-163)

 Graded Potentials

PROPERTIES OF A GRADED POTENTIAL

Depends on amount of stimulus, thus making them "graded"

Either hyperpolarize or depolarize the cell
Decrease in strength the farther it travels from the channel
Can trigger an action potential at the axon hillock when
depolarizing beyond the threshold potential
can cause spatial summation: net change between all the
graded potentials

(Moyes & Schulte, 163-166)

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 ACTION POTENTIALS

Action Potentials
Do not decrease in strength, all or
nothing
Always same duration
occurs in axons of neurons and in
muscle cells
voltage gated ion channels open at
threshold potential (-55mV)

(Moyes & Schulte, 166-168)

 ACTION POTENTIALS

HODGKIN
CYCLE:
Positive feedback loop of Na+

The more Na+ that enters, the more the

permeability to Na+ increases until it
reaches its equilibrium potential

END OF
HODGKIN
CYCLE:
Negative feedback loop of K+

K+ channels open, leaving the cell,

causing hyperpolarization

(Moyes & Schulte, 168-173)

But how does the neurotransmitter release? RELEASE OF
NEUROTRANSMITTER

Action potential reaches presynaptic axon terminal

Depolarization causes Ca2+ influx through opening of voltage gated channels

Ca2+ binds to synaptotagmin on membrane vesicles

Synaptotagmin conformation changes and interacts with SNAREs (docking proteins)

Vesicles fuse with the membrane and release neurotransmitters through exocytosis

Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft, binding to postsynaptic receptors, activating a signal transduction
pathway

(Moyes & Schulte, 176-177)

 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF
A NEURON
GOING BACK TO THE
STRUCTURE OF A NEURON:
insulating layer formed by Schwann cells

Releases neurotransmitter

presynaptic axon terminal have a lot of voltage-

gated channels
(KHAN ACADEMY, 2020)

graded potentials occur in

action potentials start action potentials jump
soma and dendrites
here between these nodes,
(Moyes & Schulte, 174-175) called saltatory
conductions
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Some properties of the CNS:
Blood brain barrier: tight junctions surround the
endothelial cells to prevent substances from the blood
stream from entering the CNS. Glucose, amino acids, and
small lipid soluble substances can enter

Gray matter: neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and

its glial cells

White matter: Axons and their myelin sheaths

All vertebrates have gray and white matter, but it

is arranged differently in different species.

Dorsal root ganglia: contains cell bodies of sensory

neurons, located outside of spinal cord near the dorsal horn
(Moyes & Schulte, 318-319)
 SENSORY NEURONS AND
RECEPTORS
Some sensory neurons are afferent neurons,
the graded potentials in sensory neurons are called
generator potentials

There are different types of sensory receptors, they are classified based on stimulus
location or modality

01
Proprioceptors: senses
position and orientation of 04 Photoreceptors: detect light
the body

02
Chemoreceptors: chemical
signals (smell, taste, pH
05 Thermoreceptors: detect
temperature
change, blood O2)

Mechanoreceptors: pressure 06 Electroreceptors: electric

fields

03 and movement (touch,

07
hearing , balance, Magnetoreceptors: magnetic
proprioception, BP) fielfds

(Moyes & Schulte, 258-260)

 SENSORY NEURONS AND
RECEPTORS

Not all receptors sense only one type of stimulus... these receptors are called
polymodal receptors

The most common type are nociceptors, these receptors detect potentially damaging
stimuli, usually found in the skin

TRP detects capsaicin , mustard oil, and acrolein. A painful,

burning sensation is then sensed.

(Moyes & Schulte, 260, 273)

 RECEPTIVE FIELDS

Receptive field: the area of the body that causes a response to a particular afferent
neuron
Its size differs among neurons, the smaller the receptive field the higher the acuity
Overlapping receptive fields increases ability to locate the stimuli
Lateral inhibition also improves acuity by sending a response proportional to the
signal strength and inhibiting adjacent pathways

(Moyes & Schulte, 261-262)

 DYNAMIC RANGE AND
DISCRIMINATION
Dynamic range: the limited range intensities of the signal that allows the receptor to
detect it.
Below the threshold of detection, the receptor will not detect the signal
Above the dynamic range, the receptor will be saturated, so it will not be able to
increase its response

However, there is a tradeoff between dynamic range and discrimination,

since the range of stimuli is

large it makes it difficult to
discriminate within that
range
Dynamic Range Discrimination

To increase discrimination, different receptors are sensitive to a portion of the dynamic range.
Therefore, each receptor then has higher discrimination. (range fractionation)

(Moyes & Schulte, 262-263)

 VERTEBRATE OLFACTORY
SYSTEM
In vertebrates, the olfactory systems can distinguish among many odorants

Olfaction starts when an odorant encounters the mucus layer in the nose
Odorant olfactory neurons are bipolar and its action potential runs towards the
cell body

Odorant receptors are G protein coupled, and each

olfactory neuron only expresses one type of receptor
protein and that receptor protein can detect more
than one odorant
cAMP pathway
(Moyes & Schulte, 265-267)
 OLFACTION AND PHERMONES

The vomeronasal organ is used by terrestial vertebrates to detect pheromones

Pheromones: chemical signals that

Vomeronasal organs are
affect the behaviors other
structurally different from primary
organisms within the same species
olfactory epithelium
as the animal that released it.
a narrow tube connects the
usually used for mating
organs either to the oral or nasal
cavity (depends on species)
PLC pathway, VR1 & VR2 (G-
protein coupled receptors)

