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Diverse applications of biotechnology

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Scientific Research and Essays Vol. 5(9), pp. 826-831, 4 May 2010
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/SRE
ISSN 1992-2248 © 2010 Academic Journals

Review

Diverse applications of biotechnology

Nyerhovwo J. Tonukari1, 2*, Oghenetega J. Avwioroko2 and Theresa Ehwerhemuepha2
1
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria.
2
African Research Laboratories, Otorho Agbon (Isiokolo), Ethiope East LGA, Delta State, Nigeria.
Accepted 12 May, 2010

The exciting discipline of biotechnology has drawn the interests of traditional biologists, biochemists,
microbiologists, medical and agricultural scientists into applying mathematical and engineering models
to understanding biology. Also, the biopharmaceutical, biochemical and agricultural industries are
rapidly drawing from and applying the research results of biotechnology. Still, new industries relying on
genomics are springing up daily to challenge the way things have been done.

Key words: Biotechnology, bioremediation, biochemicals, biopharmaceuticals, genomics.

INTRODUCTION

The term biotechnology refers to the technical
applications of biological systems for the production of
natural substances (antibiotics, biogas, enzymes, etc)
and involves manipulation of living organisms for the
benefit of man (Soetan, 2008). This technology employs
power-ful but simple procedures to identify, isolate, purify
and study the regulation of genes and their products. It
also enables the transfer of genes from one organism to
another and can be used to design new genes (Osuntoki,
2005). Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field encom-
passing microbiology, chemistry, biochemistry, genetics,
molecular biology, immunology, cell and tissue culture
and physiology, as well as engineering (Tonukari, 2004).
Proponents around the world project a positive future in
which biotechnology overcomes food shortages,
improves the environment, heals or eliminates disease
and leads to a prosperous and healthy society (Tonukari
et al., 2003). Modern use of the term refers to genetic
engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture
technologies. However, the concept encompasses a
wider range and history of procedures for modifying living
organisms according to human purposes, going back to
domestication of animals, cultivation of plants and
"improvements" of these through breeding programs that
employ artificial selection and hybridization. Biotech-
nology draws on the pure biological sciences (for
*Corresponding author Email: tonukari@gmail.com.
example, genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture,
molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology,
etc) and, in many instances, is also dependent on
knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of
biology such as chemical engineering, bioprocess engi-
neering, information technology, and biorobotics (United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, 2006).
Karl Ereky coined the word “biotechnology” in Hungary
during 1917 to describe a technology based on con-
verting raw materials into a more useful product. The
discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in
1953 provided the basis for modern biotechnology.
Against a belief that new techniques would entail
unmentionable and uncontrollable consequences for
humanity and the environment, a growing consensus on
the economic value of recombinant DNA emerged (Bud,
1993). Presently, biotechnology has advanced greatly
and has found applications in almost every sphere of life.
However, while biotechnology depends on so many
pure biological science for its operation, some modern
biological sciences (including even concepts such as
molecular ecology) are now intimately entwined and
dependent on the methods developed through biotech-
nology for their functionalities (Tonukari et al., 2003). In
fact, biotechnology is at the moment playing a ‘’saviour’’
role in almost all facets of life both in the developing and
developed world due to its wide range of application. For
example, biotechnology is directed at the use of
microorganisms for the manufacture of organic products
such as beer and milk products. It is also applied by

