URBAN HYDROLOGY AND

DRAINAGE

Dr. Kwaku Amaning Adjei

Senior Lecturer
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KNUST
Where to get Your Lecture Materials 2

• http://goo.gl/txbEY8
Introduction – The Hydrological Cycle 5
Introduction – The Hydrological Cycle 6
• As water moves between the land, ocean, rivers and atmosphere it changes
from solid to liquid to gas. This natural water cycle is our planet’s way of
recycling water, and is essential for life on Earth.
The stages of the cycle are:
• evaporation — water molecules get energy from the sun, which breaks the
bonds between them and lets them escape into the atmosphere as vapour
• condensation — vapour cools as it rises, changing back into tiny water
droplets that join to form clouds
• precipitation — water falls to earth when too much has condensed for the
air to hold, becoming liquid (rain) or solid (snow, sleet or hail) depending
on the air temperature
• infiltration — some water soaks into the ground (groundwater) and slowly
seeps into rivers, or is absorbed by plant roots
• run-off — some water flows across land (surface water) and collects in
rivers
• transpiration — water returns to the air as it evaporates from plants,
mainly through their leaves
 Introduction - Watershed
7

The area of land draining into a stream or a water course at a

given location is known as a catchment area. (drainage area,
drainage basin or watershed)
 Effects of Urbanisation on Drainage
8

• Development of an urban area, involves covering

the ground with artificial surfaces, and this has
significant effect on these processes.
• Artificial surfaces significantly increase the amount
of surface runoff in relation to infiltration,
evaporation, and transpiration
• Increases in surface runoff increases the total
volume of water reaching the river during or
soon after the rain.
 Effects of Urbanisation on Drainage
9

• Surface runoff travels faster on hard smooth

surfaces and through sewers than it does over
natural surfaces and along natural streams.
• Surface runoff in urban areas will both arrive and
die faster.
• Peak flows are greater for urban areas because
of modifications in the land use.
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Summary
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 Assignment 1
15

• Discuss the effects of urbanization on

flooding and the natural water cycle?

• One page
Introduction
16

 Drainage systems are needed in

developed urban areas because of
the interaction between human
activity and the natural water cycle.
This interaction has two main
forms:
 The abstraction of water from the
natural water cycle to provide water
supply for human life
 The covering of land with impermeable
surfaces that divert rainwater away
from the local natural system of
drainage – relief.
INTRODUCTION TO FLOODING AND FLOOD MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION TO STORMWATER
MANAGEMENT
17
Types of Waters that Require Drainage
18

 Wastewater: is water that has been supplied to

support life, maintain a standard of living and
satisfy the needs of industry. After use, if not
drained properly, it could cause pollution and
create health risks.
 Wastewater contains dissolved minerals, fine solids
and larger solids, originating from WCs, from
washing of various sorts, from industry and from
other water users.
Types of Waters that Require Drainage
19
 The second type of water
requiring drainage,
stormwater, is rainwater
that has fallen on the built
up area. If stormwater is
not drained properly, it
would cause
inconveniences, damage,
flooding and further health
risks. It contains some
pollutants, originating from
rain, the air or the
catchment surface – may
mix with human and
industrial waste.
Two types of unwanted waters
20

• Urban drainage systems handle these two types of waters

with the aim of minimising the problems caused to
human life and the environment. Thus urban drainage has
two major interfaces with the public and the
environment.

Interfaces with the public and the environment

 “Disposal” of unwanted waters
21
• In many urban areas, drainage is based on a complex
artificial system of sewers: pipes and structures that
collect and dispose of this water.
• In contrast, rural communities normally have no main
drainage. Wastewater is treated locally (or not at all) and
stormwater is drained naturally into the ground.
 Introduction
22

• Generally, every area has its natural drainage

system in the form of drains, rivers, and other
tributaries, lakes, etc., to carry the surface runoff
resulting from rainfall.

• A flood is any high flow that overtops either

natural or artificial embankments along a stream
or a natural event or occurrence where a piece
of land (or area) that is usually dry land, suddenly
gets submerged under water.
Is this a familiar site ?

