SHIPHANDLING FOR THE MARINER

SHIPHANDLING FOR THE MARINER

FIFTH EDITION

BY DANIEL H. MAcELREVEY
AND DANIEL E. MAcELREVEY
ILLUSTRATIONS BY EARL R. McMILLIN

CORNELL MARITIME PRESS

A Division of Schiffer Publishing, LTD
Atglen, Pennsylvania
Copyright © 1983, 2008, 2013, 2018 by Daniel H. MacElrevey and Daniel E.
MacElrevey

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017949948

The Library of Congress has cataloged the hardcover edition as follows:
MacElrevey, Daniel H.
Shiphandling for the mariner / by Daniel H. MacElrevey and Daniel
E. MacElrevey ; illustrations by Earl R. McMillin.- 4 t h ed. p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-87033-558-7
1. Ship handling. I. MacElrevey, Daniel E. II. Title.
VK543.M23 2005 623.88—dc22
2004014453

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For the shipmates and friends who have shared their

knowledge of the sea and ships so unselfishly

through the years

 CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION...XI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...XIV

INTRODUCTION...3

C H A P T E R 1...7

Arrival

Master's Trial; Hard Right Turn at 6 Knots; Hard Left Turn at 6 Knots;
Backing and Filling; Half Astern to Dead in the Water; Stopping While
Maintaining Control Over Heading; Handling a Ship with Sternway;
Bow and Stern Thrusters; Turning with a Bow Thruster; Most Effective
Maneuver; Approaching Shallow Water; Directional Stability; Effects
of Bottom Contour on Handling Characteristics; Handling of Larger
Ships in Shallow Water; Approaching the Pilot Station; Stopping or
Reducing Headway; Picking up the Pilot/Making a Lee; Estimating
Speed Through the Water by Ship's Propeller Wash; Wind Effects on
Steering; Communications with Other Vessels; Pilot Aboard; Pilot-
Master Exchange of Information; Posting of Maneuvering Characteristics

C H A P T E R 2...46

Shiphandling in a Channel

Bank Effects; Planning Ahead; Tide and Current; Types of Rudders

and Propulsion Systems; Directional Propulsion Systems; Effect of Trim
on Handling Characteristics; Making a Turn in a Channel; Using Aids
to Navigation When Turning; Meeting Another Vessel or Tow; Overtaking
Another Vessel or Tow; Using Shiphandling Instrumentation; The
Basics of Squat; Underkeel Clearance; Stopping and Maneuvering in
a Channel
 CHAPTER 3...101

Use of Tugs
Making Up a Tug; Communicating with a Tug; Using a Tug; Tug on a
Hawser; Lashing Up a Tug

CHAPTER 4...115

Approaching the Berth

Good Bridge Practices; Discussing Docking Plans; Timing Arrival—
Holding in a Channel; Speed of Approach; Reducing Speed Early; The
Approach; Bow-in Approach to a Pier; Stern-in Approach to a Pier;
Stemming the Current at a Wharf; Approaching a Wharf—Current
Astern

CHAPTER 5...128

Docking
Using Wind and Current to Advantage; Measuring Slow Rates of Speed;
Detecting Lateral Motion; Setting Up to Back; Quickwater; Bridge
Markers; Use Finesse, Not Force; Going Alongside; All Secure

CHAPTER 6...139

Undocking
Planning the Undocking; Draft and Trim in Ballast; Singling Up; Using
Quickwater When Undocking; Undocking from a Wharf; Backing from
a Slip; Coming Ahead from a Slip; Coming Off Parallel to a Berth;
Backing a Ship Toward a Hazard; Left-Hand and Variable-Pitch
Propellers; Turning to Sea; Dismissing the Tugs

CHAPTER 7...156

Departure
Dropping the Pilot; Departure Speed; Maneuvering with Other Ships;
Course Card and Passage Planning; Ability to Maneuver
 CHAPTER 8...163