(Moyes & Schulte, 267-268)

 INVERTEBRATE OLFACTORY
SYSTEM
There are fundamental differences between the olfactory system in invertebrates vs
vertebrates
invertebrates have their olfactory organs near the anterior end
olfaction mechanisms vary within invertebrates

Sensilla: sensory organ in invertebrates that have many functions

and morphologies
olfactory sensilla: have a small pore at their tip so that
odorants can cross the exoskeleton. Also contain odorant
receptor neurons

So far, all invertebrates have G-protein coupled receptors with

cAMP as the secondary messenger. However, the receptors are
evolutionary independent to vertebrates.
(Moyes & Schulte, 268)
 GUSTATORY SYSTEM

There 5 different classes of taste: sweet, bitter, salty, sour, and umami

Taste buds are clusters of taste receptor cells

shapes, sizes, and placements vary between species
all taste buds are onion-shaped and contain many receptor cells with a pore
that allows the tastants to enter, also each taste cell has multiple microvilli

(Moyes & Schulte, 270)

 SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION IN
TASTE RECEPTOR CELLS

Different tastes have different signal transduction mechanisms

Salty substances: Na+ enters through an ion channel, causing depolarization

Sour substances: H+ ions block K+ channel, preventing K+ from leaving, causing

depolarization

Sweet substances: sweet substance binds to its receptor, causing a

conformational change in the G-protein coupled receptor (gustducin), releasing
cAMP, causing depolarization

Bitter substances: bitter substance binds to its receptor, causing a conformational

change in the G-protein coupled receptor (transducin), releasing PLC, causing
depolarization

Umami has many different mechanisms, caused by: L-glutamate, other amino
acids, and MSG
(Moyes & Schulte, 270-272)
 TASTE RECEPTION IN
INVERTEBRATES

Taste receptors in arthropods are similar to olfactory sensilla

gustatory sensilla are found in: the outside of the proboscis, the pharynx, along
the wing margin, the ends of the legs, and in vaginal plates

the arthropod receptor cells are bipolar sensory neurons

gustatory mechanisms vary between invertebrates

(Moyes & Schulte, 272-273)

 LATERAL LINE SYSTEM

Hair cells can be used to detect stimuli in mechanosensitive organs

Neuromasts: structures that detect water movements. They consist of hair cells
and accessory supporting cells.
They are present in fish, larval amphibians, and adult aquatic amphibians
They usually are at the anterior end of the animal, but they can be anywhere
on the body's surface

Most fish species have the neuromasts arranged in a line along both sides of the
body. This creates the lateral line system which allows the fish to detect changes in
water pressure.

(Moyes & Schulte, 280)

 PHOTORECEPTORS
Photoreceptors are not just involved in detecting light
Animals also use photoreceptors for regulating circadian and circannual
rhythms
The photopigment responsible is called cryptochrome

Nonmammalian vertebrates the pineal gland is sensitive to

light
Melanopsin is the primary photoreceptor pigment

Mammals without eyes cannot reset their circadian clocks (so pineal
gland not involved), but those without rods/cones but still have eyes can
still reset their clocks (so the photoreceptors responsible are not the
same for vision)
(Moyes & Schulte, 302)
 ELECTRORECEPTORS
Electroreceptors detect electric fields

Detecting magnetic fields is important because all animals produce magnetic

fields and so do abiotic objects such as the flow of water
The animals that have these receptors tend to be aquatic animals

Most species with this ability tend to have a "passive" electroreception, which
means that they detect the electrical fields of biotic or abiotic components in its
environment

Weakly electric fish have an "active" electroreception since they have a

specialized electric organ that exudes electrical discharges for communication
or electrolocation

(Moyes & Schulte, 304-305)

 MAGNETORECEPTORS
Magnetoreceptors detect magnetic fields

Magnetoreception is shared by many animals, they use the magnetic fields to

help them travel

The neurons in rainbow trout that respond to magnetic fields have particles that
are similar to magnetite. However, this is not true for all animals
Magnetite is a mineral that occurs naturally and responds to magnetic fields

Cryptochrome is a protein that is used in drosophila for magnetoreception, the

activity in this protein is thought to influence retinal neurons

(Moyes & Schulte, 305,308)

I chose this approach because whenever I study for an exam I put the
information in an outline and then into flash cards. This format mimics that
method, therefore gives me the same knowledge and depth as though I
were to study for an exam. The colors and pictures in this powerpoint were
chosen, because intitally I wanted to do an infographic for each of the
chapters, however it was difficult to get all the info that I wanted in one
page. Consequentally, this presentation resembles a longer infographic with
more detail.

From this project I learned how difficult it is for proffessors to condense the
information in a concise yet detailed manner. Additionally, I realized that
this is a method that I can use to study for exams in other classes .
Action potential velocity (article). (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2020, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/neuron-
membrane-potentials/a/action-potential-velocity

Moyes, C. D., Schulte.,& P. M. (2008). Principles of Animal Physiology (3rd ed.).

San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education.

Wikipedia contributors. (2020, February 19). Goldman equation. In Wikipedia,

The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 00:42, September 30, 2020, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Goldman_equation&oldid=941660139