23
Flooding in Accra
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 Flood images

Flooding in central Accra-2000

1986 flood Ghana telecom(157mm) Residents displaced

Flood in Tema com. 20 Onukpawahe basin- Flood in Odaw basin 1995 (

2007 259mm)
Flood images
Flood Images
Rainfall Events resulting in floods in Accra
FLOODS IN ACCRA
Date Maxi. Rainfall
Day Month Year depth(mm)
23rd June 1955 89.90
2nd-3rd June 1959 192.00
19th June 1962 117.00
19th -23rd June 1973 175.30
- May 1978 77.50
20th June 1983 46.30
1st August 1984 57.10
2nd May 1985 69.50
4th May 1986 69.30
2nd-3rd May 1988 157.90
3rd-4th July 1995 (259)243.90
2002 148
4th July 2007 44.20
27th April 2008
3rd June 2015 244.1
 Is this a familiar site ?

Flooding in Taiwan 29
 Is this a familiar site ?

Sand bags for flood defence!

30
Flooding in UK
 Causes of Flooding
31
Floods generally occur due to inadequate drainage system.
Some specific causes are:
1. Excessive rainfall leading to extraordinary runoff.
2. Poor drainage system and drains of inadequate capacities.
3. Silting up of natural drains and rivers due to erosion and
transport of other impediments from the catchment
area.
4. Gradual encroachment on the floodplains by settlers
leading to a loss in the drainage capacity of the river and
the consequent rise in the flood level.
 Stormwater drains in Ghana - Encroachment

Desilted matter placed on the sides

of the drains only to be washed back
by rain

Typical drain view with houses

adjacent – flood prone
32
32
 Causes of Flooding
33

5. Highly meandering rivers and unstable rivers often

change their course.
 Causes of Flooding
34
6. Tidal rivers – when excessive rain
coincides with a high tide. This causes
the water level to rise and if there is
not enough space to absorb this
water, the consequence would be
flooding.

7. Sea waves due to extraordinary

storm (hurricanes, cyclones, etc.)
cause movement of seawater into
land and cause flooding. New
Orleans case.
 Causes of Flooding
35
8. Sudden failure of water retaining structures such as
dams, embankments and levees etc. can cause untold
damage to life and property
9.Land/Hill slides into river valleys have also often created
temporary dam-like structures leading to flooding of the
upstream areas.
10.In deltaic areas floods are caused due to sudden
diversion of flow from an existing channel into another
channel of poor conveyance capacity and this can create
serious flood problems.
11.Excessive snowmelt combined with rainfall can cause
flooding.
 Causes of Flooding
36
12. Construction of
embankment and other water
retaining structures on the
river bank and bed may lead to
the constriction/ narrowing of
the normal width of the river.
Such constrictions even though
localised have their effects on
the upstream section where
the water would rise above its
normal level leading to
flooding.
Urban Flooding - Causes 37

• Meteorological factors: Rainfall; Cyclonic storms;

Small-scale storms; Temperature; Snowfall and
snowmelt
• Hydrological factors: Soil moisture level;
Groundwater conditions; infiltration; impervious
cover; Channel conditions; Tidal effects etc.
• Human factors: Land use/ land cover changes; in
appropriate drainage systems; occupation of flood
plain areas; sudden release of water from dams;
climate change; urban micro climate; indiscriminate
waste disposal etc.
Effects of FLOODING
38
Can the lost item be Direct loss: Indirect loss:
bought and sold for cash? Loss from contact with No contact – loss as a
flood water consequence of flood
water
Yes – monetary e.g. Buildings and e.g. Disruption to
(tangible) contents, vehicles, transport, loss of value
livestock, crops, added in commerce and
infrastructure business interruption,
legal costs associated with
lawsuits
No – non-monetary e.g. Lives and injuries, loss e.g. Stress and anxiety,
(intangible) of memorabilia, damage disruption to living , loss
to cultural or heritage of community, loss of
sites, ecological damage cultural and
environmental sites,
ecosystem resource loss
Effects of Flooding
39

As most people are well aware, the immediate impacts of

flooding include
1. Loss of human life, damage to property, destruction
of crops, loss of livestock, and deterioration of health
conditions owing to waterborne diseases.
2. Communication links and infrastructure such as
power plants, roads and bridges can also be damaged
and disrupted, some economic activities may come to
a standstill, people are forced to leave their homes
and normal life is disrupted.
3. Disruption to industry can lead to loss of livelihoods.
Effects of Flooding
40

