44.

Neurons and Ner ous S stems - O er ie

44.1 What Cells Are Unique to the

Ner ous S stem?
44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and
Transmit Electrical Signals?
44.3 Ho Do Neurons Communicate
ith Other Cells?
44.4 Ho are neurons organi ed into
information-processing s stem
(neural net orks)?
44.1 What Cells Are Unique to the Ner ous S stem?

Ner ous s stems ha e t o categories

of cells:
Ne , or e e ce , are
e citable the generate and transmit
electrical signals, called ac i
e ial .
Glia, or g a ce , pro ide support and
maintain e tracellular en ironment.
44.2 Neurons ha e man and arious forms

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44.1 Basic structure of a t pical neuron

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44.1 T pes of glial cells

Mac glia:
In the CNS lig de d c e produce
m eli and insulate a ons.
Sch a cell insulate a ons in the PNS.
A c e contribute to the bl d b ai
ba ie , hich protects the brain.
Mic glia pro ide the CNS ith immune
defenses.
44.1 Wrapping Up an A on

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44.1 One of the most common dem elinating disease: multiple
sclerosis

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44.1 T pes of glial cells

Mac glia:
In the CNS lig de d c e produce m eli
and insulate a ons.
Sch a cell insulate a ons in the PNS.
A c e contribute to the bl d b ai ba ie ,
hich protects the brain.
Mic glia pro ide the CNS ith immune defenses.
44.1 Blood-brain barrier (BBB)

DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00051
44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

V l age is a force that causes

electricall charged particles, ions, to
mo e across cell membranes.
Major ions in neurons:
Sodium (Na+)
Potassium (K+)
Calcium (Ca2+)
Chloride (Cl )
 44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?
Ion Transporters and Channels

I
e
e b a e c ea e e
e g a d ac
e a .

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44.2 Definitions regarding electrical properties of neurons

Memb a e e ial is a charge difference

across the membrane, ith the inside of the
cell negati e relati e to the outside.
Re i g e ial is the stead state
membrane potential of a resting neuron.

An ac i e ial, or e e e, is a
rapid, large change in membrane potential.
Action potentials are generated b openings
and closings of ion channels.
44.2 Measuring the Membrane Potential

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44.2 Main ion transporter of the cells: The sodium-potassium
pump

S di m a i m m mo es Na+ ions from inside,

e changes for K+ from outside. Establishes
concentration gradients.
The Na+-K+ pump is an a e , or d - a
ATPa e, as it requires ATP.
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44.2 General features of ion channels

Ion channels in the membrane are e ec e and allo some ions

to pass more easil .
The direction and si e of ion mo ement depends on the
concentration gradient and the oltage difference of the
membrane.
These t o forces acting on an ion are its elec chemical
g adie .
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44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Potassium channels are open in the resting membrane and are

highl permeable to K+ ions.
K+ ions diffuse out of the cell along the concentration gradient
and lea e behind negati e charges ithin the cell.
K+ ions diffuse back into the cell because of the negati e
electrical potential.
The a i m e ilib i m e ial is the membrane
potential at hich the net mo ement of K+ ceases.
44.2 Using the Nernst Equation

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44.2 Equilibrium membrane potential: The Goldman (Hodgkin-
Kat ) Equation

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44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

A L. H S A F. H
Fg e
(1914-1998) 44.18 K ee- e ef
(1917-2012) e
44.2 Patch Clamping

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44.2 Gated ion channels
Some ion channels are gated : Open and close under certain
conditions:
V l age-ga ed cha el respond to change in oltage across
membrane
Chemicall -ga ed cha el depend on molecules that bind
or alter channel protein
Mecha icall -ga ed cha el respond to force applied to
membrane

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44.2 Membranes Can Be Depolari ed or H perpolari ed

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44.2 Graded changes can integrate information

G aded memb a e e ial are

changes from the resting potential.
Graded potentials can transmit signals
o er er short distances (local changes
onl )