Anchoring and Shiphandling with Anchors

Anchors for Anchoring; Know Your Ship; Again, Plan Ahead, Think
Ahead; Anchor in Steps; Planning; Wind and Current Effects; Depth
of Water; Maneuvering Room; Briefing Officers; Navigate by Eye; Final
Heading; Anchoring Off the Final Heading; Basic Anchoring; The
Approach; Placing the Anchor; Laying Out the Chain; Digging In;
Swinging Room at Anchor; Mooring and Anchoring with Two Anchors;
Stern Anchors; The Anchor as a Shiphandling Tool; Shiphandling with
Anchors—How Much Chain?; Docking with an Anchor; Holding a Vessel
with the Anchor; Anchors to Assist Steering; Anchors to Break a Sheer;
Emergency Use of the Anchor; Lying Alongside a Bank; Going Astern
with an Anchor

CHAPTER 9...205

Special Maneuvers
Canals and Locks; Panama Canal Expansion Project; Single-Point
Moorings; Ship-to-Ship Lightering; Five- and Seven-Point Moorings;
Mediterranean Moor; Williamson Turns; Twin-Screw Ships; Maneuvering
Twin-Screw Ships; Low Length-to-Beam Ratio Ships; Moving Up to
Larger Ships; Replenishment at Sea; Helicopter Operations

CHAPTER 10...256

Training
Onboard Training of Ship's Officers; Onboard Training of Pilots;
Shiphandling Simulators; The Rule of Threes; Simulators as Innovative
Training Aids; Types of Simulators; Scale Model-Based Simulators;
Scale—Is It Important?; Computer-Based Simulators; Comparison of
Model and Computer Simulators; Tools of Simulator Instruction;
Simulator Validation; The Simulator Instructor; Degree of Instructor
Involvement; The Simulator Curriculum for Deck Officers; The Simulator
Curriculum for Pilots; The Three Steps of Simulator Training; Briefing
and Debriefing; The Future of Simulators; Computers for Testing and
Evaluation; Simulator versus Hands-on Experience
 CHAPTER 11...292

Master/Pilot Relationship
and Bridge Resource Management
The Pilot Aboard Ship; The Master's Responsibilities in Pilotage Waters;
"Release from Liability" Forms; Some Practical Considerations; Bridge
Resource Management for Shiphandlers; The Cost of Responsibility

CHAPTER 12...306

Vessel Operations
Planning the Passage; The Course Card; ECDIS; Bridge Design; Pilot
Navigation Equipment; Bridge Height; Night Versus Day Maneuvering;
Record Keeping

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS...335

BIBLIOGRAPHY...374

INDEX...376

ABOUT THE AUTHORS...391

 PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION

Piloting and shiphandling skills have received much greater attention

in the years since publication of the first edition of Shiphandling for
the Mariner. This is an exciting development for anyone interested in
the art and science of moving ships, and by all indications, it is a long-
term process that will benefit both mariners and the maritime industry
in which they work.
This new interest in shiphandling skills has been prompted by
several factors, including a greater awareness of the impact marine
collisions and groundings have on the environment, and new federal
legislation and international conventions affecting ship operation,
shipowners' liability for marine casualties, vessel manning, and
watch officer training requirements. Training is more technology-
driven, as sophisticated computer-based simulators become more
readily available to teach shiphandling under tutelage of senior
officers or pilots. Thanks to the ubiquitous microchip and processors,
it is possible to provide formal shiphandling, piloting, watchkeeping,
and bridge resource management training ashore in a classroom
environment.
Training is particularly important for ship's officers serving aboard
larger, more deeply loaded ships on fast turnaround schedules, where
it is increasingly difficult to accumulate traditional shipboard training—
master to mate to cadet—aboard ship. There are a number of excellent
facilities where continuously evolving simulator technology and skilled
instructors provide shiphandling training, including: the United States
Merchant Marine Academy, the State Maritime Academies, the Master,
Mates and Pilots' Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate
Studies, the Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association's STAR Center,
and MarineSafety International.
Simulation has advanced to the point where it is an irreplaceable
part of training for shiphandling professionals. Traditional hands-on
experience-based training is significantly enhanced by this formal,
structured simulator-based training presented by skilled shiphandlers
for initial and specialized training. Simulated exercises also provide a
forum for experienced mariners to compare techniques and evaluate
their own performance. More advanced simulators are also being used
for license examinations, recertifications, and evaluations of mariners
in specialized skills. Discussions of shiphandling have moved from

