Professional Documents
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DRAINAGE
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Introduction – The Hydrological Cycle 5
Introduction – The Hydrological Cycle 6
• As water moves between the land, ocean, rivers and atmosphere it changes
from solid to liquid to gas. This natural water cycle is our planet’s way of
recycling water, and is essential for life on Earth.
The stages of the cycle are:
• evaporation — water molecules get energy from the sun, which breaks the
bonds between them and lets them escape into the atmosphere as vapour
• condensation — vapour cools as it rises, changing back into tiny water
droplets that join to form clouds
• precipitation — water falls to earth when too much has condensed for the
air to hold, becoming liquid (rain) or solid (snow, sleet or hail) depending
on the air temperature
• infiltration — some water soaks into the ground (groundwater) and slowly
seeps into rivers, or is absorbed by plant roots
• run-off — some water flows across land (surface water) and collects in
rivers
• transpiration — water returns to the air as it evaporates from plants,
mainly through their leaves
Introduction - Watershed
7
• One page
Introduction
16
INTRODUCTION TO STORMWATER
MANAGEMENT
17
Types of Waters that Require Drainage
18
23
Flooding in Accra
24
Flood images
Flooding in Taiwan 29
Is this a familiar site ?
30
Flooding in UK
Causes of Flooding
31
Floods generally occur due to inadequate drainage system.
Some specific causes are:
1. Excessive rainfall leading to extraordinary runoff.
2. Poor drainage system and drains of inadequate capacities.
3. Silting up of natural drains and rivers due to erosion and
transport of other impediments from the catchment
area.
4. Gradual encroachment on the floodplains by settlers
leading to a loss in the drainage capacity of the river and
the consequent rise in the flood level.
Stormwater drains in Ghana - Encroachment
EG 1995 EVENT
5.0
4.5
4.0
EG 1995 EVENT
WS 1995 EVENT
5.5
Ground
Bank Sta
Elevation (m)
5.0
4.5
4.0
44
3.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Station (m)
Flood Control Measures
45
Flood control measures – Structural & nonstructural
Structural measures:
▪ Levees: embankment constructed parallel to the course
of stream to prevent inundation of large areas – Design
consideration: location, slope stability, seepage, interior
drainage, top width & free board, erosion & scour
protection
▪ Groins: dikes extending from the bank of river –
protect bank against erosion
▪ Cutoffs –artificial excavated cutoffs to straighten
channel
▪ Flood Bypass – divert a portion of flood flow
Flood Control Measures
46
Structural measures:
• Channelization –clearance, straightening, widening,
deepening & lining
• Bridge modification – removal, replacement, widening,
raising
• Flood proofing – floodplain or flood hazard zones –
by ring levees or flood wall
• Detention basins – small impoundments designed to
temporarily store storm runoff & release gradually.
Flood Control Measures
47
Non-structural measures are designed to modify
the damage potential of permanent facilities and
provide for reducing potential damage during a flood
event.
▪ Establishment of regulatory floodplains
▪ Storm water regulations
▪ Flood zones
▪ Watershed management plans
▪ Flood emergency planning
▪ Relocation of flood prone units
▪ Flood insurance – based on flood risk zones
▪ Flood forecasting & warning.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR
STORM WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
48
Introduction (i)
49
systems
2. Underground or buried systems
• Surface systems are usually preferred.
• The problems with underground systems are Drain in Kumasi
that maintenance cost is high and require
specialised contractors with specialised
equipment to do the maintenance.
Options for control of runoff
52
2. Storage
There are detention and retention storages.
• Detention storage involves detaining or slowing runoff,
as in a reservoir, and then releasing it gradually.
• A retention pond is designed to hold a specific amount
of water indefinitely. Usually the pond is designed to
have drainage leading to another location when the
water level gets above the pond capacity, but still
maintains a certain capacity.
• Both types of storage are very common, although
designed retention becomes less practical as the size of
the drainage catchment increases.
Detention and Retention Storages
53
54
Flood barrier
55
Eider Barrage - Germany
Maeslantkering Barrier (Rotterdam)
56
Options for control of runoff
57
3. Increasing Infiltration
• Since urbanisation creates increased
imperviousness, one likely control is to
increase the amount of pervious area
wherever possible.
• This can be accomplished with porous
parking lots through the use of concrete
block or similar shapes laid such that
water can infiltrate through the soil-
filled centre. The block lends strength to
the soil, and grass may grow on the soil
so that the blocks are not visible.
Porous Parking Lots
58
Design Philosophy (i)
59
Storm water drainage design can be divided into two
aspects: runoff prediction and system design.
The following constraints and assumptions are commonly
used in storm water drainage design:
1. Free surface flow exists for the design discharges; that is,
the drainage system is designed for “gravity flow”;
pumping stations and pressurised systems are not considered.
2. The drains are of commercially available sizes (usually
no smaller than 450 mm x 450 , mm, (900mm x
900mm??).
Design Philosophy (ii)
60
MAIN
OR
SECONDARY HOUSING SITE
DRAIN
COLLECTOR / TERTIARY DRAIN
RUNOFF volume
C =
RAINFALL volume
The runoff coefficient, C, is an integrated value representing
many factors influencing the rainfall-runoff relationship i.e.
topography, soil permeability, vegetation cover and land
use.
Future development consideration
66