Soda ash production methods

INTRODUCTION
Soda ash is the trade name for sodium carbonate, a chemical refined from the mineral
trona or sodium-carbonate-bearing brines (both referred to as "natural soda ash") or
manufactured from one of several chemical processes (referred to as "synthetic soda
ash"). Soda ash, which is one of the most important of all chemical products and is a
starting material in producing many other chemicals, is produced in the largest amounts
compared with other soda products. It is an essential raw material in glass, chemicals,
detergents, and other important industrial products. In 1998, in terms of production, soda
ash was the 11th largest inorganic chemical of all domestic inorganic and organic
chemicals, excluding petrochemical feedstocks. Although soda ash represented only 2%
of the total $39 billion U.S. nonfuel mineral industry, its use in many diversified products
contributed substantially to the gross domestic product of the United States. Because
soda ash is used in flat glass for automobile manufacture and building construction,
which are important economic sectors of the domestic economy.
The original Leblanc process for soda ash manufacturing never used in the united states,
was abandoned in Europe early in 20th century. The modern method, know as the
ammonia-soda or Solvay process, is used to produce most of the world’s soda ash.
However there has been a very rapid development of natural soda ash processes of
refining natural deposits of sodium carbonate compounds. Soda ash produced by the
Solvay or other chemical processes is called synthetic ash. The growth of natural soda
ash production is particularly striking in the united states and is due to both
environmental and cost considerations. It is expected, however, that natural soda ash will
make only limited inroads on worldwide production in the near future since the natural
deposits are more limited than the raw materials used in the solvay process and, in many
cases, are far removed from the consuming industries.
World Resources: Soda ash is obtained from trona and sodium carbonate-rich brines.
The world’s largest deposit of trona is in the Green River Basin of Wyoming. About 47
billion metric tons of identified soda ash resources could be recovered from the 56 billion
tons of bedded trona and the 47 billion tons of inter bedded or intermixed trona and halite
that are in beds more than 1.2 meters thick. About 34 billion tons of reserve base soda ash
could be obtained from the 36 billion tons of halite-free trona and the 25 billion tons of
inter bedded or intermixed trona and halite that are in beds more than 1.8 meters thick.
Underground room-and-pillar mining, using a combination of conventional, continuous,
and short wall mining equipment is the primary method of mining Wyoming trona ore.
The method has an average 45% mining recovery, which is higher than the 30% average
mining recovery from solution mining. Improved solution mining techniques, such as
horizontal drilling to establish communication between well pairs, could increase this
extraction rate and enable companies to develop some of the deeper economic trona.
Wyoming trona resources are being depleted at the rate of about 15 million tons per year
(8.3 million tons of soda ash). Searles Lake and Owens Lake in California contain an
estimated 815 million tons of soda ash reserves. There are at least 62 identified natural
sodium carbonate deposits in the world, some of which have been quantified. Although
soda ash can be manufactured from salt and limestone, both of which are practically
inexhaustible, synthetic soda ash is more costly to produce and generates environmentally
deleterious wastes.
History of soda ash industry in India

The first two factories for the production of soda ash were set up in India through the
pioneering efforts of the late Shri Kapilram Vakil, the first at Dhrangadhra in 1924, and
the other during the years of the Second World War at Mithapur near the extreme western
tip of the country. These two units continued as the only producers of soda ash in 1951,
with combined capacity and production of 54,000 and 47,000 tones respectively, at that
time, domestic production represented about half of the annual consumption in the
country. Both units employed the standard Solvay process. But, at Dhrangadhra,
Honigman conical carbonators were employed, whereas, at Mithapur, the more popular
tower carbonators were provided. Expansion and modernization of these two factories
increased their capacity and production to 90,000 tones a year by the end of the First Plan
in 1956. During this period, the Development Wing of the Ministry of Commerce and
Industry prepared a Report to determine suitable sites for locating new plants, to ensure
low cost production and also to make the country self-sufficient with respect to soda ash
by the end of the Second Plan in 1961.
According to the recommendation made in the Report, two new plants were licensed, one
at Porbandar employing the standard Solvay process and the other at Tirunelvelly, near
the port of Tuticorin in South India, where the promoters proposed that caustic soda,
made on a large scale by electrolysis of salt, would be carbonated to produce soda ash.
There was some doubt if this project would be implemented as proposed, because the
prices current then per tone of caustic soda ash were in the ratio of 2:1, whereas the
equivalent weights are in the ratio of 1:1.33. This hunch provision to proceed first with
the caustic soda stage only until today, it remains as the largest caustic soda producer in
the country with an annual capacity of 54,000 tones per day, was commissioned in 1960
and no makes 400 tones per day. The Mithapur project completed its expansion to 600
tones per day and to increase the capacity further to 750 or 100 tones as may be
licensed by Government.
The concentration of all capacity for soda ash the small area of Saurashtra in the extreme
Western part of India has always been a cause for concern, thereby the cost of freight to
distant areas in the Southern and East becomes high, and even distribution of soda ash is
affected during busy transport periods. At the same time, it has been conceded that
circumstances favorable for the production of large amounts of by solar evaporation of
seawater, and the availability of good quality limestone close by, make Saurashtra
attractive location for soda ash projects. In the effort towards regional dispersal of the
industry, a 120-tonnes per day plant was licensed during the second plan Varanasi in
U.P., based on the modified Solvay process that yields soda ash and ammonium chloride
as co-products. The plant was commissioned in 1959. But technical difficulties
prevented it from operating at more than half its capacity for many years.
Another license for a 200 tones per day soda ash plant employing the standard Solvay
process to be located at Uran. Near Bombay, was issued in 1956. It was proposed that
limestone for this plant would be obtained by sea from Saurashtra and the cost of freight
on limestone was expected to be compensated for by the availability of soda ash at a large
consuming center to Bombay. However, the license was revoked six years later as there
was no progress on the scheme. At that time, the modified Solvay process had achieved
considerable topical interest because of its rapid application in Japan, consequent on
ammonium chloride being proved as an effective nitrogenous fertilizer for the rice crop.
Encouraged by its success in Japan, entrepre obtained licenses for setting up 200 per day
soda ash cum ammonium chloride plants at Madras, Bombay and in Andhra Pradesh.
There is no progress in any of these schemes and the Madras and Andhra licenses have
been cancelled by Government. The difficulty seems to be that, in the present era of
fertilizer plants of large capacity for nitrogen, ammonium chloride cannot be sold at a
profit, if it is made as a by-product in cost, relatively small-scale, plant. As fertilizer
factories are reluctant to sell ammonia except at a high profit, and an alternative source of
carbon dioxide soda ash plant is adjacent to a fertilizer factory, purchase of ammonia is
out of the question. Therefore it is doubtful if the hopes centered on the application of
the modified Solvay process will be fulfilled. In the meanwhile, a license for
establishing, at Porbandar, a second soda ash plant with capacity of 400 tones per day,
employing the standard Solvay process, has been granted.
The total capacity production of the four existing soda ash plants during 1969 were
430,000 and 390,000 tones, respectively, and the corresponding targets for 1973-74 were
650,000 and 550,000 tones. The country was virtually self-sufficient with respect to light
ash by 1961. Special efforts were necessary to achieve a similar position with heavy ash.
The difficulty was that the class industry in India had become accustomed to the use of
natural heavy soda, that used to be imported from Magadi in East Africa. Heavy ash
from Magadi was cheaper than even synthetic light ash made in the country and,
therefore, there was no incentive for the domestic manufacture to convert light into heavy
ash. It was also not easy to decide whether the preference for heavy ash by the Glass
Industry was dependent on quality or price. The problem was resolved by canalizing the
import of heavy ash through the State Trading Corporation, equalizing its release price
with that of synthetic light ash to begin with, and later by selling heavy ash at a price
thirty rupees higher per tone than that of light ash. The arrangement provided the
necessary incentive for indigenous production of heavy ash as well as restricted its use
for purposes where such use was essential, irrespective of price. Self-sufficiency that has
been attained for both varieties of soda ash can be maintained in the next decade, if
additional capacity to the extent of about 40,000 tones is added each year. A
considerable proportion of the equipment for a soda ash plant is made in the country and
it is claimed that, for expansion of capacity, foreign exchange expenditure can be reduced
to 20 per cent of the total cost of the project. The industry has the potential not only for
export of soda ash but also for establishing soda ash plants in other developing countries
as joint ventures.
PROPERTIES AND USES OF SODA ASH
Property
Chemical Name Sodium Carbonate
Molecular Weight 105.989
Melting Point 851oC/1564oF
Specific Gravity, 20o/4oC 2.533
Specific Heat
25oC 0.249 cal/gm/oC
77oC 0.249 Btu/lb/oF
45oC 0.256 cal/gm/oC
75.5 cal/gm
Heat of Fusion, 854oC
135.9 Btu/lb
–2550 cal/gm
Heat of Formation, 25oC
–4590 Btu/lb
Heat of Hydration
30.0 cal/gm Na2CO3
Monohydrate, Na2CO3 -H2O
54.0 Btu/lb Na2CO3
156.4 cal/gm Na2CO3
Heptahydrate, Na2CO3 -7H2O
281.5 Btu/lb Na2CO3
208.8 cal/gm Na2CO3
Decahydrate, Na2CO3 -10H2O
375.8 Btu/lb Na2CO3
Solubility
0oC 7 gms Na2CO3 in 100 gms H2O
44.7 gms Na2CO3 in 100 gms
100oC
H2O
49.5 gms Na2CO3 in 100 gms
35.37oC (max.)
H2O
Alkali Equivalent 100% Na2CO3 = 58.48% Na2O
Acid Equivalent 1lb. Na2CO3 = 0.6881 lb. HCI
Uses of Soda ash
Soda ash is used for production of following materials.
Glass Manufacture
Soda Ash is essential to the production of glass. This market is comprised

of manufacturers of glass packaging (bottles and other containers),
commercial, residential and automobile windows, mirrors, fibreglass,
television tubes, lighting ware, tableware, glassware and laboratory glass.
Sodium-Based Products
Soda Ash is used as a source of sodium ions throughout the chemical

industry. It is used in the production of sodium bicarbonate, sodium
phosphates, sodium silicates and chrome chemicals.
Detergents
Dry laundry detergents typically contain anywhere from 20% to 80% Soda
Ash. Soda Ash also often is the prime alkali used to make phosphates and
silicates for detergent applications.
Water Treatment
Soda Ash can be used to control pH (acidity) levels in water and also
provides the sodium ion needed for water softening.
Pulp & Paper
Soda Ash supplies the sodium ion required in the pulping of wood fiber.
Some more uses of soda ash
1. Mineral processing in mining
2. Soaps and detergents
3. Metal refining
4. Textile processing
5. Glass fibre manufacture
6. Cleaning preparations
7. Petroleum refining
VARIOUS CHEMICAL PROCESSES PRODUCTION OF SODA ASH
(1) Le Blanc Process

This process was invented by Nicolas Le Blanc, a French man ,who in 1775, among
several others submitted an outline of a process for making soda ash from common salt,
in response to an offer of reward by the French academy in paris. Le Blanc proposal was
accepted and workable on a commercial scale.
Process Description
Reactions
2NaCl+H2SO4 Na2SO4+2HCL
4C+NaSO4 NaS+4CO
Na2S+CaCO3 Na2CO3+CaS
A mixture of equivalent quantities of salt and concentrated sulphuric acid is

heated in cast iron salt cake furnance. Hydrochloric acid gas is given off and
sodiumhydrogen sulphate is formed. The gas is dissolved in water and the mixture is
raked and transferred to the muffle bed reverbratory furnance where it is subjected to
stronger heat. Here sodium sulphate called salt cake is formed.
The cake is broken, mixed with coke and limestone and charged into black ash
furnance. The mass is heated and a porous grey mass know as black ash is withdrawn.
The black ash is cursed and leached with water in the absence of air in a series of
tanks. The extract containing sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide and many other
impurities ,is sprayed from the top of a tower counter current to the flow of hot gases
from the black-ash furnance. This converts sodium hydroxide, aluminate,silicate, cyanate
to sodium carbonate. The liquor is concentrated in open pans until the solution is
concentrated in open pans until the solution is concentrated enough to precipitate sodium
carbonate on cooling. The product is calcined to get crude soda ash which is purified by
recrystallisation. The liquor remaining after removal of first crop of soda crystals is
purified to remove iron and causticised with lime to produce caustic soda.
The mud remaining in the leaching tanks containing calcium sulphide is
suspended in water and lime kiln gas is passed through it. The following reaction occurs.
CaS+H2O+CO2 CaCO3 +H2S