XI
coffee time to class time, and professional mariners and pilots are better
off for the change.
This fifth edition of Shiphandling for the Mariner is updated to
include the latest changes i n our professional skillset and vessel
operations. Chapters on shiphandling training, voyage planning, squat,
bridge equipment, and bridge resource management have been revisited
and revised. Much of this material is based on suggestions and papers
contributed by:

Pilots Paul Ives, George Markham, Earl McMillin, Carl Dingler,

Brian Hope, George Quick, and Wilbur Vantine
Capts. Charles Pillsbury, Gerald Hasselback, Alan DeSa, Curtis
Fitzgerald, Richard Beadon, and David Leech of MITAGS
Capt. Orlando Allard from the Panama Canal training facility
Capts. Douglas Hard, Robert Meurn, and Professor Emeritus
George Sandburg from the US Merchant Marine Academy
Numerous other instructors and professionals over the past thirty
years at the US Merchant Marine Academy, MITAGS, the STAR
Center, SUNY Maritime, and other state maritime academies.

The sections on squat and underkeel clearance have been continuously

updated and expanded based on the volumes of research gathered by
port authorities, the Panama Canal Authority, and various pilot
associations, including the Panama Canal Pilots Association. Larry L.
Daggett, PhD, and J. Christian Hewlett, PE, completed most of that
work using survey grade DGPS to measure changes in ship draft and
the behavior of ships in restricted channels.
Material about new pilot navigation and communications systems,
new ship types and propulsion systems, techniques for conning ships
w i t h omni- directional propulsion systems, a n d bridge resource
management for pilots and shiphandlers has been updated.
A discussion of passive versus active vessel traffic management is
again included to encourage debate on various traffic management
schemes. Hopefully this will lead to a more effective vessel tracking
system (VTS) through the use of the advanced differential global
positioning systems (DGPS), such as the very effective CTAN system
now in use in the Panama Canal.
A greater understanding of the use of simulation in training and
evaluation of professional skills—developed while visiting marine and
aircraft simulator facilities and reading a growing stack of material

XII
supplied by the National Research Council Marine Board, plus new
material used by the RTM STAR Center, MITAGS, the US Merchant
Marine Academy, and other facilities for programs to train and access
mariners and pilots—is the basis for the sections on simulation for
continuing education, training, and evaluation.
Changes and suggestions sent to the author by working mariners
and instructors at various maritime academies and schools are added
with each edition. Hopefully others will send material for future editions
so this text remains as up-to-date and useful as possible for seagoing
professionals working to improve their shiphandling skills.
Lastly, photographs of new propulsion systems, bridge layouts,
navigation equipment, hull designs, and upgraded simulators have
been added throughout the text. The photographs and new tables
showing the latest data on squat and underkeel clearance keep the
book current.
Practice maneuvers are again included with the text. The exercises
can be used with this book as a self-taught shipboard shiphandling
course, or better yet, they can be part of a formal maritime academy
or simulator school program. In any case, training and books can explain
the science of shiphandling, but the art is learned by doing. These
maneuvers and this expanded fifth edition of Shiphandling for the
Mariner should help many mariners become skilled in moving ships.

XIII
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
by Daniel H. and Daniel E. MacElreuey