4. Damage to infrastructure also causes long-term

impacts, such as disruptions to supplies of clean water,
wastewater treatment, electricity, transport,
communication, education and health care.
5. Loss of livelihoods, reduction in purchasing power and
loss of land value in the floodplains can leave
communities economically vulnerable.
6. Floods can also traumatise victims and their families
for long periods of time. The loss of loved ones has
deep impacts, especially on children. Displacement
from one's home, loss of property and disruption to
business and social affairs can cause continuing stress.
 41

• Measures for Reducing/

Delaying Storm Runoff
 Objectives of Flood Control
42
Reduce or alleviate the negative
consequences of flooding.
Alternative measures that modify the flood runoff are usually
categorised into structural and non-structural measures.
1. Construction of flood-control facilities are referred to as
structural measures.
2. Structural measures generally require large sums of
capital investment.
3. They are designed to change the flood characteristics
using reservoirs (dams), diversion structures, levees or
dikes, and channel modifications.
Objectives of Flood Control
43
 Impact of Reservoir on Flooding
Drainage 2 Plan: Plan 04 22/05/2010
Geom: Hydro-Wis e Flow: INFLOWIDF
River = Mamahuma Reach = Main channel RS = 5 CROSS SECTION 4- NO RESERVOIR
.07 .05 .07
6.5 Legend

EG 1995 EVENT

6.0 WS 1995 EVENT

Ground
Bank Sta
5.5
Elevation (m)

5.0

4.5

4.0

Drainage 3 Plan: Plan 04 22/05/2010

3.5 Geom: Hydro-Wis e Flow: INFLOWIDF

0 20 40 60 80 River =100
Mamahuma Reach = Main channel RS = 5 CROSS SECTION 5 RESERVOIR EFFECT
.07 .05 .07
6.0
Station (m) Legend

EG 1995 EVENT
WS 1995 EVENT
5.5
Ground
Bank Sta
Elevation (m)

5.0

4.5

4.0

44
3.5
0 20 40 60 80 100

Station (m)
Flood Control Measures
45
Flood control measures – Structural & nonstructural
Structural measures:
▪ Levees: embankment constructed parallel to the course
of stream to prevent inundation of large areas – Design
consideration: location, slope stability, seepage, interior
drainage, top width & free board, erosion & scour
protection
▪ Groins: dikes extending from the bank of river –
protect bank against erosion
▪ Cutoffs –artificial excavated cutoffs to straighten
channel
▪ Flood Bypass – divert a portion of flood flow
Flood Control Measures
46

Structural measures:
• Channelization –clearance, straightening, widening,
deepening & lining
• Bridge modification – removal, replacement, widening,
raising
• Flood proofing – floodplain or flood hazard zones –
by ring levees or flood wall
• Detention basins – small impoundments designed to
temporarily store storm runoff & release gradually.
Flood Control Measures
47
Non-structural measures are designed to modify
the damage potential of permanent facilities and
provide for reducing potential damage during a flood
event.
▪ Establishment of regulatory floodplains
▪ Storm water regulations
▪ Flood zones
▪ Watershed management plans
▪ Flood emergency planning
▪ Relocation of flood prone units
▪ Flood insurance – based on flood risk zones
▪ Flood forecasting & warning.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR
STORM WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
48
 Introduction (i)
49

➢ Stormwater drainage is the practice of intercepting,

controlling and discharging stormwater from
inundated (specific catchment) areas.
➢ In its simplest form it may involve a roof gutter
collecting rainwater from a roof and discharging it via
an outlet to a rainwater pipe laid in the ground, which
leads to a ditch or outfall.
➢ On a larger scale, the drained areas (catchments) may
cumulatively amount to hectares and in urban areas
will include landscaped areas, roofs, roads and other
areas such as parks.
 Design Objectives
50
 The engineering objective when dealing with urban
drainage is to provide for control of peak flows
and maximum depths at all locations within
the drainage system or catchment.
 The logical problem that must be solved to address
this objective is the prediction of
➢ Peak runoff
 Options for control of runoff
Drain in Columbia51
Options for the control of urban runoff quantity
include the use of drains, reservoirs (storage)
and increasing infiltration
1. Drains
Available drains are:
1. Surface system - open system or covered Drain in Kumasi