The lean gas containing hydrogen sulphide is passed through another tank containing
suspension of calcium sulphide.
CaS+ H2S Ca(SH)2

This solution is again treated with lime kiln gas liberating a gas rich in hydrogen
sulphide.
Ca(SH)2+CO2+H2O CaCO3 +2H2S
The hydrogen sulphide is burnt in limited supply of air in a special furnance in presence
of hydrated iron oxide as a catalyst to obtain sulphur.
H2S+1/2O2 H2O+S
The sulphur is sublimed and collected.
(2) Trona purification process

Several process are used to refine trona ore and are simpler than solvay process . in
general, they are of two types. In one process trona ore is calcined to impure soda ash,
which is then purified. The other type produces soda ash by calcinations of purified
sodium sesquicarbonate obtained from the trona. The first route is now used
predominantly although the latter route was practiced first.
Monohydrate Process
In this process , the trona ore is cursed and then calcined in a rotary kiln at 160-
2000 C, decomposing the sodium sesquicarbonate and librating water and carbon
dioxide. The calcined material, which is impure soda ash, is agitated in tanks with water
or weak soda ash liquors to dissolve the soda ash and soluble impurities, such as sodium
chloride and sodium sulphate. Insoluble material, consisting of shale, clay, and complex
salts containing calcium carbonate, is separated from the hot, near-saturated soda ash
solution. To reduce soda ash losses, waste solids from this step are washed before being
discarded.
The filtered liquor is usually treated with activated carbon to remove soluble
organic compounds and reduce foaming during evaporation to produce crystals of sodium
carbonate monohydrate. Crystallization is carried out in multiple effect evaporators at a
maximum temperature of about 1000 C, which is below the transition temperature of
monohydrate to anhydrous soda ash. A purge from the crystallizers may be maintained to
remove impurities. The slurry is centrifuged to separate the crystalline sodium carbonate
monohydrate from the mother liquor which is returned to the crystallizers. The
monohydrate crystals are dehydrated at about 1500 C. because the crystal size of the soda
ash is carefully controlled in the crystallizer only nominal screening is required before the
dence ash product is cooled and loaded.
Sodium sesquicarbonate process

In this process, the crused trona ore is fed into a series of dissolves to produce a
saturated mother liquor, which is clarified, filtered, and freed of organic compounds by
carbon treatment. Corrosion of the equipment by the mother liquor is controlled by a low
concentration of sulfide ion. The treated liquor is evaporated in vaccum crystallizers and
cooled to 400C. The Sodium sesquicarbonate crystals formed are centrifuged and the
mother liquor recycled to the to the dissolvers. The sesquicarbonate crystals are
decomposed to sodium carbonate in rotary caliners at approximately 2000C. the
anhydrous soda ash product has a bulk density of about 800kg/m3 and must be double
calcined to prepare dense ash. After calcinations, the soda ash is cooled and is ready for
shipment.
(3) Dual process
In this process ammonium chloride is produced as a coproduct in equivalent
quantities and differs from conventional ,solvay process and it does not recycle ammonia.
Process description:
The mother liquor from the carbonating system, containing ammonium chloride,
unreated salt and traces of carbonate is ammoniated in ammonia absorber. The
ammoniated mother liquor is passed through a bed of salt in a salt dissolver. Exit liquor
from the dissolver, saturated with salt, is gradually cooled from 400 C to 100 C by
evaporation under vacuum to separate ammonium chloride. The slurry containing
ammonium chloride is centrifuged and dried. The product is 98% pure and is marked as
ammonium chloride fertilizer with nitrogen content of 25%.
The mother liquor obtained after the separation of ammonium chloride crystals is
recycled to the carbonation vessels placed in series. Carbon dioxide obtained from
ammonia plant and the calciner section of soda ash plant is injected in the carbonation
vessels. There is provision of cooling coils in the lower carbonation vessels. Sodium
bicarbonate is formed. The growth of crystals, of sodium bicarbonate is controlled by the
supply of cooling water to cooling water to cooling coils in carbonation vessels.
sodium bicarbonate is thickened in a thickener and centrifuged. The sodium bi
carbonate is calcined to soda ash.
Raw material consumption per ton of co-product
Salt 1.3 tons

Ammonia 335 kgs
Power 250 kwh
Fuel oil 18 litres
Steam(including refrigeration) 5.2 tons
The plant has several advantages over the conventional Solvay process in as
much as it uses less raw material, has no effluent disposal problem, and both sodium and
chloride radical of salt are fully utilized giving valuable ammonium as a byproduct.
(4) Solvay process or Ammonia-soda process
The discovery of the chemistry of the ammonia-soda process can be traced back to the
early 1800s. A few British and French plants operated in 1840-1860, but without success.
The ammonia-soda process is usually called the Solvay process because in 1865 Ernest
Solvay started the first really successful plant at couillet in Belgium. In 1874, the first
successful ammonia-soda plant was erected in England. The ammonia-soda process is
the dominant technology used throughout the world, hence this process is selected for
production of soda ash.
Chemical reactions
(a) Overall reaction
CaCO3 + 2NaCl Na2CO3 + CaCl2
This reaction takes place in a number of steps
(b) CaCO3 CaO + CO2
(c) C + O2 CO2
(d) CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
(e) NH3 + H2O NH4OH
(f) NaCl + NH4OH NH4Cl + NaHCO3
(g) 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
(h) 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
Brine Preparation: Sodium chloride solutions are occasionally available naturally but
are more often obtained by solution mining of salt deposits to give raw, near saturated
brine containing low concentrations of impurities such as magnesium and calcium salts.
Some brines contain significant quantities of sulfates. Brine purification is required to
prevent scaling of processing equipment and contamination of the product. Brine is
usually purified by a lime soda treatment where the magnesium is precipitated with Ca
(OH)2 (milk of lime) and the calcium is precipitated with soda ash. The brine, separated
from precipitated impurities, is sent to the ammonia absorbers.
Ammonia Absorption: The strong brine is saturated with ammonia gas in the
absorption tower. The ammonia, recycled from various process steps, contains water
vapor and carbon dioxide. Small amounts of ammonia are added to make up for losses.
During ammoniation, the brine requires cooling (approx 1650 MJ/t or 394 kcal/kg of
product soda ash). The absorption operation is generally carried out at atmospheric
pressure. The brine descends through the main part of the absorber countercurrent to the
rising ammoniacal gases. The temperature of inlet brine is about 300C and that of exit is
about 360 to 420C.
Precipitation of Bicarbonate: The ammoniated brine from the absorber coolers is

pumped to the top of one column in a block of columns used to precipitate bicarbonate.
This column which has been fouled or partially plugged with sodium bicarbonate after
several days of crystallization is referred to as a “cleaning” column. Lime kiln gas,
compressed to about 414 kPa (60psi), enters the bottom of the cleaning column and
bubbles up through the solution to absorb most of the carbon dioxide. The concentration
of carbon dioxide in the liquor is kept below the precipitation concentration. Relatively
little cooling is required. The scale is dissolved off the cooling surfaces of the cleaning
column by the fresh ammoniated brine, assisted by gas agitation. The liquor leaving this
column is fed in parallel to the top of the remaining columns in to block. A stronger
carbon dioxide gas made up of a mixture of kiln gas an bicarbonate calciner gas is fed to
these crystallizing or “making” columns and bubbles up through the solution. This
process precipitates sodium bicarbonate and is accompanied by the evolution of
considerable heat which must be removed to improve yield. Crystals formed during the
carbonation step gradually foul the heat – exchange surfaces and thus a crystallizing
column must alternately be the “cleaning” column. The gases, which are predominantly
nitrogen, but also contain carbon dioxide and ammonia, are vented from the cleaning and
making columns and collected of recycling to the absorber.
Filtration of Bicarbonate: The slurry, collected from the crystallizing towers, is fed to
continuous vacuum filters or centrifuges which separate the crystals from the “filter
liquor.” The filter cake is carefully washed with fresh water to control the residual
chloride to meet customer specifications. The dewatering characteristics of the
bicarbonate crystals are very dependent on operating conditions in the crystallizing
columns. Air drawn through the vacuum filter (or the vent gas from the centrifuge
operation) is returned to the absorption section. The filter cake, often called “crude
bicarbonate” or “ammonia soda”, liquor and is made up of sodium bicarbonate and small
amounts (5 mol% on a dry basis) of ammonia primarily in the form of ammonium
bicarbonate. The cake is then conveyed to the calcining operation.
Recovery of Ammonia: The “filter liquor” contains unreacted sodium chloride and
substantially all the ammonia with which the brine was originally saturated, present as
“fixed” and “free” ammonia. The “fixed” ammonia or ammonium chloride corresponds
stoichiometrically to the sodium bicarbonate that had been precipitated. “Free” ammonia
includes ammonium hydroxide, bicarbonate, carbamate, and the several possible carbon
compounds of ammonia that decompose at moderate temperatures. Before preheating,
sulfide solution may be added for corrosion protection. The sulfide is distilled for
eventual absorption by the brine in the absorber. The filter liquor is preheated by indirect
contact with the gases leaving the distiller. The warmed feed liquor then enters the main
coke-, or bubble cap – filled sections of the distiller where heat decomposes free
ammonium compounds and steam strips almost all of the free ammonia and carbon
dioxide.
The carbon dioxide – free solution is usually treated with milk of lime (or anhydrous
lime) in an external well agitated limiting tank called a “prelimer”. Here the ammonium
chloride reacts with the milk of lime and evolved ammonia gas is vented back to the
distiller. The resulting hot calcium chloride solution, containing residual ammonia in the
form of ammonium hydroxide, flows back to a lower section of the distiller. Low
pressure steam sweeps practically all of the ammonia out of the limed solution. The final
solution, known as “distiller waste”, contains calcium chloride, unreacted sodium
chloride, and the excess lime, and is diluted by the condensed steam and the water in
which the lime was conveyed to the reaction. Distiller waste also contains the inert of
this solution. However, the waste liquors are usually pumped to settling basins where the
suspended solids are deposited. The clear over flow contains dissolved salts, which are
objectionable contaminants are locations where the quality of the receiving waters is
materially affected. Close control of the distillation is required to thoroughly strip carbon
dioxide to avoid waste o flame and achieve nearly complete ammonia recovery. The hot
(560C) mixture of wet ammonia and carbon dioxide leaving the top of the distiller is
cooled to remove water vapor before being sent to the absorber.
Lime Preparation: The most suitable limestone, hard and strong with low
concentrations of impurities, is graded to reasonably uniform coarse size. Although other
fuels may be used, the limestone is usually mixed with about 7% metallurgical – grade
coke or anthracite and then burned in vertical shaft kilns. Air is admitted continuously
into the bottom of the kiln an gas is sucked off the top. The fuel burns in a zone a little
below the middle of the kiln, and the stone “burns” to lime. Carbon dioxide is generated
by decomposition of limestone and combustion of carbon in the fuel. The kiln gases are
diluted with nitrogen from the air used to burn the fuel and usually stone dust, ash
particles, and gaseous impurities. The gas is partially cooled in the kiln by the upper
layers of stone, and further cooled and cleaned before entering the compressors feeding
the carbonating columns.
The lime, cooled somewhat by the entering air in the lower parts of the shaft kiln is
discharged intermittently and usually in rotary slackers that produce a thick suspension,
commonly called “milk of lime”, which is stored in agitated tanks. The heat of the
reaction produces milk of lime at a temperature of 90-1000C; water addition is controlled
to give a free calcium oxide. In some operations, dry lime is used in place of the milk of
lime. It is pulverized and added continuously to the prelimer in the distillation step, thus
reducing the water added and steam consumption and producing a concentrated distiller
waste.
Calcining the Bicarbonate to Soda Ash: To prevent dilution of the decomposition