First, I want to thank my son, Capt. Daniel E. MacElrevey, an experienced

mariner and first-class pilot for the Delaware Bay and River. Dan
provided the inspiration to again update Shiphandling for the Mariner
and collaborated on much of the new material. Now I hope the book
passes to new hands and another generation of contributors who will
keep the material fresh and pertinent to the mate, master, or pilot
handling ships.
I am very proud to have a son who is successfully following family
tradition as a mariner, shiphandler, and pilot. As everyone who enjoys
working on the water already knows, it is more than a profession—it
is a rewarding course through life.
Dan, welcome aboard. For the fifth edition you have the conn.
It is a fact that those who spend their life on or around the water
are a special breed. They are always willing to help a shipmate and
pass on the seaman's skills from one generation to the next. This is
fortunate, since no one person can write on a subject as diverse as
shiphandling, and only the contributions of others make this fifth
edition of Shiphandling for the Mariner possible.
The marine industry has provided much of the background material
and most of the photographs. I am indebted to, and greatly appreciate
the many years of assistance from current and past contributors,
including Texaco Incorporated; Exxon Corporation; Sperry Marine
Systems; LOOP, Incorporated; Raven Industries; Concordia Maritime;
Kvaerner Maas; Merwede Shipyard; the Panama Canal Authority;
Starlink Corp; MarineSafety International; American President Lines;
Seaward International; Black Star Publishing Company; the US
Merchant Marine Academy and the CAORF simulator facility at the
academy; our fine state maritime academies, the Maritime Institute
of Technology, and Graduate Studies (MITAGS); and the STAR Center.
Acknowledgment is gratefully made of the permissions granted by
publishers to quote short passages from their books: Harper and Row
and J. M. Dent for Joseph Conrad's The Secret Sharer and The Mirror
of the Sea, respectively; Hamish Hamilton Ltd. for Jan de Hartog's The
Distant Shore; Atheneum for Jan de Hartog's The Captain; Dodd, Mead
& Company for Guy Gilpatric's Mary, Queen of Scots; the Harvard
Classics Two Years Before the Mast; and American Heritage Publishing
Company for Capt. Charles Porter Low's "Recollections" quoted by
Alexander Laing in Seafaring America.
Capt. Earl McMillin read every page of previous editions. His writing
skills and professional expertise as mariner, pilot, and lawyer helped
put the text into readable form while his cartoons make a potentially
dry subject a lot more interesting.
Capt. Brian Hope also read every page of previous editions and
offered professional advice between trips on the Chesapeake Bay, where
he serves as a pilot. He also contributed photos of some of his beautiful
paintings of maritime scenes on the Bay. The fruits of his much-
appreciated labors and his artistic skills continue to be an important
part of Shiphandling for the Mariner.
Many master mariners and pilots, including Capts. Robert Boyd,
Dean Colver, William Deaton, Carl Dingier, Robin Erixon, Curtis
Fitzgerald, Eugene Guest, Bill Lewis, Douglas Hard, Marshall Irwin,
Warren Leback, George Markham, James F. McNulty, Axel Munck,
Philip Tomlet III, George Quick, George Smith, Wilbur Vantine, and
Albert Wilder contributed both time and material—irreplaceable
information based upon years of experience in some specialized area
of our profession. Raymond Letulle, Kings Point classmate and
Philadelphia lawyer, also reviewed several areas of the text and gave
some order to the chapter on the master/pilot relationship.
Contributors to this edition include these same "shipmates," plus
Larry L. Daggett, PhD, and J. Christopher Hewlett, PE; Capt. Paul
Ives, Capt. William McAuliffe, and STAR Center staff Brian Long and
Capt. Joseph Lobo.
Larry Daggett and Chris Hewlett are principals and officers of
Water Simulation Technology, Inc. (WST), a leader in the study of
squat, ship behavior, and the calculation of underkeel clearance for
ships in narrow channels. They have completed in-depth studies on
this subject for the Panama Canal, St. Lawrence Seaway, Delaware
Bay and River, Houston Ship Canal, and elsewhere. The techniques
developed by WST have made it possible to study this important area
of ship behavior with greater accuracy based on the performance of
actual ships in real-life operating conditions in more depth than ever

XV
done before. Their contributions to the section on squat in this text will
interest every practicing mariner and shiphandler, and the seafaring
community appreciates their willingness to share that research.
Capt. Paul Ives is a retired Delaware River and Bay pilot. He is a
past president of that association, and has been a respected voice for
pilots for half a century as a consistent advocate of applied technology
for piloting. Paul writes on bridge resource management and shiphandling
for masters and pilots, and he has taught techniques for handling ships
equipped with Azipods and other advanced propulsion systems at the
STAR Center. His contributions to this text are important because the
theme of having material prepared by those "who have been there" is
an overriding principle of this text since it was first published.
Additional material on simplifying Azipod operation and selecting
basic modes for shiphandling was contributed from lecture notes and
interviews with Capt. Joseph Lobo, who teaches shiphandling and
Azipod systems at the STAR Center. Capt. Curtis Fitzgerald, who
teaches advanced shiphandling at the Maritime Institute for Training
and Graduate Studies, also provided additional information and
photographs on Azipods.
In reality, this text does not represent the thinking of any one
person, but instead brings together the expertise of many. There would
be no Shiphandling for the Mariner without these contributors and the
information gleaned from countless mariners while the authors worked
aboard ship as deck officers and pilots.
Lastly, a continued special thanks to Carolyn, my wife and shipmate
in life, for her support, help, and patience. Only those who have been
involved in a project such as this can understand why the author
invariably expresses these sentiments.
SHIPHANDLING FOR THE MARINER
 INTRODUCTION