mining industries in the use of naturally present bacteria
for bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle,
treat waste, clean-up sites contaminated by industrial
activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological
weapons, etc.
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE
Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or
two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop
variety to impart a new character that would increase its
yield (ADB, 2001). However, while increases in crop yield
are the most obvious applications of modern
biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult
one (Iwalokun, 2005). Current genetic engineering
techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a
single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics
associated with yield (for example, enhanced growth) are
controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has
a minimal effect on the overall yield (Bruce and Bruce,
1999). There is, therefore, much scientific work to be
done in this area. Discussed below are various ways in
which agriculture has benefitted from biotechnology:
Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental
stresses
Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand
biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For
example, drought and excessively salty soil are two
important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotech-
nologists are studying plants that can cope with these
extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that
enable them to do so and eventually transfer these genes
to the more desirable crops. One of the latest develop-
ments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from
Arabidopsis thaliana, a tiny weed that is often used for
plant research because it is very easy to grow and its
genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was
inserted into tomato and tobacco cells (Flintoft, 2009;
Licatalosi and Darnell, 2010), the cells were able to
withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold
and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these
preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then
At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can
better withstand harsh environments (Abdulla, 2002).
Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that
are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa,
this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes
the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections
(NAS, 2001).
Increased nutritional qualities
The nutritional qualities of proteins in foods may be
Tonukari et al. 827
improved by simply modifying such proteins (Daini,
2000). Proteins in legumes and cereals may be trans-
formed to provide the amino acids needed by human
beings for a balanced diet (Bruce and Bruce, 1999).
Improved taste, texture or appearance of food
Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the
process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the
plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still
reasonable shelf life (ADB, 2001). This alters the taste,
texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it
could expand the market for farmers in developing
countries due to the reduction in spoilage. However,
there is sometimes a lack of understanding by
researchers in developed countries about the actual
needs of prospective beneficiaries in developing count-
ries. For example, engineering soybeans to resist
spoilage makes them less suitable for producing tempeh
which is a significant source of protein that depends on
fermentation. The use of modified soybeans results in a
lumpy texture that is less palatable and less convenient
when cooking.
Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and
other agrochemicals
Most of the current commercial applications of modern
biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the
dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example,
crops have been genetically engineered to acquire
tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of
herbicides with broad-spectrum activity, but not causing
crop injury, was a consistent limitation in crop weed
management. Presently however, transgenic crops that
express tolerance to glyphosate, glufosinate and
bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can
now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting
damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds
(Gianessi et al., 2002). Similarly, many crops have been
genetically modified to express resistance to toxins or
pesticides used in farm lands (Iwalokun, 2005). Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt), for instance, is a soil bacterium that
produces a protein with insecticidal qualities.
Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to
produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this
form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which
requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are
several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target
insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to
contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they
produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect
ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt
protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a
result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now
828 Sci. Res. Essays
commercially available in a number of countries to control
corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise
controlled by spraying (a more difficult process) (James,
2002).
Production of novel substances in crop plants
Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses other than
food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce
fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and
petrochemicals. Potatoes, tomatoes, ricererere tobacco,
lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been
genetically-engineered to produce insulin and certain
vaccines (Murray et al., 2000). If future clinical trials
prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines
would be enormous, especially for developing countries.
The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply.
Home grown vaccines would also avoid logistical and
economic problems posed by having to transport
traditional preparations over long distances and keeping
them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they
will not need syringes, which are not only an additional
expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a
source of infections, if contaminated (Pascual, 2007). In
the case of insulin grown in transgenic plants, it is well-
established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the
protein down; therefore this could not currently be
administered as an edible protein. According to Somia
and Verma (2000), it might be produced at significantly
lower cost than insulin produced in costly bioreactors.
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND MEDICINE
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising
applications in such areas as drug production, pharmaco-
genomics, gene therapy, genetic testing, parasitology,
immunology, etc.
Genetic testing
Genetic testing is now used for carrier screening, or the
identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy
of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the
disease to manifest: forensic/identity testing, sex deter-
mination, confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic
individuals, newborn screening, etc (Mulligan, 1993;
Somia and Verma, 2000). The test involves the direct
examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans
a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences. Two
major types of gene tests exist. In the first type, a
researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”)
whose sequences are complementary to the mutated
sequences. These probes bind to their complementary
DNA strands among the base pairs of an individual’s
genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the
patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the
mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct
the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases
in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or
their progeny. Some genetic tests are already available,
although most of them are used in developed countries
(Soetan , 2008). The tests currently available can detect
mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like
cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s
disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect
mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such
as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. Cross and
Burmester (2006) however, reported that gene tests may
not detect every mutation associated with a particular
condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and
the ones they do detect may present different risks to
different people and populations.
Parasitology
The essential tools to help overcome the difficulties
encountered in development of vaccines for protozoan
and helminth parasites of livestock could be provided by
the use of monoclonal antibody and genetic engineering
technologies (Soetan, 2008). According to Gamble and
Zarlenga (1986), the inability to identify antigens which
induce protective immune responses and in obtaining
sufficient quantities of vaccine trials is likely the difficulty
encountered. Hence, biotechnology is helping a lot in the
control of malaria parasites and other infectious diseases
through the discovery of their pathogenesis. Medical
fields like veterinary parasitology can provide promising
avenues for significant break-throughs in vaccine
production if biotechnology is applied to their researches.
Gene therapy and virology
Gene therapy simply refers to a technique used in
correcting defective genes. It could also be defined as the
transfer of therapeutic genes to target cells. The
technique employs the use of some vehicles called
vectors such as adenoviruses, simplex virus, liposomes,
polyethylene glycol (PEG), gene gun, etc. A new gene is
inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to
introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the
treatment is successful, the new gene will make a
functional protein.
Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing
genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by
using normal genes to supplement or replace defective
genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity
(Mulligan, 1993). It can be used to target somatic (that is,
body) or gametes (that is, egg and sperm). In somatic
gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed,