gases, the crude filtered bicarbonate is continuously calcined by indirect heating. Various
techniques are used to heat the material in which is recycled after compression to enrich
the makeup kiln-gas feed to the carbonation operation. The hot soda ash discharged from
the calciner is cooled, screened, and packaged or shipped in bulk. This product, called
“light ash” because of its low bulk density, is converted to dense ash.
By-Products:
Calcium Chloride: Relatively few synthetic soda ash plants recover calcium chloride,
and most of those that do utilize only a small part of the total amount available in the
distiller waste. To produce calcium chloride, the distiller waste liquor is settled and then
evaporated in multiple – effect evaporators. During concentration most of the sodium
chloride separates. The remaining solution is further concentrated to the equivalent of
CaCl2.2H2O. this solution is cooled, forming flakes which are dried in a rotary dryer,
giving a product sold as 77-80% calcium chloride. A small amount is processed to the
anhydrous state. Calcium chloride is used on unpaved roads as a dust abater and as a
deicer on highways in winter. It is used for freeze proofing and dust proofing coal and
coke, in refrigeration brines, as a drying agent, and in cement products.
Ammonium Chloride: Ammonium chloride is the principal salt present in the mother
liquor from the crude sodium bicarbonate filtration in the ammonia – soda process.
Small amounts have been produced in soda ash plants by carbonation of the filter liquor,
concentration, and crystallization of the ammonium chloride. Most of the demands in the
United States are low – tonnage. The end uses are primarily in dry cells and fluxing
agents.
However, ammonium chloride is also a good fertilizer for important crops in rainy
climates, particularly for rice. In Japan, the production of by-product ammonium
chloride is quite large. In one process for manufacturing large quantities of by-product
ammonium chloride, more ammonia is first added to the filter liquor, which is chilled to
approximately 100C. Solid sodium chloride is added, dissolved, and ammonium chloride
precipitates, which is separated for sale, the mother liquor being recycled to the
carbonation operation. There are significant differences in equipment of the conventional
ammonia – soda process and the ammonium chloride producing soda ash process. For
example, there is no ammonia recovery and therefore no distillation tower, likewise, no
milk of lime and consequently no lime kilns which are also the source of carbon dioxide
for bicarbonation. However, the ammonium chloride producing process requires, unlike
the regular ammonia – soda plant, equipment to process solid salt, and of the ammonium
chloride production, crystallizers, filters, dryers, and cooling equipment of corrosion
resistant materials. In addition, an ammonia source is required which preferably also
supplies carbon dioxide for the bicarbonation.
Advantages of Solvay process
• Can use low-grade brine

• Less electric power
• Less corrosion problems
• No co-products to dispose of
• Does not require ammonia plant investment
Disadvantages of Solvay process

• Higher salt consumption
• Higher investment in ammonia recovery unit verses crystallization units for
ammonium chloride
• Waste disposal of calcium chloride brine stream
• More steam consumption
• Higher capacity plant for economic break-even operation
• With current fertilizer shortage, all of the ammonium chloride will be used as a
mixed chemical fertilizer ingredient, so co-product disposal no problem.
Material Balance
Production of 750 Tons/day (31250 kg/hr) of Soda ash

Material balance around Lime Kiln
CaCO3 CaO+CO2
80% conversion
C+O2 CO2
90% conversion
Excess air is not used
Inputs:
Calcium carbonate = 36851.4125 kg/hr
Carbon = 2812.5 kg/hr
Oxygen = 7500 kg/hr
Nitrogen =24687.5 kg/hr
Total input =71851.4125 kg/hr
Out puts:
Carbon di oxide = 22252.9472 kg/hr
Calcium oxide = 16509.4328 kg/hr
Nitrogen gas = 24687.5 kg/hr
Carbon (unreacted) = 1031.25 kg/hr
Calcium carbonate (unreacted) =7370.282 kg/hr
Total output =71851.412 kg/hr

Material balance around Slaker
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2

200% Excess water used
Inputs:
Calcium oxide = 16509.4328 kg/hr
Water = 10613.2068 kg/hr
Total input = 27122.6396 kg/hr
Out puts:
Calcium hydroxide = 21816.0362 kg/hr
Water = 5306.6034 kg/hr
Total out put = 27122.6396 kg/hr
Material balance around ammonia absorber

Assuming 99% absorption of input ammonia
Inputs:
Sodium chloride = 45990.5625 kg/hr
Water = 136693.1508 kg/hr
Ammonia = 18376.95 kg/hr
Inerts = 18345.59 kg/hr
Outputs:
Water = 117429.7832 kg/hr
Inerts = 18345.59 kg/hr

Ammonia(with inerts) = 183.7695 kg/hr
Ammonium hydroxide = 37456.548 kg/hr
Total output = 219406.22 kg/hr
Material balance around Carbonating Tower
NaCl + NH4OH +CO2 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Conversion 75%
Inputs:
Ammonium hydroxide = 37456.548 kg/h
Water = 117429.7832 kg/hr
Outputs:
Ammonium chloride = 31544.8091 kg/hr
Sodium bi carbonate = 49528.3019 kg/hr
Sodium chloride (unreacted) = 11497.6397 kg/hr
Ammonia hydroxide (unreacted) = 16819.754 kg/hr
Carbon di oxide (unreacted) = 8647.7974 kg/hr
Water = 117429.7832 kg/hr
Material balance around Ammonia distiller
2NH4Cl + Ca (OH)2 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2O

NH4OH NH3 + H2O
Inputs:
Calcium hydroxide = 21816.0362 kg/hr
Ammonium chloride = 31544.8091 kg/hr
Ammonia hydroxide = 16819.754 kg/hr
Water = 122736.3866 kg/hr
Outputs:
Ammonia = 18193.179 kg/hr
Calcium chloride = 32724.0543 kg/hr
Water = 141999.7521 kg/hr

Material balance around calciner
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Complete decomposition
Inputs:
Sodium bi carbonate = 49528.3019 kg/hr
Outputs:
Sodium carbonate = 31250 kg/hr
Water = 5306.6034 kg/hr

Energy balance
The datum temperature for calculation is taken as 30 °C. (303K)
Energy balance around the Lime kiln
CaCO3 CaO+CO2 ∆H25= 43.4 Kcal/mole

C+O2 CO2 ∆H25= -96.4 Kcal/mole
Temperature of reaction is 11000 C

Inputs:
Temperature of input reactants = 300 C
Therefore heat of reactants =0
Heat of reaction at 11000C(∆H1100) = -3.8*1009 calories
Outputs:
Out put temperature of products = T Kelvin
Heat output = (mcp∆t)Cao + (mcp∆t)Co2 + (mcp∆t)C(unreated)+(mcp∆t)CaCO3(unreacted)+(mcp∆t)N2
= (4798.5T – 1.347*1011/T2 + 15.58*1006)(T-303)
From heat balance
3.8*1009 = (4798.5T – 1.347*1011/T2 + 15.58*1006)(T-303)

T= 520 K
Or T= 2470 C
Energy balance around Slaker
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 ∆H25= -15.6 Kcal/mole
Reaction temperature = 1000C
Inputs:
Temperature of input water stream = 300C
Temperature of input calcium oxide stream = 2470C
Heat input by reactants = 0.775*1009 calories
Heat of reaction (∆H100) = -4.824*1009 calories
Out puts:
Temperature of output stream = T Kelvin
Heat output = (mcp∆t)Ca(OH)2+ (mcp∆t)H2O
= (10.698*1006 + 3862.02T – 0.1054T2)(T-303)
From heat balance

4.824*1006 = (10.698*1006 + 3862.02T – 0.1054T2)(T-303)
T= 720 K
Or T=4470 C
Energy balance around ammonia absorption tower

Inputs:
Temperature of input brine = 300C
Temperature of input gases = 600C
Heat input = (mcp∆t)gases
= (1666.9*7440*30)
= 0.372*1009
outputs:
Temperature of output liquid stream = 400C
Temperature of output gas stream = 300C
heat output = (mcp∆t)NaCl+(mcp∆t)NH3+(mcp∆t)H2O
= (786.16*12200+1070.18*8671.9+6523.87*18026)(40-30)
= 1.363*1009 calories
From heat balance
0.372*1009 = 1.363*1009 + heat removed
Heat removed = 0.99*1009 calories
Water required for cooling the tower = 0.99*1009/(1000*(45-30))
= 66000 kg/hr
Energy balance around carbonating tower

NaCl + NH4OH +CO2 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Temperature of reactants = 300C
Heat input =0
Heat of reaction (∆H60) = -5.8229*109 calorie
Heat output = 25.29*106
From heat balance

5.8229*109 =- 25.29*106 + heat removed
Heat removed = 5.848*109
Cooling water required = 5.848*109/(1000*(45-25))

= 292400 kg/hr
Heat balance around ammonia distiller
2NH4Cl + Ca (OH)2 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
NH4OH NH3 + H2O
Inputs:
Heat input =(mcp∆t)Ca(OH)2 + (mcp∆t)H2O +(mcp∆t)NH4Cl+(mcp∆t)Nacl(unreacted)+(mcp∆t)NH4OH
=(294.8113*22489.6+122736.3866*4180+589.6226*22936+196.5408*12337.2+
480.56*11.560)(25)
= 0.5411*1009 calories
Heat of reaction (∆H75)= 4.506*1009 calories
Outputs:
Temperature of output stream = 600C
Heat output = (mcp∆t)NH3 + (mcp∆t)H2O +(mcp∆t)CaCl2+(mcp∆t)Nacl(unreacted)
= 0.2824*1009+1.78*1010+0.1608*1009 +2.413*1006
= 1.824*1010
From heat balance
0.5411*1009- 4.506*1009 + 2.25*1009 = 1.824*1010 + heat removed
Heat removed = 0.2951*1009 calories
Heat balance around calciner
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Reaction temperature =200oC
Inputs:
Reactant temperature=300C
Heat input=0
Heat of reaction = 2.02*1010 calories
Outputs:
Output stream temperature= 1800C
Heat output=(mcp∆t)Na2CO3 + (mcp∆t)H2O +(mcp∆t)CO2
= 294.811*28900*150+294.812*8311.8*150+294.8113*10610.4*150
= 2.114*1009 calories
From heat balance
-2.02*1010 + heat supplied = 2.114*1009
heat supplied = 2.23*1010 calories
DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS
1. (a) Process Design of Ammonia Absorption Column

Feed to the absorption tower is sodium chloride solution (Brine).
Containing 300gms NaCl per liter of solution.
Composition of gaseous mixture used is (in mole fraction)

Ammonia = 64.82%
Carbon di oxide =18.03%
Water =17.14%
Ammonia composition in inlet gas stream.
Yb=1.843 K mole NH3/K mole inerts (bottom)
Assuming 95% of ammonia absorbed.
Yt=0.0184 K mole NH3/K mole inerts (top)
Brine solution flow rate Lt = 182683.71 kg/hr
Water flow rate L1 = 136693.1508 kg/hr

Solubility data of ammonia in water at 1 atmosphere pressure and at 400C
Assuming iso-thermal process
X=moles of NH3/moles of H2O Y= moles of NH3/moles of inerts

0.2647 2.3628
0.2117 1.0822
0.1588 0.5605
0.1058 0.2816
0.0794 0.1865
0.053 0.1112
0.0423 0.0869
0.03176 0.0629
0.0264 0.052
0.0211 0.041
0.0169 0.0327
0.0127 0.0246
0.0105 0.02068
From this plot,

(L1/ G1) min= (Yb-Yt)/(Xb* -Xt) ,Xt=0
= (1.843-.0184)/0.25
(L1/ G1) min=7.2984
(L1/ G1) min = 1.2 * (L1/ G1) min
(L1/ G1) min = 8.758
Therefore, Xb = 0.218
Flow of inerts rate at bottom =G1=867.1 kmol/hr
Molecular weight of gas= 22.0378
Gas flow rate at bottom =Gb=36722.55 kg/hr
Gas flow rate at top = Gt= 18529.3695 kg/hr
Brine Solution flow rate at bottom =Lb=209579.59 kg/hr
Density of gas ρg=0.8065 kg/m3
Density of liquid ρL= 1191.66 kg/m3
Bubble cap tray design

(1) Tray spacing
chosen Tray spacing ts =610mm =24 in
(2) Tray thickness

tT = 3mm
(3) Estimation of plat diameter
L/G (ρG/ρL)0.5 = 209579.59/36722.65(0.8065/1191.66)0.5
L/G (ρG/ρL)0.5 = 0.148

From flooding curve capacity parameter for tray spacing of 610 mm
CSB,F=0.33 ft/sec
Surface tension of liquid 1 G\QHVFP
Unf = Csb x { σ / 20 ) 0.2 [ (ρL - ρG) / ρG]0.5
Unf = 16.54 ft/sec

For 90% flooding
Unf = 0.9*16.54 ft/sec
Unf = 4.525 m/sec
Volumetric flow rate of gas = 12.6481 m3/sec
Net area available for gas flow (An)
An= 12.6481/4.525
An= 2.79 m2
Net area = Column cross sectional area – Down comer area.