The ability to handle a ship, especially in confined waters, is one of

the most demanding and satisfying of the mariner's skills. It is a skill
as old as the first ship and as new as the latest vessel to be launched,
yet little written material is available to the professional seafarer on
shiphandling, and much of what is available is either sparse or
inaccurate. Hopefully this volume will help to fill that void so the
master, mate, naval officer, and Coast Guard officer will be able to
gain some insight into the techniques used by the skilled shiphandler
or pilot to move a vessel to her berth.
No master or mate of any type of vessel can be considered a fully
qualified mariner unless he can handle that ship in a competent and
seaman-like manner. This is especially true when considering the
classic master/pilot relationship, a relationship that makes it essential
for the master to be able to judge whether a pilot's actions are proper
and whether the ship is being handled in a safe manner. While it
certainly is not possible for the seaman to read this short book and
then do the work of a pilot who has spent years refining shiphandling
skills, the book will at least help mariners better understand the
handling of ships.
Until recently, little significant study was done on the behavior
of large ships in shallow water. The science of hydrodynamics is now
being applied to shiphandling, and much is being learned that will
allow the seaman to better predict a ship's behavior. Ships do respond
in a predictable manner to the forces of wind, sea, and current, so
these studies are important.
Years of experience are needed before the shiphandler can put
this information into a "real world" perspective. So many variables
and so many learned techniques are involved when actually handling
ships that shiphandling remains more art than science—and this
book's non-mathematical presentation, stressing application over
theory, reflects that fact.
No single volume can possibly cover all the conditions that will
be encountered by the mariner when handling a ship, nor can any

3
 - INTRODUCTION-

single technique be agreed upon by all professionals as the "best way"

to do a job. Shiphandling is a learned art, and it is only possible to
give a background upon which to build the necessary skills.
A sincere effort has been made to separate fact from fiction, and
all that is contained herein is based upon actual experiences of
practicing pilots and professional mariners. There are too many myths
about shiphandling, especially in the use of anchors and the behavior
of ships in narrow channels, and where this volume differs from
commonly held opinion those differences are based upon the experiences
of mariners who have performed such evolutions hundreds of times.
It is time to replace the myths, born more of an overactive imagination
than of experience, with facts that are applicable to today's ships and
conditions. Further, this text is written for the practicing mariner
who already possesses some degree of professional knowledge,
experience, and training in navigation and seamanship.
Material that is not original has been credited to its source, but
the bulk of this information has been gleaned from the community
of seamen and has been passed along from master to mate, pilot to
apprentice. It is not possible to credit that information to any single
source. The assistance of the many mariners and pilots who reviewed
this material is appreciated, and the unselfish manner in which they
donated their time and expertise is indicative of what makes the
community of the sea different from that of other professions.
Just as a voyage is a natural progression of events from departure
to final arrival at a port of destination, so too is this book organized
to follow a vessel and her officers from the time she is preparing for
arrival until she is again back at sea. This should put the information
into a logical order. After following that hypothetical passage to its
conclusion, special evolutions that are not often encountered by the
mariner are described in the concluding chapters. Since it is inevitable
that such a list of evolutions will be incomplete, it is hoped that others
in the maritime profession will put aside their coffee cups and add
to this collection; as professionals we would all appreciate the
opportunity to learn from their experiences. It is time that more is
written by active professionals, as at present we are over our marks
with the inaccurate and unapplicable theorizing of the bureaucrat
and the desk-bound seaman.
Incidentally, for brevity, the pronoun he is used throughout the
text to refer to an officer or a crew member serving in any capacity
and obviously means a professional mariner of either gender. I trust

4
 — INTRODUCTION —

the reader will accept this convention as readily as another—the use

of ship and vessel to mean a vessel of any kind or size. A love of work
on the water is not restricted to deep water, nor peculiar to men alone.