Neuromuscular junctions
Sensor s stem
Generation of action potentials
44.2 The Course of an Action Potential (Part 1)

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44.2 The Course of an Action Potential (Part 2)

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44.2 Features of oltage gated Na-channels

At resting During spike Refractor period

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44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are

responsible for action potentials sudden,
large changes in membrane potential.
If a cell bod is depolari ed, oltage-gated
Na+ channels open and Na+ rushes into
the a on. The influ of positi e ions
causes more depolari ation.
44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

A h e h ld is reached at 5 10 mV abo e
resting potential.
Man oltage-gated Na+ channels open, the
membrane potential becomes positi e,
and an action potential occurs.
The a on returns to resting potential as
oltage-gated Na+ channels close and
oltage-gated K+ channels open.
44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Voltage-gated Na+ channels cannot

open during the ef ac e i d.
Na+ channels ha e t o gates:
Ac i a i ga e closed at rest but
opens quickl at threshold
I ac i a i ga e open at rest and
closes at threshold but responds
more slo l . Gate reopens 1 2
milliseconds later than the acti ation
gate closes
44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Voltage-gated K+ channels contribute

to the refractor period b remaining
open.
The efflu of K+ ions makes the
membrane potential more negati e
than the resting potential for a brief
period.
The dip after an action potential: Af e -
h e a a or de h .
44.2 Action Potentials Tra el along A ons (Part 1)

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44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

An action potential is an all- - e

e ent positi e feedback to oltage-
gated Na+ channels ensures the
ma imum action potential.
An action potential is elf-
ege e a i g because it spreads to
adjacent membrane regions.
Action potential is propagated onl i
e di ec i .
44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Propagation of action potential is increased:

I la ge diame e a ( s smaller)
I m eli a ed a ( s non-m elinated)
44.2 Action Potentials Tra el along A ons (Part 2)
Ho do action potentials tra el along an unm elinated a on?

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44.2 Ho do action potentials tra el along an m elinated a on?
Saltator conduction

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44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

M e a b glial cells increases the

conduction elocit of a ons.
The de f Ra ie are regularl spaced
gaps here the a on is not co ered b m elin.
Action potentials are generated at the nodes and
the positi e current flo s do n the inside of the
a on.
44.2 Ho Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

When local current flo reaches the ne t node,

the membrane is depolari ed another a on
potential is generated.
Action potentials appear to jump from node to
node, a form of propagation called al a
c d ci .
Up to 100 m/sec in m elin- rapped a on
44.3 Ho Do Neurons Communicate ith Other Cells?

Neurons communicate ith other

neurons or target cells at s napses.
In a chemical a e chemicals
from a pres naptic cell induce
changes in a posts naptic cell.
In an elec ical a e the action
potential spreads directl to the
posts naptic cell.
44.3 Electrical s napses: couple neurons electricall through ga
c .

6 b i
4 a memb a e
d me each
M lec le de 1 kDa
a e f eel diff e

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44.3 Electrical s napses

Elec ical a e couple neurons

electricall through ga c .
Pres naptic and posts naptic
membranes are onl a fe
nanometers apart. C e form
pores that connect the c toplasm and
allo ion flo .
Transmission is er fast and
bidirectional.
44.3 Electrical s napses are less common in ertebrates because
the :

Do not allo temporal summation

Require a large area of contact
bet een the membranes
Cannot be inhibitor
44.3 Comparison of electrical and chemical s napses

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44.3 Model for chemical s napses

The e m c la j c i is a
chemical s napse bet een motor
neurons and skeletal muscle cells.
The motor neuron releases
ace lch li e (ACh) from its a on
terminals.
The posts naptic membrane of the
muscle cell is the m e d la e.
44.3 Chemical S naptic Transmission Begins ith the Arri al of
an Action Potential

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Figure 44.14 Chemicall Gated Channels

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44.3 Ho Do Neurons Communicate ith Other Cells?