An = Ac – Ad
Lw / Dc = 0.7
sin ( θc/2) = [( Lw/2) / (Dc/2) ] = 0.7
⇒ θc = 88.850
Ac = (π/4) Dc2 = 0.785Dc2
Ad = (π/4) Dc2 ( θc/3600) - (Lw/2) ( Dc/2). cos(θc/2)
= 0.068Dc2
Since An = Ac -Ad
2.79 = 0.785 Dc2 - 0.068 Dc2
⇒ Dc = 1.97 m
Taking Dc = 2m
Ac = 3.14 m2
Ad =0.272 m2
Lw = 1.4 m
Active area Aa = Ac -2Ad

Aa = 2.596 m2
Liquid distribution area = Acz=10% Ac
Acz = 0.314 m2
Waste peripheral area = Awz=5 %
Awz=0.157 m2
Ap = Ac -2Ad - Acz – Awz

Ap = 2.125 m2
(4) Selection of bubble cap

For tower of diameter 2m
Cap diameter = 100mm= 4 in
4 inch size bubble cap ,carbon steel US Standard gauge 12
OD=4.093 in
ID = 3.875 in
Height
Overall 3in
No of slots = 26
Type of slots = Trapezoidal shape
Slot width
Bottom = 0.333 in
Top = 0.107 in
Slot height = 1.25 in
Height shround ring = 0.25 in
Riser
OD= 2.718 in
ID = 2.5 in
Standard height
0.5 in skirt height = 2.5 in

Cap areas
Risers =4.8 in2

Reversal =7.3 in2
Annular =5.99 in2
Slot =8.12 in2
Cap =13.15 in2
(5) pitch of bubble cap
Bubble caps are arranged on triangular pitch
lp=150 mm
(6) Ratio bubble cap area to perforated area (Ab/Ap)

(Ab/Ap)=0.4030
(7) Total area of bubble caps

Ab=0.8563 m2
Total number of bubble caps = NT = 110
(8) Weir height, hw
hw= skirt clearance + spround ring +slot heigh + static seal
hw= 62.5 mm
(9) Tray dynamics calculation
Head loss through dispersion unit (dry cap + slot drop)

hd= K1 + K2 (ρG/ρL) Uh2
Uh= 14.64 m/s =liner gas velocity through risers
K1= 3.73 ((ρL - ρG) / ρG)1/5 (hsh)4/5 (Us)2/5
hsh=31.75 mm =cap slot height
Us = 21.94 m/s linear gas velocity through slots m/s
K1= 47.45
K2 calculation
(Annular area/riser area)=1.248
from plot of this area ratio Vs K2

K2=13
hd=47.39 + 13*(0.8065/1191.66) * 14.642

hd= 49.27 mm
height of crest over weir (how)
how=fw * 664(q/lw)2/3
q=liquid flow rate in m3/s=0.04258 m3/s

lw =weir length =1.4 m
q/ lw2.5=14.93
fw=1.1
how=64.92 mm
Dynamic seal
hds=hs + how +hhg/2
hs =hw-height of slot
hs =44.45 mm
let us assume hhg=20 mm
hds = 119.37 mm
hydraulic gradient across plate
hhg =Cvf * hhg1
Ua√ρG=3.585
There fore Cvf = 1
Uncorrected liquid gradient= hhg1=0.09 per row
No of rows = 1+[Zl- (lp+dc)]/lp
Zl = mean liquid length=56.23 in

dc= inside dia of cap = 3.878 in
lp = cap pitch=6 in
No of rows =9
corrected liquid gradient= hhg1=0.09*9=0.72 in
hhg =Cvf * hhg1
=1*0.72 in
= 20.57 mm
thus the estimated mean liquid depth is correct no recalculation is required.
Pressure drop through aerated liquid
h1l =β hds
β=aeration factor
Fga=Ua (ρG)1/2
= 15.98(.0503)1/2
Fga = 3.585
Ther fore β=0.58

Φ=0.18
h1l = 0.58*119.37
h1l = 69.23 mm
Total pressure drop
ht=hd + h1l
= 49.27+69.23
ht = 118.5 mm
Head loss over downcomer apron

hda = 165.2 {q/ Ada}2
Take clearance, C = 1”
hap = hds - C = 119.37 – 25.4 = 93.97 mm
Ada = Lw x hap = 0.1315 m2

∴ hda = 165.2[0.0318/ 0.1315] 2
= 9.652 mm
Down comer backup

hdc = ht+ hw + how + hda + hhg
=118.5+62.5+64.92+9.652+20.17
= 275.742 mm
hdcl= hdc/φc
where φ is the froth density
hdcl=275.745/0.5
= 551.484 mm
hdcl less than the tray spacing of 610 mm.

No down comer weeping will occur
(10) Column efficiency
a) Point efficiency(EOG)
Number of gas phase transfer units:
Ng=(0.776 + 0.00457hw- 0.238 Ua ρg0.5 + 105W)/Nscg0.5
hw = weir height in mm =62.5 mm

Ua = gas velocity through active area=4.872 m/s
W= liquid flow rate in m3/(s.m) of width of flow path on plate=0.002944 m3/(s.m)
Nscg = gas-phase Schmidt number ,µg/ρgDg
Dg= gas-phase diffusion co-efficient
Nscg= 0.01673*10-3/(0.8053*0.195*10-4)
Nscg = 1.0644
Ng=(0.776+0.00457*62.5-0.238*4.872*0.80650.5+105*0.002944)/1.0660.5
Ng = 3.015
Number of liquid phase transfer units:

NL = KL.a.θL
KL=liquid phase transfer coefficient
θL= residence time of liquid in the froth,sec
a=effective interfacial area for mass transfer ,m2/m3
hL=effective clear liquid height,mm
q=liquid flow rate,m3/sec
θL= hLAa/1000q
= 69.23*2.596/1000*0.0488
= 4.0844
(KLa) = (4.127*108DL)0.5 (0.21Uaρg0.5 + 0.15)

= (4.127*108*1.5285*10-10)0.5 (0.21*4.872*0.80850.5 + 0.15)
= 0.2684
NL=0.2684*3.682
= 1.096
λt=mt (G’/L’)((1+Yt)/(1+Xt))
= 15*(1/8.758)(1+0.01843)
= 1.744
λb=mb (G’/L’)((1+Yb)/(1+Xb))
= 5.428*(1/8.758)((1+1.843)/(1+0.218)
= 1.446
λ= (λt + λb)/2
= 1.595
∴ NOG = 1
1/NG + λ / NL
= 0.5595
EOG = 1- e -NOG = 0.4285=42.85%
(b) Murphree Plate Efficiency( EMV )
Pecklet Number Npe = ( zL)2/ ( DE.θL)
ZL= DC. Cos ( θc/2)

= 1.46 m
DE=0.0124 + 0.0171U + 0.0025 Q/ ZL + 0.015hw
hw=weir height ,inch

Q=liquid flow rate ,gal/min
U= gas flow rate,ft/sec
DE= eddy-diffusion coefficient, ft2/sec
DE=0.0124 + 0.0171*15.98+ 0.0025* 126.42 + 0.015*2.5

= 0.4492 ft2/sec
= 0.1369 m2/sec
Npe = ( 1.46)2/ ( 0.1369*4.0844)

= 3.835
λ EOG = 1.595*0.4285=0.6834
∴ (EMV/ EOG)=1.18
EMV=1.18*0.4285=0.5056=50.56%
(c) Overall column efficiency(EOC)
L/G{ρG/ρL}0.5 = 0.148
at 90 % of the flooding , ψ = 0.051
E α / E MV = 1
1 + EMV [ψ/(1- ψ)]
E α / E MV = 0.9735
E α = 0.9735*0.5056= 0.4922
The overall efficiency is given by the equation :
EOC = log[ 1 + Eα ( λ - 1) ]
log λ
EOC = log[ 1 +0.4922 ( 1.592 - 1) ]

log 1.592
= 0.5501=55.01%
Nt =number of theoretical trays=4

Nc=number of actual trays
EOC = Nt / Nc
Nc= 4/0.5501
=7.27≈8
tower height=( Tray Spacing x Actual number of trays )

= 0.610*8=4.88
tower height(HT)=5
(b) Mechanical Design of Absorption Column
Diameter of the tower Di = 2.0m
Working pressure = 1 atm=1.0329 kg/m2
Design pressure pd = 1.1362 kg/m2
Shell material Plain Carbon steel
Permissible tensile stress (ft)= 950kg/cm2
Insulation thickness = 100mm
Density of insulation = 770 kg/m3
Tray spacing = 610mm
Top disengaging space = 1m

Bottom separator space = 2m
Skirt height = 2m
Density of material column = 7700 kg/m3
Wind pressure = 130 kg/m2
1) Shell thickness
ts= PDi/(2fJ-P) + C
P= design pressure in kg/cm3
f=allowable tensile stress kg/cm3
C= corrosion allowance
J=joint factor
ts= (1.1362*2000)/(2*950*0.85-1.1362)
ts = 4 mm
minimum thickness allowable is 6mm
ts= 6mm
2) Head Design
Shallow dished and torisherical head
Thickness of head is given by
th= PRCW/2fJ
Rc=crown radius
W=stress intensification factor
W= 0.25(3 + √(RC/RK)
Rk= knuckle radius ,6% of crown radius.
W= 1.7706
th= 1.1362*2000*1.7706/2*950*0.85
ts= 2.491 mm
minimum thickness is ts= 6mm
3) Shell thickness at different heights

At a distance ‘X’ m from the top of the shell the stress are;
Axial Stress: (compressive)
fap = pi Di___
4(ts – C)
= 1.1362*2000/4*(6-2)
= 142.025 kg/m3
4)Compressive stress due to weight of shell up to a distance ‘X’
fds = π/4 * ( Do2 – Di2 ) ρs X
π/4 * ( Do2 – Di2 )
= ρs X
= 0.77X kg/m3
5) Compressive stress due to weight of insulation
fd(ins) = π Dins tin ρins
π Dm (ts – C )
fd(ins) = 2212*100*770*X
2006*(6-2)
fd(ins) = 2.122X
6) compressive Stress due to the weight of the liquid and tray
fd = Wliq_____
π Dm(ts-C)
Wliq = ((X-top space)/TS+1) (πd2/4)ρL
Wliq = ((X-1)/0.61)+1) (π*22/4)*1193
= [61.44X-27.03] kg/cm
fd=[61.44X-27.03]/( π*2.006*(6-2))
fd = [24.37X-10.722] kg/cm2
7) Stress due to the weight of the attachments
The total weight of the attachments
Wa = (2670 + 140X)
Fd(att) = (2670 + 140X)/(Π*2006*4)
= 10.59 + 0.55X
8) total compressive dead weight stress at height X
fds=27.812 X – 19.755
9) stress due to wind load at distance X
fws = 1.4*PwX2/Π*Do(ts-c)
= (1.4*130*X2)/(Π*201.2*.4)
= 0.7198X2
10) stress in upwind side

fmax= fws+fap-fdx
0.8*950= 0.7198X2+142.025-27.812X+19.755
0.7198X2-27.812X-597.917=0
X=53.32 m
11) stress in down side
fmax= fws+fap+fdx
0.7198X2-27.812X-882.28=0
X=49.30 m
From this ,For whole tower 6mm thickness is enough.
12) Skirt design