systems
2. Underground or buried systems
• Surface systems are usually preferred.
• The problems with underground systems are Drain in Kumasi
that maintenance cost is high and require
specialised contractors with specialised
equipment to do the maintenance.
 Options for control of runoff
52
2. Storage
There are detention and retention storages.
• Detention storage involves detaining or slowing runoff,
as in a reservoir, and then releasing it gradually.
• A retention pond is designed to hold a specific amount
of water indefinitely. Usually the pond is designed to
have drainage leading to another location when the
water level gets above the pond capacity, but still
maintains a certain capacity.
• Both types of storage are very common, although
designed retention becomes less practical as the size of
the drainage catchment increases.
 Detention and Retention Storages
53

Detention Pond Retention Pond

Detention Pond
 Dams
• Many dams and their associated reservoirs are designed
completely or partially to aid in flood protection and control.
Many large dams have flood-control reservations in which the
level of a reservoir must be kept below a certain elevation
before the onset of the rainy/summer melt season so as to
allow a certain amount of space in which floodwaters can fill.
The term dry dam refers to a dam that serves purely for
flood control without any conservation storage.

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Flood barrier

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Eider Barrage - Germany
Maeslantkering Barrier (Rotterdam)

56
 Options for control of runoff
57
3. Increasing Infiltration
• Since urbanisation creates increased
imperviousness, one likely control is to
increase the amount of pervious area
wherever possible.
• This can be accomplished with porous
parking lots through the use of concrete
block or similar shapes laid such that
water can infiltrate through the soil-
filled centre. The block lends strength to
the soil, and grass may grow on the soil
so that the blocks are not visible.
Porous Parking Lots
58
 Design Philosophy (i)
59
Storm water drainage design can be divided into two
aspects: runoff prediction and system design.
 The following constraints and assumptions are commonly
used in storm water drainage design:
1. Free surface flow exists for the design discharges; that is,
the drainage system is designed for “gravity flow”;
pumping stations and pressurised systems are not considered.
2. The drains are of commercially available sizes (usually
no smaller than 450 mm x 450 , mm, (900mm x
900mm??).
 Design Philosophy (ii)
60

3.The design size is the smallest commercially available

drain having flow capacity equal to or greater than the
design discharge (and satisfying all the appropriate
constraints).
4.To prevent or reduce excessive deposition of solid
material in the drains, a minimum permissible flow
velocity at design discharge or at barely full-pipe gravity
flow is specified (e.g. 0.6m/sec).
5.To prevent scour and other undesirable effects of high-
velocity flow, a maximum permissible flow is also
specified.
 Drainage Hierarchy
61
DRAINAGE HIERACHY

RIVER = PRIMARY DRAIN

MAIN
OR
SECONDARY HOUSING SITE
DRAIN
COLLECTOR / TERTIARY DRAIN

TERTIARY OR SITE DRAIN

OUTFALLS
62
 Design Practice
63

Normal practice dictates that to effectively drain

an area, the following parameters need to be
identified:

– Size of area to be drained

– Runoff Coefficient linked to
– Catchment characteristics and
– Consideration of future development
– Rainfall statistics
 Characteristics of Area to be drained
64

 After the preliminary drainage layout has been

produced, the catchment can be divided up into
sub-catchment areas draining towards each drain
or group of drains in the system. The sub-areas can
then be measured by planimeter if using
topographic sheets (paper maps), or automatically
if using a GIS-based package.
 Catchment characteristics
65

 The runoff coefficient is defined as:

RUNOFF volume
C =
RAINFALL volume
The runoff coefficient, C, is an integrated value representing
many factors influencing the rainfall-runoff relationship i.e.
topography, soil permeability, vegetation cover and land
use.
 Future development consideration
66

• This factor is important to avoid designing to

extremes. Thus, to avoid over sizing a drain
considering population and development 30
years from now, or under sizing by considering
only present population. It is necessary to
plan an overall drainage strategy, which
will allow the drainage system to be
constructed economically, and phased in
conjunction with the growth of the town.