The a ic clef is the space

bet een the pres naptic and
posts naptic membranes.
An action potential causes release of
the neurotransmitter ACh hen
oltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
and Ca2+ enters the a on terminal.
Vesicles release ACh into the s naptic
cleft.
44.3 Ho Do Neurons Communicate ith Other Cells?

S naptic function in ol es man

proteins:
Vesicle formation
Transport of NTs into esicles
Anchoring of esicles
Docking of esicles botulinum & tetanus to in

Fusion of esicular and cell membranes

Endoc tosis of esicles membrane for rec cling
44.3 Ho Do Neurons Communicate ith Other Cells?

Where does the NTs come from?

is s ntheti ed in the terminals (e.g. Ach)
is s ntheti ed in the cell bod (e.g. peptide NTs)
44.3 Ho Do Neurons Communicate ith Other Cells?

S napses bet een motor neurons and

muscle cells are e ci a . ACh
al a s causes depolari ation.
Other s napses can be i hibi if
the posts naptic response is
h perpolari ation.
A neuron has man s napses and ma
recei e different chemical messages.
44.3 The posts naptic cell sums the e citator and inhibitor input

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44.3 Posts naptic potentials are summed o er space and o er
time

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44.3 S napses can be fast or slo

Posts naptic receptors open or close

ion channels.
I ic ece : Ion channels; if
a neurotransmitter binds it causes a
change in ion flo . Responses are
fast and short li ed.
Me ab ic ece : Induce
signaling cascades that lead to
changes in ion channels. Responses
are slo er and longer li ed.
44.3 Major neurotransmitters of ner ous s stem

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44.3 Major t pes of neurotransmitter receptors
The action of a neurotransmitter
depends on the receptor to hich it
binds.
Each neurotransmitter has multiple
receptor t pes. For e ample, ACh
has t o:
Nc c ece are ionotropic and
mainl e citator
M ca c ece are
metabotropic and mainl inhibitor
44.3 Major t pes of ionotropic glutamate receptors

Ionotropic glutamate receptors are

di ided into classes because the
can be acti ated b other chemicals.
T o ionotropic glutamate receptors
are:
NMDA
AMPA
44.3 Mechanism of long term potentiation (LTP)

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44.3 Modes for turning neurotransmitter action OFF

Neurotransmitters are cleared from the cleft

after release in order to stop their action in
se eral a s:
Diffusion
Reuptake b adjacent cells
En mes present in the cleft ma destro
them (e.g. acet lcholinesterase acts on
Ach)
44.3 Ho Do Neurons Communicate ith Other Cells?
Drugs treat the ner ous s stem b modulating
s naptic interactions.
Ag i mimic or potentiate the effect of a
neurotransmitter (e.g. morphine is an agonist
at the endorphin receptor, therefore blocks
pain).
A ag i block the actions of a
neurotransmitter (e.g. propanolol acts on -
adrenergic receptor)
44.4 Ho are neurons organi ed into information-processing
s stem?

Neurons are organi ed into e al

e k .
Affe e e carr sensor
information into the ner ous s stem
from e e that con ert
stimuli into action potentials.
Effe e e carr commands to
effec such as muscles, glands.
I e e store information and
communicate bet een neurons.
44.4 Ho are neurons organi ed into information-processing
s stem?

Ce al e em (CNS)
consists of cells found in brain and
spinal cord.
Pe i he al e em (PNS)
neurons and support cells found
outside the CNS.
44.4 Ho are neurons organi ed into information-processing
s stem?

Net orks ar in comple it .

Ne e e simple net ork of neurons.
Ga glia neurons organi ed into
clusters, sometimes in pairs.
B ai the largest pair of ganglia.
44.4 Monos naptic s pol s naptic spinal refle es

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44.4 A monos naptic spinal refle : Knee-jerk refle

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44.4 A pol s naptic refle in the spinal cord: ithdra al refle

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44.4 Brains ar in si e and comple it

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