The material of construction for skirt is carbon steel IS:2062-1962
Minimum weight of vessel
Wmin= Π(Di+ts) ts(H-2)γs + 2WH
H=10.5 (Total height of tower including skirt height)
γs= 7700kg/m3 (specific weight of shell material)
WH= 2670kg (weight of head)
Wmin= Π(2+0.006) (0.006)(10.5-2)7700 + 2*2670

Wmin= 8688.27 kg
Maximum weight of vessel

Wmax=Ws+Wi+Wl+Wa
Ws=10800kg(weight of shell during test)
Wi= 4200kg (weight of insulation)
Wl= 36128 kg (weight of water during test)
Wa= 4400 kg (weight of attachments)
Wmax=55528 kg
Wind load
PW= K1pwHD
For minimum weight of column,D=2m
Pw(min)= 0.7*130*10.5*2= 2457 kg
Pw(max)= 0.7*130*10.5*2.2= 2702.7 kg

Minimum wind moment
MW(min) = PW(min)*H/2
= 2457*10.5/2
= 16584.75 kg m
Maximum wind moment
MW(min) = PW(min)*H/2
= 2702.7*10.5/2
= 18243.22 kg m
Bending stresses
fb(min)= 4Mw(min)
Π*D2*t
= 4*16584.75
Π*22*t
= 0.5279/t kg/cm2
fb(max)= 4Mw(max)
Π*D2*t
= 4*18243.22
Π*4*t
=0.5806/t kg/cm2
Minimum dead load stress

Fds(min)= Wmin/Πdt
= 8688.27/Π*2*t
= 0.1382/t kg/cm2
Maximum dead load
Fds(max)= Wmax/Πdt
= 0.8837 kg/cm3
Maximum tensile stress without any eccentric load
fz= fbs(max)-ffs(min)
980*0.8= 0.0529/t
t= 0.0771mm
Maximum compressive stress without any eccentric load
fz=fbs(max)-fbs(min)
fz= 0.125 E (t/Do)

= 0.125*2.04*106*t/2
= 127500t
127500t=0.5806/t+0.5279/t
t=2.94 m
Minimum skirt thickness is 7mm,by providing 1mm corrosion allowance

ts=8mm
Design of skirt bearing bolts

Maximum compressive stress between bearing plate and foundation
fc= Wmax/A + Mw/2
A=Π(Do-l)/2
l=outer radius of bearing plate minus outer radius of skrit
Z=ΠRm2 l
Rm=(Do-l)/2
fc= 55528 /(Π(2-l)l) + 18243.22/(Π(2-l)2l
The allowable compressive stress of concrete foundation varies from 5.5 to 9.5 MN/m2
0.55*106 = 55528 /(Π(2-l)l) + 18243.22/(Π(2-l)2l
l=0.021m
As required width of bearing plate is very small a 100 mm width is selected
l=0.1 m
therefore fc= 0.122*106
thickness of bearing plate
tbp=l√(3fc/f)
= 100√(3*0.122*106/96*106) = 61.2 mm
Bearing plate thickness of 61.2 mm is required
As the plate thickness required is larger than 20mm gussets may be used to reinforce
the plate.
For l/b=1
M(max) = MY= 0.199fcl2
= 0.119*0.122*106*0.12
= 145.18 kg
tbp=√(6Mmax/f)
= 9.52 mm
if gussets are used at 100mm spacing ,bearing plate thickness of 10mm will be
sufficient
fmin= Wmin/A – Mw/Z
= 8688/Π(2-l)l + 18234.22/Π(2-l)2l
= 30641 kg/m3
j=WminR/Mw
R=moment arm for that weight of vessel.

R=0.42 Dol
R= 8688*0.42*2.2/18243.22
R= 0.44
As the value is less than 1.5 , the vessel will not be steady by its own weight.
There fore anchor bolts are to be used

Pbolt*n=fmin*A
= 30641*3.14*(2-0.1)*0.1
=1828
For hot rolled carbon steel f=5.73*106 kg/m2

(arn)f=nPbolt
arn=319 m2
For 12X1.5 ,ar=63mm2
Number of bolts=319/63=5 bolts

(13) Nozzles
Diameter of liquid inlet and outlet nozzles = 180mm
Diameter of gas inlet and outlet nozzles =75 mm
Thickness of nozzles t=10mm
(14) Bubble cap Tray
Number of bubble caps=110

Diameter of bubble cap(dc)=100mm=4in
Cap pitch(p)=150mm=6in
Distance between extreme rows of caps
l-(p+dc)
l=length of liquid travel=1.428m=56.23 in
number of rows= 1+(l-(p+dc))/p

=1+(1-(56.23-(6+4))/6
= 9 rows
nr=number of caps for center row

nr= (Dc-(dc+3))/p
nr= (80-(4+3))/6
nr= 13
2. (a)Process Design of Heat exchanger
Heat exchanger used is shell and tube.
The ammoniated brine entering from Ammonia Absorption Column must be cooled from
400C to 300C using cooling water available at 200C.
Shell side:
Feed (mh)=58.216 kg/sec
Inlet temperature (T1)= 400C
Outlet temperature(T2)= 300C
Tube side :
Inlet temperature (t1)= 200C
Outlet temperature(t2)= 300C
1) Heat balance
Qh=mh Cp (T2-T1)
= 58.216*3.555*(40-30)
= 2069.59 KW
At steady state.
Qh=Qc=mc Cp (t2-t1)
2069590=mc*4.18*(30-20)
mc=49.53 kg/sec
2) LMTD
LMTD=100C
FT=LMTD correction factor.
R=1.00 & S=0.5

From graph of FT Vs S
FT =0.8
LMTD(corrected )=0.8*10=80C
3) Heat transfer area:

Choose overall heat transfer coefficient= 1000 W/(m2K)
Q = UA(LMTD)
A=2069590/1000*8
A=258.698m2
4) Tube selection
¾ in OD ,10 BWG Tubes
OD=3/4 in=19.05 mm
ID=0.62 in=15.75 mm
Length of tube =L=20ft=6m
Heat transfer area per tube =0.3648 m2
Number of tubes= 258.698/0.3648=709
TEMA P or S, Floating head type:
Nearest tube count from tube count table
NT= 740
6 tube passes and 1 shell pass
¾ in tubes arranged in triangular pitch
shell ID(Df)=838mm=33in
Corrected heat transfer area=0.3648*742=269.952 m2
Corrected over all heat transfer coefficient (U)=958.31 W/(m2K)
5) Average properties of fluids

a) shell side (ammoniated brine) at 350C
ρ=987.086 kg/m3
µ=1.62*10-3 Ns/m2
Cp=3.555KJ/kg.K
k=0.49 w/m.k
b)tube side (water) at 250C
ρ=999 kg/m3
µ=8.966*10-4Ns/m2
Cp=4.18 KJ/kg.K
k=0.608w/m.k
5) Tube side velocity
Number of passes NP=6
Flow area =(Π*ID2/4)*NT/NP
= (3.14*0.015752/4)*740/6
Aa =0.024 m2
Vt=mc/ (Aa ρ)
=49.53/(0.024*999)
=2.072 m/s
velocity is with the range.
6) Shell side velocity
Sm=[(Pl-Do)Ls]Ds/ Pl Pl =pitch=25.4 mm
LS=0.8 Ds
=[(25.4-19.05)670]838/ 25.4
=0.1404 m2
Vs=mh/(ρ Sm)
=58.216/(987*0.1404)
=0.42 m/s
Nb+1=L/LS
=6/0.67
Nb=9 baffles
7) Shell side heat transfer coefficient
NNU=jH Nre(NPr)1/3 NNu=nusselt number
NRe=VsDoρ/µ NRe=Reynolds number

=0.42*0.01905*987/0.00162
=4874.68 NPr=Prandtl number
jh=10-2
NPr=µCp/k
=0.00162*3555/0.49
=11.746
NNU=10-2*4874.68*(11.746)1/3
=110.8
ho=110.8*0.49/0.01905
=2849.98 w/m2.K
8) Tube side heat transfer coefficient
NNu=0.023(NRe)0.8 (NPr)0.3
NRe=36361.1
NPr=5.502
NNu=0.023(36361.1)0.8 (5.502)0.3
=184.406
hi=6820.5899 w/m2.K
9) overall heat transfer coefficient
dirt coefficient on shell side=hod=5000 w/m2.K

dirt coefficient on tube side=hid=5555.55 w/m2.K
1/U=1/ho+(Do/Di)(1/hi)+Doln(Do/Di)/(2k)+1/ hod+(Do/Di)(1/hid)
1/U=1/2849.98+(19.05/15.75)(1/6820.5899)+0.01905*ln(19.05/15.75)/(2*50)
+1/ 5000+(19.05/15.75)(1/5555.55)
U=1018.57 w/m2.K
Assumed value and design value are almost same.

Pressure drop calculation
a) Tube side pressure drop
tube side Reynolds number=NRe= 36361.1
friction factor=f=0.079(NRe)-1/4
=0.079(36361.1) -1/4
=5.72*10-3
∆PL=(4fLvt2/2gDi)*ρtg
= (4*5.72*10-3*6*2.0722/2*9.8*15.75*10-3)*999*9.8
= 2995.92 N/m2
∆PE= 2.5(ρt vt2/2)

= 2.5(999*2.0722/2)
= 5345 N/m2
(∆P)T = Np(∆PL+∆PE)
= 6*(2995.92+5345)
= 50045.52 N/m2
b) Shell side pressure drop (Bell’s method)
shell side Reynolds number=NRe=4874.68
fk=0.18
pressure drop for cross flow zones

∆ PC = (bfkw2NC/ρfSm2)(µw/µf)
Nc= number of tube rows crossed in one cross flow section.
Nc=Ds[1-2(LC/Ds)]/PP
Where Lc baffle cut,25% of Ds

PP=((√3)/2)PI
Nc=838[1-2*0.5]/22
Nc= 19
∆ PC = (2*10-3*0.18*58.2162*19)/(987*0.14042)
∆ PC = 1.19 K Pa
pressure drop in end zones
∆PE= ∆PC(1+Ncw/Nc)
Ncw=0.8LC/PP,number of cross flow rows in each window.
Ncw= 8
∆PE= 1.19*(1+8/19)
∆PE= 1.69 K Pa
pressure drop in window zones
∆Pw= bw2(2+0.6Ncw)/(SmSw ρ)
Sw=Swg- Swt
Sw=area for flow through window zone.

Swg= gross window area
Swt= area occupied by tubes
Swg= 170 in2, for DS=33in & LC/DS=0.25
Swt= (NT/8)(1- FC) ΠDO2
Swt= (740/8)(1-0.66) Π 0.019052
Swt= 0.0358 m2
SW=(0.1096-0.0358)=0.0737 m2
∆PW = 5*10-5*58.2162*(2+0.6*8)
0.1404*0.0737*987
∆PW = 1.127 Kpa
(∆PS)T = 2∆PE + (Nb-1)∆PC + Nb ∆Pw

(∆PS)T = 2*1.69 + (8-1)*1.19 + 8*1.127
(∆PS)T = 20.726 Kpa
2. (b)Mechanical design of Heat Exchanger
(a) Shell side details

Material : carbon steel
Number of shell passes: one
Working pressure: 0.1N/mm2
Design pressure : 0.11N/mm2
Inlet temperature: 400C
Out let temperature:300C
Permissible stress for carbon steel: 95N/mm2
(b) Tube side details

Number tubes: 740
Number of passes: 6
Outside diameter: 19.05mm
Inside diameter : 15.75
Length: 6m
Pitch triangular:1 inch
Working pressure: 0.1 N/mm2
Design pressure: 0.11N/mm2
Inlet temperature : 200C
Outlet temperature: 300C
Shell side
(1) Shell thickness
ts= PD/(2fJ+P)
= 0.11*838/(2*95*0.85+0.11)
= 0.57
Minimum thickness of shell must be=6.3 mm

Including corrosion allowance shell thickness is 8mm
(2) Head thickness.

