Whole Language - 1

WHOLE LANGUAGE
Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.
Minnesota State University, Mankato

In viewing online discussion groups and reading various articles related to reading
instruction and struggling readers, I have noticed that the term ‘whole language’ is often used
in a pejorative sense. In these discussions and articles, it soon becomes clear that the
author/writer usually does not really know what whole language is or might be, or else that
person has a cartoonish version of it. The following kinds of statements often appear:
“Research shows that whole language has been discounted.” “Research shows that
whole language does not work!” "It has been proven that whole language ..."
It also becomes clear that the writers of such statements have not reviewed a great deal of
literacy research or they have not been critical consumers of literacy research. I have yet to
encounter a valid research study (one that has been subjected to blind peer review), that
compares good whole language instruction to good skills-based instruction using similar
comparison groups (similar subject size and makeup), and that uses comprehension or creating
meaning as the dependent variable. (If you know of such a study, please include the citation, and
send it to me at: andrew.johnson@mnsu.edu.)

WHAT WHOLE LANGUAGE IS NOT

1. Whole language is NOT a whole word approach. Both whole language and whole
word have the word “whole” in them; but other than that, they are not the same. A whole word
approach (sometimes called look-say) tries to teach reading by asking students to memorize
individual words. I do not know of any teacher, scholar, or researcher who would advocate such
an approach.
2. Whole language does NOT teach children to simply guess what words are. Ken
Goodman’s term, “a psycholinguistic guessing game” has been commonly taken out of
context and misunderstood by those who would propose a skills-based approach. This term refers
to the process used by your brain to maximize efficiency in the use of the limited space in short
term memory and enhance meaning-making during the reading process. Based on the top-down
flow of information from the cortex, your brain constantly makes predictions as to the meaning
of words and sentences (Hawkins, 2004). It reaches out a little in front of where your eyeballs
are at in its attempts to create meaning (Paulson & Goodman 2008). Letter clues, along with
semantic and syntactic clues are simply used to confirm or revise predictions. In this meaning-
making-prediction process, mature readers use minimal letter clues.
3. Whole language does NOT ignore phonics instruction. Whole language teachers use
very direct and explicit instruction of letter-sounds. Whole language teachers try to teach letter-
sound skills in the context of meaningful text to the greatest extent possible. That is, they
immerse students in authentic reading and writing activities and teach phonics and other skills
within that context. For example, at the kindergarten or preschool level, a teacher might read a
big book to students entitled, Finny the Fish. After reading and enjoying the story, the teacher
would give a short mini-lesson on the /f/ sound. Students would then go back and look for words
with the /f/ sound and practice reading these. The is an example of whole-to-part instruction.
To use writing to teach phonics, a teacher might include a lesson on fish. The teacher
would then present several pictures of different fish on a poster or screen and use predictable
writing to write a fish book with students. Underneath each fish picture would be a sentence,

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.

 Whole Language - 2

“This fish is _____.” The teacher would call on children to supply an adjective or describing
word. The teacher would write the describing word in the sentence underneath each
picture. After completing the fish book, the teacher would read the book with the children,
pointing to each word as it is read.
4. Whole language is NOT a specific method. There are some common guiding
principles and theoretical perspectives that whole language teachers share, but it is not a
method. Whole language instruction looks decidedly different in every classroom.

WHAT WHOLE LANGUAGE IS

This section describes ten descriptors of whole language.
1. Whole language is a literacy learning theory. Educational research is used to create
the theories upon which we design educational policies and practices. Theories help to organize
relevant empirical facts (empirical means they can be observed or measured) in order to create a
context for understanding phenomena. Sometimes people try to dismiss an idea or practice by
saying it is just a bunch of theory, with the assumption that the theoretical realm is somehow far
removed from the practical realm, perhaps even having a different set of laws that govern it. But
this would be a misunderstanding of what a theory is in terms of educational research.
A theory is a way to explain a set of facts. Put another way, if reality were a dot-to-dot
picture, a theory would be a way to connect a set of data dots. However, varying theories connect
different data dots in different ways resulting in a wide variety of pictures and practices. Thus,
varying theoretical perspectives, while based on a set of empirical data, can often advocate
different practices or practical notions. An example would be behavioral learning theory and
cognitive learning theory, both of which are based on solid empirical evidence. Whole language
is a theory that connects a wide array of research data-dots to explain how children best learn to
read and write. Research to support this theory come from a variety of perspectives and fields
including miscue analysis, eye movement, brain imaging, cognitive science, neuroscience,
psycholinguistics, literacy instruction, and reading research.
2. Whole language theory defines reading as creating meaning with print, not
sounding out words. Sounding out words is not reading. You could sound out the words in
Figure 1, but unless understand Latin, you would not be creating meaning with print.