but this change is not passed along to the next
generation. In contrast, germline gene therapy involves
an alteration or mutation in the egg and sperm cells of the
parents for the purpose of passing on the changes to
their offspring.
As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy
trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified
worldwide (Cross and Burmester, 2006). Around 78% of
these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%.
These trials focus on various types of cancer, although
other multigenic diseases are being studied as well.
Recently, two children born with severe combined
immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to
have been cured after being given genetically engineered
cells.
At the moment, gene therapy is facing many challenges
such as viral toxicity, immune and inflammatory
responses, gene control and targeting issues, multigene
disorder, effect of environment, and the high cost of gene
therapy amongst others, which reduce its use as a
practical approach for treating disease (Somia and
Verma, 2000). However, it is believed that these
obstacles will soon be overcome as on-going
biotechnological researches are still being directed to this
aspect of medicine.
PRODUCTION OF BIOCHEMICALS AND
BIOPHARMACEUTICALS
Biotechnology has enhanced the production and manipu-
lation of enzymes for the benefit of mankind in
biochemistry and chemistry (Soetan, 2008). Although
enzymes may cause deterioration of foods, they can also
be used in food processing to produce particular products
or to modify the characteristics of particular products
(Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). In food and drink
industries, a number of enzymes are utilized. For
example, enzymes are used in bread making, cheese
production, meat tenderizing, syrups and sugar
production, confectionary, production of alcoholic drinks,
tea, chocolate and coffee production, protein hydro-
sylates and condiments, etc. Biotechnology techniques
are also used to fix and immobilize enzymes because of
the advantages it provides like capability of repeated use
of the enzymes, ease of precise control, increased
stability, reduction of product inhibition, control of
proteolysis, reduced possibility of immunological
reactions, operation of altered pH optima, etc. Several
phytomedicines have been discovered in plants such as
Vernonia amygdalina, Allium sativum, Mormodica
balsamina, Hyperidium spp, Occimum gratissimum etc
following preliminary studies which revealed their anti-
bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory properties (Adesanoye and Farombi, 2009;
Iwalokun et al., 2001, 2004; Smith et al., 2002). The
phytomedicines occur as flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids
Tonukari et al. 829
and phenolic glycosides and are usually identified by
chromatographic techniques. Chemical fingerprinting has
been increasingly applied in the past few years to
determine the ancestry of most plants. Studies have
reported the genotyping of several medicinal plants and
have made available their DNA fingerprints (Milahov et
al., 2001).
Biotechnology is used in the production of recombinant
pharmaceuticals. Gene cloning is used to obtain large
amounts of recombinant human and animal proteins
(Murray et al., 2000). Production of recombinant insulin
has been used in the management of diabetes. Other
examples include synthesis of human growth hormones
like somatostatin and somatotropin to manage growth
disorders, production of recombinant factors VIII and IX
to treat haemophilia and Christmas disease respectively,
production of erythropoietin to control anaemia, relaxing
to aid child birth, serum and albumin used as plasma
supplement, interferon , , and interleukins used in the
management of cancers (Soetan and Abatan, 2007).
ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS OF
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Environmental biotechnology can be defined as a
discipline that studies the application of biotechnology to
solve environmental problems. It involves the processes
of portable water production, waste water purification,
solid waste management and soil and sediment clean-up.
It also includes newer developments such as the use of
biopesticides, bioremediation of recalcitrant pollutants
and biosensors for environmental monitoring (Soetan,
2008).
Environmental sanitation has now been made easy
through the use of biotechnology. Microorganisms are
engineered and adapted by this renowned technology in
an effort to find sustainable ways to clean- up contami-
nated environments. Biological processes generally play
a major role in the removal of contaminants from plants
and animals. Biotechnology therefore mimics the biologi-
cal processes by taking advantage of the astonishing
catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert
such compounds.
Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation that uses
fungi to reduce the level of contamination in a given
environment. Fungi can release specific enzymes and
acids that break down the major components of plant
fiber. The accumulation of waste is directly proportional to
population and as our population grows, scientists will be
under more pressure to find ways to eliminate
contaminants from our environment. Similarly, in an
attempt to return our polluted environments to their
original state, the use of legumes such as beans or
cowpea has also been investigated and huge success
recorded. At the moment, new methodological break-
throughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics,
830 Sci. Res. Essays
bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts
of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology,
genome-based global studies open a new era providing
unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory
networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation
pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to
changing environmental conditions. Functional genomic
and metagenomic approaches are increasing our
understanding of the relative importance of different
pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in
particular environments and for particular compounds
and they will certainly accelerate the development of
bioremediation technologies and biotransformation
processes (Diaz, 2008).
Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil
spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly
containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to
pollution through human activities, millions of tons of
petroleum enter the marine environment every year from
natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable
fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is
eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of
microbial communities in particular by a remarkable
recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called
hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB) (Martins, 2008).
Using genetically engineered bacteria to clean- up
industrial waste is a good idea. In the petroleum industry,
microorganisms can be genetically engineered to
produce chemicals useful for enhanced oil recovery
(Daini, 2000).
PERSPECTIVES
The recent completion of a working draft of the genome
sequence promises to provide unprecedented opportuni-
ties to explore the genetic basis of individual differences
in complex behaviours and vulnerability to illness. This
knowledge has blossomed into a new biotechnology field
termed genomics, which has in turn given rise to newer
ones like metabolomics, pharmacogenomics and
bioinformatics. Genomics is the study of genes and their
function in relation to the environment. In contrast to
genetics, which focuses on genes and inheritance, the
goal of genomics is to understand genes, their products
and how, when, and why these products are synthesized.
The goal of functional genomics is to understand the
relationship between an organism's genome and its
phenotype. This would provide a more complete picture
of how biological function arises from the information
encoded in an organism's genome. The possibility of
understanding how a particular mutation leads to a given
phenotype has important implications for human genetic
diseases, as answering these questions could point
scientists in the direction of a treatment or cure. Such
understanding can also be harnessed for the production
of biochemicals and biopharmaceuticals as well as for
engineering microbes for environmental clean-up.
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