Shallow dished and torisphrrical
ts=PRcW/2fJ
= 0.11*838*1.77/(2*95*1)
= 0.858
minimum shell thickness should be 10mm including corrosion allowance.
(3) Transverse Baffles

Baffle spacing =0.8*Dc
= 670.4mm
number of baffles,
Nb+1=L/LS=6000/670.4=9
Nb=8
Thickness of baffles, tb=6mm
(4) Tie Rods and spacers
For shell diameter, 700-900mm

Diameter of Rod = 13mm
Number of rods=6
(5) Flanges
Design pressure=0.11 N/mm2
Flange material IS:2004-1962,class 2
Bolting steel :5% Cr-Mo steel
Gasket material: asbestos composition
Shell thickness: 8mm=go
Outside diameter of shell: 854 mm
Allowable stress of flange material : 100MN/m2
Allowable stress of bolting material : 138MN/m2
Determination of gasket width
dO/di = [(y-Pm)/(y-P(m+1))]0.5
Assume a gasket thickness of 1.6mm
y = minimum design yield seating stress = 25.5 MN/m2
m = gasket factor = 2.75
dO/di = [(25.5-0.11*2.75)/(25.5-0.11(2.75+1))]0.5
dO/di = 1.002m
let di of gasket equal 864mm

do= 1.002*di
do= 0.8657 m
Minimum gasket width = 0.801(1.002-1)/2 = 0.0008m
Taking gasket width of N= 0.010m
do=0.885
Basic gasket seating width,bo=5mm
Diameter of location of gasket load reaction is
G=di+N
=0.864+0.01
= 0.874 m
Estimation of Bolt loads.

Load due to design pressure
H= πG2P/4
= 3.14*0.8742*0.11/4
= 0.066 MN
Load to keep joint tight under operation
Hp=πG(2b)mp
= 3.14*0.874*(2*0.00559)*2.75*0.11
= 0.01 MN
Total operating load
Wo=H+Hp
=0.066+0.01
=0.076 MN
Load to seat gasket under bolting condition
Wg = πGby
= 3.14*0.874*0.00559*25.5
= 0.3914 MN
Wg>Wo ,controlling load=0.3914MN
Calculation of optimum bolting area

Am=Ag=Wg/Sg
= 0.3914/138
= 2.836*10-03 m2
Calculation of optimum bolt size

Bolt size,M18 X 2
Actual number of bolts =44
Radial clearance from bolt circle to point of connection of hub or nozzle and back of
flange = R = 0.027 m
C = nBs/π = 0.9243
C =ID + 2(1.415g + R)
= 0.854 +2[(1.415)(0.008)+0.027]
= 0.9301m
Choose C = 0.93m
Bolt circle diameter = 0.93m
Calculation of flange outside diameter

A=C+ bolt diameter +0.02
=0.93+0.018+0.02
= 0.968
let A=0.97 m
check for gasket width

AbSG / (πGN) = 34.055 < 2y,
where SG is the Allowable stress for the gasket material
Flange moment computation

(a) For operating condition
Wo=W1+W2+W3
W1=∏B2P/4
=∏*0.8542*0.11/4
= 0.063 MN
W2=H-W1
=0.0646-0.063
= 0.063MN
W3=Wo-H=Hp
= 0.01 MN
Mo=Total flange moment
Mo=W1a1 + W2a2 + W3a3
a1=(C-B)/2=(0.93-0.854)/2
a1=0.038 m
a3=(C-G)/2=(0.93-0.865)/2
a3=0.0325 m
a2=(a1 + a3)/2= (0.038+0.0325)/2=0.03525 m
Mo=0.038*0.063+0.03525*0.0016+0.0325*0.01
Mo= 2.775*10-3 MN-m
(b) For bolting condition

Mg=Wa3
W=(Am+Ab)*Sg/2
Ab=44*1.54*10-4 =6.76*10-3 m2
Am= 2.836*10-03 m2
W=(2.836*10-3+6.76*10-3)*138/2
W= 0.6621 MN
Mg= 0.6621*0.0325
= 0.02333 MN-m
Mg>Mo ,Hence moment under operating condition Mg is controlling, Mg=M
Calculation of flange thickness

t2 = M CF Y / (B SF), SF is the allowable stress for the flange material
K =A/B = 0.97/0.854 = 1.135
For K = 1.15, Y = 14
Assuming CF =1
t2 = 0.02333*1*14/(0.854*100)
t= 0.0618 m=61.8 mm
Actual bolt spacing BS = πC/n = (3.14)(0.93)/(44) = 0.066m
Bolt Pitch Correction Factor

CF = [Bs / (2d+t)]0.5
= (0.066/(2*0.018+0.076)1/2
= 0.7675
√CF=0.87612
Actual flange thickness = √CF*t
= 0.8761*0.0618
= 0.04713 m
= 47.13 mm
Standard flange thickness available is 50 mm
Channel and channel Cover
th=Gc√(KP/f)
= 0.865*√(0.3*0.11/95)
= 0.016m =16mm
th=18mm including corrosion allowance
Tube sheet thickness

tts=FG√(0.25P/f)
= 1*0.874√(0.25*0.11/95)
= 14.7 mm
tts=15mm
tts=18 mm including corrosion allowance.
Nozzles
Tube side nozzles diameter=180 mm
Shell side nozzles diameter = 180 mm
Thickness of nozzles =t=10mm
Saddle support
Material: low carbon steel
Total length of shell: 6 m
Diameter of shell: 854 mm
Knuckle radius : 51.24 mm
Total depth of head (H)= √(Doro/2)
= √(854*51.24/2)
= 148 mm
Weight of the shell and its contents = 11943kg = W
R=D/2=427 mm
Distance of saddle center line from shell end = A =0.5R=214 mm
Longitudinal Bending Moment
M1 = QA[1-(1-A/L+(R2-H2)/(2AL))/(1+4H/(3L))]
Q = W/2(L+4H/3)
= 11943(6 +4*0.148/3)/2
= 47756.075 kg m
M1 = 477560*0.214[1-(1-0.214/6+(0.4272-0.1482)/(2*6*0.214))/(1+4*0.148/(3*6))]
= 1004.63 kg-m
Bending moment at center of the span

M2 = QL/4[(1+2(R2-H2)/L)/(1+4H/(3L))-4A/L]
M2 =81085.6 kg-m
Stresses in shell at the saddle

(a) At the topmost fibre of the cross section
f1 =M1/(k1π R2 t) k1=k2=1
=1004.63/(3.14*0.4272*0.01)
= 17.35 kg/cm2
the stresses are well within the permissible values.
Stress in the shell at mid point

f2 =M2/(k2π R2 t)
= 604.45 kg/cm2
Axial stress in the shell due to internal pressure

fp= PD/4t
= 0.11*836/4*10
= 225.53 kg/cm2
f2 + fp = 829.98 kg/cm2
the sum f2 and fp is well within the permissible values.
Chapter-7
Pollution and safety in process industries

The bulk of the solids in distiller waste in the soda ash plant is made up of
chloride. This arises from the fact that the waste contains all the chloride from the salt
used, chlorine is not utilized in the process.
Calcium chloride in solution permeates the soil bed and contaminates sources of
water supply. Only to a very limited extent is any portion of the waste allowed by
municipal authorities to be sent to rivers or any public waterways and that only after
complete settling. Also fish in the river were killed by the calcium chloride and the free
lime carried in the liquor.
The preparation of chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid from calcium chloride in the
waste went no longer be considered workable in view of the present more economical
methods for preparing such materials.
Waste Disposal: Large volumes of liquid wastes containing suspended and dissolved
solids are produced in an ammonia – soda plant. The largest volume occurs from the
distiller operation where for every ton of product soda ash, nearly 10 m3 of liquid wastes
are produced, containing about one ton of calcium chloride, one-half ton of sodium
chloride, and other soluble and insoluble impurities. Traditionally this liquid waste, after
settling of suspended solids in large basins, was discharged into local waterways. In the
United States, federal guidelines , suggesting limits on suspended solids and pH of liquid
wastes discharged to local waterways, are used in the development of local discharge
permits. The guidelines also specified no discharges from new ammonia – soda ash
plants. Although processes have been proposed to reduce or eliminate waste streams, it
is felt that in the United States, with its abundant reserves of natural ash, the guidelines
will prohibit installation of new ammonia – soda plants. In addition to regulations
governing liquid wastes, local restrictions have been placed on gaseous emissions from
soda ash plants to protect air quality. The cost to comply with the environmental
regulations and the increasing operating costs relative to natural ash have contributed
heavily to the shutdown of synthetic soda ash plants in the United States.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Exposure to soda ash is ordinarily not hazardous but soda ash dust may produce
temporary irritation of the nose and throat. Although some become accustomed to
working in ht dust and suffer relatively little discomfort, others are allergic to alkaline
materials and develop a condition of dermatitis. Tests have shown that dermal effects
due to soda ash range from a transient reddening and inflammation to mild burns to
abraded skin areas. The skin irritations experienced by workmen exposed to soda ash
dust in hot weather are usually more severe because soda ash is likely to dissolve in
perspiration.
Soda ash is corrosive to the eyes. It produces severe corneal, iridal, and conjunctival
effects (tissue destruction). Soda ash is harmful if ingested and may be corrosive to the
lining of the stomach. A private communication has indicated that the acute oral LD50 on
for soda ash is 2.8 g/kg.
Potential Health Effects of Soda ash

Eye: Contact with eyes may cause severe irritation, and possible eye burns.
First aid: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes,
occasionally lifting the upper and lower lids. Get medical aid immediately
Skin: Contact with skin causes irritation and possible burns, especially if the skin
is wet or moist.
First aid: Get medical aid. Flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least
15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes.
Ingestion: May cause irritation of the digestive tract.

First aid: Do not induce vomiting. If victim is conscious and alert, give 2-
4cupfuls of milk or water. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious
person. Get medical aid immediately.
Inhalation: May cause irritation of the respiratory tract with burning pain in the
nose and throat, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath and pulmonary edema.
First aid: Remove from exposure to fresh air immediately. If not breathing,give
artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen.Get medical aid if
cough or other symptoms appear
Chronic: Prolonged or repeated inhalation may cause nosebleeds, nasal
congestion, erosion of the teeth, perforation of the nasal septum,chest pain and
bronchitis.
Handling and storage
Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and

wash before reuse. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. Keep container
tightly closed. Avoid ingestion and inhalation.
Storage: Store in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry,well-ventilated

area away from incompatible substances.
Pollution and safety in process industries
The bulk of the solids in distiller waste in the soda ash plant is made up of
chloride. This arises from the fact that the waste contains all the chloride from the salt
used, chlorine is not utilized in the process.
Calcium chloride in solution permeates the soil bed and contaminates sources of
water supply. Only to a very limited extent is any portion of the waste allowed by
municipal authorities to be sent to rivers or any public waterways and that only after
complete settling. Also fish in the river were killed by the calcium chloride and the free
lime carried in the liquor.
The preparation of chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid from calcium chloride in the
waste went no longer be considered workable in view of the present more economical
methods for preparing such materials.
Waste Disposal: Large volumes of liquid wastes containing suspended and dissolved
solids are produced in an ammonia – soda plant. The largest volume occurs from the
distiller operation where for every ton of product soda ash, nearly 10 m3 of liquid wastes
are produced, containing about one ton of calcium chloride, one-half ton of sodium
chloride, and other soluble and insoluble impurities. Traditionally this liquid waste, after
settling of suspended solids in large basins, was discharged into local waterways. In the
United States, federal guidelines , suggesting limits on suspended solids and pH of liquid
wastes discharged to local waterways, are used in the development of local discharge
permits. The guidelines also specified no discharges from new ammonia – soda ash
plants. Although processes have been proposed to reduce or eliminate waste streams, it
is felt that in the United States, with its abundant reserves of natural ash, the guidelines
will prohibit installation of new ammonia – soda plants. In addition to regulations
governing liquid wastes, local restrictions have been placed on gaseous emissions from
soda ash plants to protect air quality. The cost to comply with the environmental
regulations and the increasing operating costs relative to natural ash have contributed
heavily to the shutdown of synthetic soda ash plants in the United States.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Exposure to soda ash is ordinarily not hazardous but soda ash dust may produce
temporary irritation of the nose and throat. Although some become accustomed to
working in ht dust and suffer relatively little discomfort, others are allergic to alkaline
materials and develop a condition of dermatitis. Tests have shown that dermal effects
due to soda ash range from a transient reddening and inflammation to mild burns to
abraded skin areas. The skin irritations experienced by workmen exposed to soda ash
dust in hot weather are usually more severe because soda ash is likely to dissolve in
perspiration.
Soda ash is corrosive to the eyes. It produces severe corneal, iridal, and conjunctival
effects (tissue destruction). Soda ash is harmful if ingested and may be corrosive to the
lining of the stomach. A private communication has indicated that the acute oral LD50 on
for soda ash is 2.8 g/kg.
Potential Health Effects of Soda ash

Eye: Contact with eyes may cause severe irritation, and possible eye burns.
First aid: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes,
occasionally lifting the upper and lower lids. Get medical aid immediately
Skin: Contact with skin causes irritation and possible burns, especially if the skin
is wet or moist.
First aid: Get medical aid. Flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least
15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes.
Ingestion: May cause irritation of the digestive tract.