Figure 1 Latin text.

O magnum mysterium,
et admirabile sacramentum,
ut animalia viderent Dominum natum,
iacentem in praesepio!
Beata Virgo, cujus viscera
meruerunt portare
Dominum Iesum Christum.
Alleluia!

3. Whole language tries to keep language whole and meaningful to the greatest
extent possible. Whole language teachers try to minimize instances where students encounter
words in isolation. In the real world, we never encounter a single word in isolation. Even signs
and labels are found in the context of an environment or product. Whole language teachers may

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.

 Whole Language - 3

sometimes use word work some activities, such as word building and word sorts, in which
students work with individual with words; however, this is one small part of reading instruction
and this type of instruction is minimized.
4. Whole language teachers start with the assumptions that most students already
know how to read and write. Most students in kindergarten and certainly all students in first
grade understand the process of putting letters-symbols together to create words. The problem is,
many students are not very good readers and writers. As such, we are not teaching reading at
all. We are developing students’ ability to create meaning with print. Hence, students need some
instruction and lots of practice.
5. Whole language teachers start with the assumption that reading is an inherently
pleasurable act. You generally do not have to coerce humans to do something they find
pleasurable. Reading good books is something that people naturally want to do. If we have good
books available that students are able to read (at their independent level or below), they will
naturally want to read. Like any skill, you become better at reading by reading practice. And like
any skill, if you do not practice, your skills decline.
6. Whole language teachers start with the assumption that using writing to express
and share ideas is a pleasurable act. Humans have an innate need to express themselves and to
share their ideas and experiences with others. We can use this natural inclination to help students
develop their writing skills by providing instances where they choose their writing topics and
opportunities to share their writing with other students. Students best learn the skills of writing in
the context of authentic writing activities that enable them to share their ideas and experiences
with others.
7. Whole language teachers see reading as an interactive process. Reading is not
purely bottom-up process (information flows from the page to the brain). Neither is it purely top-
down process (information flows from the brain to the page). It is an interactive process whereby
information from the brain is used to make sense of what is on the page. However, since there is
almost ten times more information flowing down from the cortex during the act of reading
(Hawkins, 2004; Johnson, 2016), what is in the head is a bit more important than what is on the
page. Hence, beginning readers should be reading about things with which they are familiar (to
the greatest extent possible) that uses familiar words that are in their lexicon.
8. Literacy is a continually developing skill. Just like learning to play a musical
instrument or develop the ability to play sport, it takes practice to get better. Throughout our
lives, we continue to become better readers and writers if we continue to read and write. At age
60, I am a slightly better reader than I was at 59 because I have encountered more than a million
words over the last year. These encounters all serve to further develop neural pathways and
neural networks and facilitate the top-down flow necessary for reading.
9. Students are the main scope and sequence. It is good to have a sense of what skills
to teach; however, whole language teachers are kid watchers. They watch and listen to students,
they engage with students in reading and writing conferences, they examine students’ drafts and
final writing products, and they use miscue analysis and other forms of authentic assessment to
see what skills students need. This is the most-direct form of instruction, because these skills are
found directly in the context of students’ reading and writing. In this way, students do not have
to learn them out of context and try to transfer these skills to real life reading and writing.
10. Children learn to read and writing much the same way they learned to speak
and listen. Not exactly the same, but much the same. Using this natural inclination to make
meaning, children learn to understand oral language and to speak by being immersed in authentic

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.

 Whole Language - 4

speaking and listening situations in which adults and other children communicate for real
purposes. Adults responded to children’s first attempts at authentic communication instead of
correcting it. As well, it was expected that children would learn at different rates and in different
ways. In learning to speak and listen, children were not separated into ability groups or asked to
drill and practice speaking sub-skills. In learning to read and write, some explicit instruction is
needed; however, literacy skills develop best in the context of authentic reading and writing
experiences.

REFERENCES

Hawkins, J. (2004). On intelligence. New York, NY: Henry Holt.

Johnson, A. (2016). 10 essential instructional elements for students with reading

difficulties: A brain-friendly approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Publishing.

Whole Language Video

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.