First aid: Do not induce vomiting. If victim is conscious and alert, give 2-
4cupfuls of milk or water. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious
person. Get medical aid immediately.
Inhalation: May cause irritation of the respiratory tract with burning pain in the
nose and throat, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath and pulmonary edema.
First aid: Remove from exposure to fresh air immediately. If not breathing,give
artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen.Get medical aid if
cough or other symptoms appear
Chronic: Prolonged or repeated inhalation may cause nosebleeds, nasal
congestion, erosion of the teeth, perforation of the nasal septum,chest pain and
bronchitis.
Handling and storage
Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and

wash before reuse. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. Keep container
tightly closed. Avoid ingestion and inhalation.
Storage: Store in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry,well-ventilated

area away from incompatible substances.
COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS
Cost of Soda ash plant of capacity 750 TPD in 1971 is Rs.1.75×108.
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index:
Cost index in 1971 = 132
Cost index in 2002 = 402
Thus, Present cost of Plant = (original cost) × (present cost index)/(past cost index)
= (1.75×108) × (402/132) = Rs. 5.33×108
i.e., Fixed Capital Cost (FCI) = Rs. 5.33×108
Estimation of Capital Investment Cost:

I. Direct Costs: material and labour involved in actual installation of complete
facility (70-85% of fixed-capital investment)
a) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation + painting

(50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)
1. Purchased equipment cost (PEC): (15-40% of Fixed-capital investment)
Consider purchased equipment cost = 25% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., PEC = 25% of 5.33×108 = 0.25 × 3.0455×108 = Rs. 1.3325×108
2. Installation, including insulation and painting: (25-55% of

purchased equipment cost.)
Consider the Installation cost = 40% of Purchased equipment cost
= 40% of 1.3325×108 = 0.40 ×1.3325×108 = Rs.0.553×108
3. Instrumentation and controls, installed: (6-30% of

Purchased equipment cost.)
Consider the installation cost = 20% of Purchased equipment cost
= 20% of ×1.3325x108 = 0.20 ×1.3325×108 = Rs. 0.2665×108
4. Piping installed: (10-80% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the piping cost = 40% Purchased equipment cost
= 40% of Purchased equipment cost = 0.40 ×1.3325×108
= Rs. 0.533×108
5. Electrical, installed: (10-40% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased equipment cost
= 25% of 1.3325 ×108 = 0.25 ×1.3325×108 = Rs. 0.3331×108
Hence, cost =Rs. 2.9981×108 --- (56.25% of FCI)
B. Buildings, process and Auxiliary: (10-70% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider Buildings, process and auxiliary cost = 40% of PEC
= 40% of 1.3325 ×108 = 0.40 ×1.3325×108 = Rs. 0.533×108
C. Service facilities and yard improvements: (40-100% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the cost of service facilities and yard improvement = 60% of PEC
= 60% of 1.3325 ×108 = 0.60 ×1.3325×108 = Rs. 0.7993×108
D. Land: (1-2% of fixed capital investment or 4-8% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the cost of land = 6% PEC = 6% of 1.3325 ×108 = 0.06 ×1.3325×108
= Rs. 0.07995×108
Thus, Direct cost = Rs. 4.41×108 ----- (82.74% of FCI)

II. Indirect costs: expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour
of actual installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)
A. Engineering and Supervision: (5-30% of direct costs)

Consider the cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of Direct costs
i.e., cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of 4.41 ×108
= 0.1×4.41 ×108 = Rs. 0.441×108
B. Construction Expense and Contractor’s fee: (6-30% of direct costs)
Consider the construction expense and contractor’s fee = 10% of Direct costs
i.e., construction expense and contractor’s fee = 10% of 4.41×108
= 0.1×4.41 ×108 = Rs. 0.441×108
C. Contingency: (5-15% of Fixed-capital investment)

Consider the contingency cost = 10% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., Contingency cost = 10% of 5.33×108 = 0.12 × 5.33×108
= Rs. 0.6396×108
Thus, Indirect Costs = Rs. 1.5216×108 --- (28.54% of FCI)
III. Fixed Capital Investment:

Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs
= (4.41×108) + (1.5216×108)
i.e., Fixed capital investment = Rs. 5.9316×108
IV. Working Capital: (10-20% of Fixed-capital investment)

Consider the Working Capital = 15% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., Working capital = 15% of 5.9316×108 = 0.15 × 5.9316×108
= Rs. 0.8897×108
V. Total Capital Investment (TCI):

Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital
= (5.9316×108) + (0.8897×108)
i.e., Total capital investment = Rs. 6.8213×108
Estimation of Total Product cost:

I. Manufacturing Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant
overhead cost.
A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)
i. Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of
calculation-about 13% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3%
for Building Value for Buildings)
Consider depreciation = 13% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 3% for
Building Value for Buildings)
i.e., Depreciation = (0.13××108) + (0.03×0.533×108)=
= Rs. 0.7711×108
ii. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the local taxes = 3% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Local Taxes = 0.03×5.9316×108 = Rs. 0.178×108
iii. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the Insurance = 0.7% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Insurance = 0.007×5.9316×108 = Rs. 0.0415×108
iv. Rent: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings)

Consider rent = 10% of value of rented land and buildings
= 10% of ((0.07995×108) + (0.533×108))
= 0.10× ((0.0.7995×108) + (0.533×108))
Rent = Rs. 0.06129x108
Thus, Fixed Charges = Rs. 1.05189×108
B. Direct Production Cost: (about 60% of total product cost)

Now we have Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges – (given)
Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost
Ö Total product charge = fixed charges/15%
Ö Total product charge = 1.05189×108/15%
Ö Total product charge = 1.05189×108/0.15
Ö Total product charge(TPC) = Rs. 7.0126×108
i. Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of raw materials = 25% of total product cost
Ö Raw material cost = 25% of 7.0126×108 = 0.25×7.0126×108
Ö Raw material cost = Rs. 1.753×108
ii. Operating Labour (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of operating labour = 12% of total product cost
Ö operating labour cost = 12% of 7.0126×108 = 0.12×7.0126×108
Ö Operating labour cost = Rs. 0.8415×108
iii. Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CL): (10-25% of OL)
Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labour = 12% of OL
Ö Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = 12% of 0.8415×108
= 0.12×0.8415×108
Ö Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = Rs. 0.1×108
iv. Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Utilities = 12% of total product cost
Ö Utilities cost= 12% of 7.0126×108 = 0.12×7.0126×108
Ö Utilities cost = Rs. 0.8415×108
v. Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Maintenance and repair cost = 0.05×5.9316×108 = Rs. 0.2965×108
vi. Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)

Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R
Operating supplies cost = 15% of 0.2965×108 = 0.15 ×0.2965×108
Operating supplies cost = Rs. 0.0444×108
vii. Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL)

Consider the Laboratory charges = 15% of OL
Laboratory charges = 15% of 0.8415×108= 0.15×0.8415×108
Ö Laboratory charges = Rs. 0.1262×108
viii. Patent and Royalties: (0-6% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 4% of total product cost
Ö Patent and Royalties = 4% of 7.0126×108 = 0.03×7.0126×108
Ö Patent and Royalties cost = Rs. 0.2805×108
Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs. 4.2836×108 ----- (61% of TPC)
C. Plant overhead Costs (50-70% of Operating labour, supervision, and maintenance or

5-15% of total product cost); includes for the following: general plant upkeep and
overhead, payroll overhead, packaging, medical services, safety and protection,
restaurants, recreation, salvage, laboratories, and storage facilities.
Consider the plant overhead cost = 60% of OL, DS & CL, and M & R
Plant overhead cost = 60% of ((0.8415×108) + (0.1×108) + (0.2965×108))
Plant overhead cost = 0.60 × ((0.8415×108) + (0.1×108) + (0.2965×108))
Plant overhead cost = Rs. 0.7428×108
Thus, Manufacture cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead
costs.
Manufacture cost = (4.2836×108) + (1.05185×108) + (0.7428×108)
Manufacture cost = Rs. 6.07825×108
II. General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs +

research and development costs
Administrative costs:(2-6% of total product cost)
Consider the Administrative costs = 5% of total product cost
Ö Administrative costs = 0.0277 × 7.0126×108
Ö Administrative costs = Rs. 0.35063×108
A. Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for
sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.
Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 15% of total product cost
Distribution and selling costs = 15% of 7.0126×108
Ö Distribution and selling costs = 0.15 × 7.0126×108
Ö Distribution and Selling costs = Rs. 1.0519×108
C. Research and Development costs: (about 5% of total product cost)

Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost
Research and Development costs = 5% of 7.0126×108
Ö Research and development costs = 0.05 × 7.0126×108
Ö Research and Development costs = Rs. 0.3506×108
D. Financing (interest): (0-10% of total capital investment)

Consider interest = 5% of total capital investment
i.e. interest = 5% of 5.9316×108 = 0.05×5.9316×108
Interest = Rs. 0.2965×108
Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 2.04971×108
IV. Total Product cost = Manufacture cost + General Expenses

= (6.07825×108) + (2.04971×108)
Total product cost = Rs. 8.1279×108
V. Gross Earnings/Income:
Wholesale Selling Price of Soda ash per ton = $ 85 (USD)
Let 1 USD = Rs. 50.00
Hence Wholesale Selling Price of Soda ash per ton. = 85 ×50 = Rs. 4250
Total Income = Selling price × Quantity of product manufactured
= 4250 × (750 T/day) × (330 days/year)
Total Income = Rs. 10.518×108
Gross income = Total Income – Total Product Cost
= (10.518×108) – (8.127×108)
Gross Income = Rs. 2.391×108
Let the Tax rate be 45% (common)
Taxes = 45% of Gross income
= 45% of 2.391×108 = 0.45×2.391×108
Taxes = Rs. 1.076×108
Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income× (1- Tax rate)
Net profit = (2.391×108) – (1.076×108) = Rs. 1.315×108
Rate of Return:
Rate of return = Net profit×100/Total Capital Investment
Rate of Return = 1.315×108×100/ (6.8213×108)
Rate of Return = 19.27%
Break even Analysis:

Data available:
Annual Direct Production Cost = Rs.4.2836×108
Annual Fixed charges, overhead and general expenses = Rs. 2.7925×108
Total Annual sales = Rs. 10.518×108
Wholesale Selling Price of Soda ash per ton. = Rs. 4250
Direct production cost per ton of Soda ash = (4.2836×108)/ (10.518×108/4250)
= Rs. 1730.87per ton
Let ‘n’ TPA be the break even production rate.
Number of tons needed for a break-even point is given by
(2.7925×108) + (1730.87×n) = (4250×n)
=> n = 110851.76 tons/year
n = 335.914 tons/day = 335.914 TPD
Hence, the break-even production rate is 335.914 TPD or 44.78% of the
considered plant capacity.
PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
The Location Of The Plant Can Have A Crucial Effect On The Profitability Of A
Project, And The Scope For Future Expansion. Many Factors Must Be Considered When
Selecting A Suitable Site, And Only A Brief Review Of The Principal Factors Will Be
Given In This Section. The Principal Factors To Be Considered Are:
¾ Location, With Respect To The Marketing Area.
¾ Raw Material Supply.
¾ Transport Facilities.
¾ Availability Of Labour.
¾ Availability Of Utilities: Water, Fuel, Power.
¾ Availability Of Suitable Land.
¾ Environmental Impact, And Effluent Disposal.
¾ Local Community Considerations.
¾ Climate.
¾ Political Strategic Considerations.
Marketing Area
For Materials That Are Produced In Bulk Quantities: Such As Cement, Mineral Acids
And Fertilizers, Where The Cost Of The Product Per Ton Is Relatively Low And The
Cost Of Transport A Significant Fraction Of The Sales Price, The Plant Should Be
Located Close To The Primary Market. This Consideration Will Be Less Important For
Low Volume Production, High-Priced Products; Such As Pharmaceuticals. In An
International Market, There May Be An Advantage To Be Gained By Locating The Plant
Within An Area With Preferential Tariff.
.
Raw Materials
The Availability And Price Of Suitable Raw Materials Will Often Determine The Site
Location. Plants Producing Bulk Chemicals Are Best Located Close To The Source Of
The Major Raw Material; Where This Is Also Close To The Marketing Area.
Soda Ash Plant Should Be Located Near The Salt Lakes Or Near Sea, Where Sodium
Chloride Is Available Abundantly.
Transport
The Transport Of Materials And Products To And From Plant Will Be An Overriding
Consideration In Site Selection.
If Practicable, A Site Should Be Selected That Is Close At Least Two Major Forms Of
Transport: Road, Rail, Waterway Or A Seaport. Road Transport Is Being Increasingly
Used, And Is Suitable For Local Distribution From A Central Warehouse. Rail Transport
Will Be Cheaper For The Long-Distance Transport Of Bulk Chemicals.
Air Transport Is Convenient And Efficient For The Movement Of Personnel And
Essential Equipment And Supplies, And The Proximity Of The Site To A Major Airport
Should Be Considered.
Availability Of Labour
Labour Will Be Needed For Construction Of The Plant And Its Operation. Skilled
Construction Workers Will Usually Be Brought In From Outside The Site, But There
Should Be An Adequate Pool Of Unskilled Labour Available Locally; And Labour
Suitable For Training To Operate The Plant. Skilled Tradesmen Will Be Needed For
Plant Maintenance. Local Trade Union Customs And Restrictive Practices Will Have To
Be Considered When Assessing The Availability And Suitability Of The Labour For
Recruitment And Training.
Utilities (Services)
The Word “Utilities” Is Now Generally Used For The Ancillary Services Needed In The
Operation Of Any Production Process. These Services Will Normally Be Supplied From
A Central Facility; And Will Include:
• Electricity: - Power Required For Electrochemical Processes, Motors,
Lightings, And General Use
• Steam For Process Heating: - The Steams Required For The Process Are
Generated In The Tube Boilers Using Most Economic Fuel.
• Cooling Water: - Natural And Forced Draft Cooling Towers Are Generally
Used To Provide The Cooling Water Required On Site.
• Water For General Use: - The Water Required For The General Purpose
Will Be Taken From Local Water Supplies Like Rivers, Lakes And Seas.
Because Of This Reason All The Plants Located On The Banks Of River.
• Dematerialized Water: - Dematerialized Water, From Which All The
Minerals Have Been Removed By Ion-Exchange Is Used Where Pure
Water Is Needed For The Process Use, In Boiler Feed Water.
• Refrigeration: - Refrigeration Is Needed For The Processes, Which Require
Temperatures Below That Are Provided By The Cooling Water.
• Inert-Gas Supplies.
• Compressed Air: - In An Ethylene Oxide Plant Compressed Air Is One Of
The Raw Materials. It Is Also Needed For Pneumatic Controllers Etc.
• Effluent Disposal Facilities: - Facilities Must Be Provided For The
Effective Disposal Of The Effluent Without Any Public Nuisance.
Environmental Impact, And Effluent Disposal

All Industrial Processes Produce Waste Products, And Full Consideration Must Be Given
To The Difficulties And Coat Of Their Disposal. The Disposal Of Toxic And Harmful
Effluents Will Be Covered By Local Regulations, And The Appropriate Authorities Must
Be Consulted During The Initial Site Survey To Determine The Standards That Must Be
Met.
Local Community Considerations
The Proposed Plant Must Fit In With And Be Acceptable To The Local Community. Full
Consideration Must Be Given To The Safe Location Of The Plant So That It Does Not
Impose A Significant Additional Risk To The Community.
Land (Site Considerations)
Sufficient Suitable Land Must Be Available For The Proposed Plant And Future
Expansion. The Land Should Be Ideally Flat, Well Drained And Have Load-Bearing
Characteristics. A Full Site Evaluation Should Be Made To Determine The Need For
Piling Or Other Foundations.
Climate
Adverse Climatic Conditions At Site Will Increase Costs. Abnormally Low Temperatures
Will Require The Provision Of Additional Insulation And Special Heating For
Equipment And Piping. Stronger Locations Will Be Needed At Locations Subject To
High Wind Loads Or Earthquakes.
Political And Strategic Considerations
Capital Grants, Tax Concessions, And Other Inducements Are Often Given By
Governments To Direct New Investment To Preferred Locations; Such As Areas Of High
Unemployment. The Availability Of Such Grants Can Be The Overriding Consideration
In Site Selection.
PLANT LAY OUT

The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principal
factors are considered are:
¾ Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.

¾ The process requirements.
¾ Convenience of operation.
¾ Convenience of maintenance.
¾ Safety.
¾ Future expansion.
¾ Modular construction.
Costs
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe between equipment, and at least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.
Process requirements
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to elevate
the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump or the
operating head for a thermosyphon reboiler.
Operations
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the
control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
Maintenance
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or
packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places
under cover.
Safety
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion.
At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in process
buildings.
Plant expansion
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process.
Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-sized to allow
for future requirements.
Modular construction
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping
and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.
The advantages of modular construction are:
¾ Improved quality control.

¾ Reduced construction cost.
¾ Less need for skilled labour on site.
Some of the disadvantages are;
¾ Higher design costs & more structural steel work.

¾ More flanged constructions & Possible problems with assembly, on site.
The Plant Layout KEYWORDS
1. Raw material Storage

2. Product Storage
3. Process Site
4. Laboratories
5. Workshop
6. Canteen & Change house
7. Fire Brigade
8. Central Control Room
9. Security office
10. Administrative Building
11. Site for Expansion Project.
12. Effluent treatment plant
13. Power house
14. Emergency water storage
15. Plant utilities
A detailed plant layout is drawn and submitted with this thesis report. This plant layout is
just a reference plant layout. There may be a lot of changes in actual plant layout.
Bibliography
(1) M. Gopala Rao And Marshall Sittig, “Dryden’s Outlines Of Chemical Technology”,
2nd Ed., East-West Press, Page No: 177-184,628-638.
(2) Kirk-Othmer, “Encyclopedia Of Chemical Technology”, 5th Ed, Volume-1, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., Page No: 866-883
(3) C.C Furnar, “Roger’s Industrial Chemistry”,6th Edition, D.Van Nostrand Company,
Inc Page No: 408-431
(4) Geoffery Martin, “Industrial And Manufacturing Chemistry”,7 Th Edition Part-2,
Inorganic, The Technical Press Ltd, Page No: 299-328
(5) S.D Shukla And Pandey “A Text Book Of Chemical Technology”Vol-1, Inorganic
Page No:38-57
(6) M.L Faith And Donald B.Keyes “Industrial Chemicals” John Wiley & Son (1965)
Page No: 658-659
(7) I.Mukhlyonov & I.Furmer, “The Most Important Industrial Chemical Process” Part-2
Mir Publishers, Pages 98-109
(8) Buford D.Smith, “Design of Equilibrium stage processes”, Mc-Graw-Hill Book
company(1963)
(9) R. H. Perry And Don W. Green, “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Hand Book”, 6th Ed.
Mc-Graw Hill International Edition,
(10) H.Sawistowski &W.Smith, “Mass Transfer Process Calculations”, Interscience
Publishers, Page No:54-99
(11) T.Hobler, “Mass Transfer And Absorbers”,Pergamon Press, Page No:462-469
1
(12) R. K. Sinnott, “Coulson And Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Series, Volume-6,
Chemical Equipment Design” 3rd Ed., Butter Worth-Heinemann, Page No: 828-855, 891-
895
(13) Joshi M. V., “Process Equipment Design”, 2nd Ed., Mc-Millan India Ltd,
(14) Max S. Peters And Klaus Timmerhaus, “Process Plant Design And Economics For
Chemical Engineers”, 3rd Ed., Mc-Graw Hill Book Company, Page No: 207-208, 484-
485.
(15) Indian Standard “Specification For Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers”,
Is 4503-1967, Page No: 5-66
(16) B.C Bhattacharya, “Chemical Equipment Design”, Chemical Engineering Education
Development Centre.
(17) L.E. Brownell And E.H. Young, “Process Equipment Design”, John Wiley & Sons
Inc. New York,

Soda ash production methods

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Soda ash production methods

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INTRODUCTION

History of soda ash industry in India

Soda ash is used for production of following materials.

Soda Ash is essential to the production of glass. This market is comprised

Soda Ash is used as a source of sodium ions throughout the chemical

Pulp & Paper

1. Mineral processing in mining

2. Soaps and detergents

5. Glass fibre manufacture

(1) Le Blanc Process

A mixture of equivalent quantities of salt and concentrated sulphuric acid is

CaS+H2O+CO2 CaCO3 +H2S

CaS+ H2S Ca(SH)2

The sulphur is sublimed and collected.

(2) Trona purification process

Sodium sesquicarbonate process

Salt 1.3 tons

CaCO3 + 2NaCl Na2CO3 + CaCl2

This reaction takes place in a number of steps

(b) CaCO3 CaO + CO2

(d) CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2

(e) NH3 + H2O NH4OH

(f) NaCl + NH4OH NH4Cl + NaHCO3

(g) 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

(h) 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2O

Precipitation of Bicarbonate: The ammoniated brine from the absorber coolers is

Calcining the Bicarbonate to Soda Ash: To prevent dilution of the decomposition

Advantages of Solvay process

• Can use low-grade brine

Disadvantages of Solvay process

Production of 750 Tons/day (31250 kg/hr) of Soda ash

Total input =71851.4125 kg/hr

Total output =71851.412 kg/hr

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2

Total input = 27122.6396 kg/hr

Total out put = 27122.6396 kg/hr

Material balance around ammonia absorber

Total input = 219406.25 kg/hr

Inerts = 18345.59 kg/hr

Total output = 219406.22 kg/hr

Material balance around Carbonating Tower

NaCl + NH4OH +CO2 NH4Cl + NaHCO3

Total input = 235468.0836 kg/hr

Material balance around Ammonia distiller

2NH4Cl + Ca (OH)2 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2O

Total input = 204414.6251 kg/hr

Total output = 204414.6251 kg/hr

2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

Total output = 49528.3019 kg/hr

The datum temperature for calculation is taken as 30 °C. (303K)

Energy balance around the Lime kiln

CaCO3 CaO+CO2 ∆H25= 43.4 Kcal/mole

Temperature of reaction is 11000 C

= (4798.5T – 1.347*1011/T2 + 15.58*1006)(T-303)

From heat balance

3.8*1009 = (4798.5T – 1.347*1011/T2 + 15.58*1006)(T-303)

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 ∆H25= -15.6 Kcal/mole

Reaction temperature = 1000C

From heat balance

Energy balance around ammonia absorption tower

Energy balance around carbonating tower

Heat output = 25.29*106

= (4798.5T – 1.3471011/T2 + 15.581006)(T-303)

3.81009 = (4798.5T – 1.3471011/T2 + 15.58*1006)(T-303)

Cooling water required = 5.848109/(1000(45-25))

hd=47.39 + 13(0.8065/1191.66) 14.642

DE=0.0124 + 0.017115.98+ 0.0025 126.42 + 0.015*2.5