Okay, Mate. . .notify the engine room that there are two hours to
arrival.

5
Departing the Pilot Boat Maryland on Christmas day. From an oil painting by
Maryland Pilot Capt. Brian Hope.
 Chapter 1

ARRIVAL

. . . the place to enlarge upon the sensation of a man who feels, for
the first time, a ship move under his feet, to his own independent
word.
—Joseph Conrad, The Secret Sharer

You are two hours from arrival at your first US port after a three-month
trip that has been a good one for most of the crew aboard. The mate
on watch called you from your warm bunk about half an hour earlier.
After showering, and while savoring the morning's first cup of coffee
that he had ready for you, you contemplate the day that lies ahead.
The ship is starting to feel the shelving bottom as she comes on
soundings, and shortly the pleasant routine of life aboard a ship at sea
will be replaced with the activity—some might say the intrusion—
normal to any port call.
The master has reviewed the appropriate sailing directions, light
lists, local notices, and charts of the area, and has prepared a course
card showing courses and the distances between the significant
navigational aids in place along the channel to the dock. Soon the gear
will be tested and required log entries made, and the chief mate will be
called to stand by the anchors forward. The mariner's duties of open
sea navigation and the myriad other tasks required of the deck officer
at sea will be replaced by those of cargo handling, port administrative
work, paying off, piloting, and shiphandling—the latter being perhaps
the most interesting of all these duties.
MASTER'S TRIAL
In preparation for those tasks, the prudent master has familiarized
himself with the handling characteristics of his ship. This is best done
by putting the vessel through a series of maneuvers such as those
proposed here to give the master or mate the information needed to
predict confidently how the ship will behave in shallow water. Preferably
these tests will be done in water of depth less than 1.5 times the vessel's
draft (fig. 1-1) so the marked changes in ship behavior that occur in
shallow water will be apparent. The series of maneuvers should include:

7
 — ARRIVAL —

1
Depth = 1.2 x draft Depth = 1.5 x draft

Full shallow water Shallow water effect

effect felt. 40' b e c o m e s significant.

48' 60'

K
8'

Fig. 1-1. Depth versus shallow water effect.

1. Hard right turn at 6 knots.

2. Hard left turn at 6 knots.
3. Backing and filling maneuver starting from dead in the water.
4. Half astern to bring the vessel dead in the water from 6 knots,
leaving the rudder amidships.
5. A series of backing maneuvers, until the vessel is dead in the
water, using the rudder and engine as required to keep the ship's
head within 10 degrees of her initial course.
6. Backing for ten minutes, starting with the vessel dead in the
water, keeping the rudder amidships.
7. Turning with the bow thruster, i f fitted, to the right and left
across the wind. This should be done at 3 knots and at 1 knot.

I f your vessel is nonconventional (that is, equipped with twin screws

or an Azipod-type system), you should perform each of these maneuvers
again in such a manner as to simulate the loss of one engine, a steering
failure, or other casualty. Learn how your vessel responds to various
combinations of rudder position and/or engine use. For example, t r y

8
 — HARD RIGHT TURN AT 6 KNOTS —

turning a twin-screw vessel to starboard with the port engine stopped,

or practice steering the vessel using only the engines. This will prove
to be time well spent when your ship suffers one or more of these
failures, and if you are aboard for some period of time, you will lose an
engine or there will be a steering failure.
All these maneuvers should be done with a sufficient number of
mates on the bridge so the necessary data can be collected. These data
will be analyzed later and compared with information collected aboard
previous ships that a master or mate has served in. With a little planning,
the time required to perform these maneuvers can be found without
interfering with the ship's schedule. Since there is no other way to gain
the "feel" for a ship necessary to handle her in a professional manner,
it is important that these maneuvers be completed.
A sample data sheet to be used by the person making these tests
is shown in figure 1-2. Let's discuss these maneuvers in detail and give
some thought to the things to look for when doing the tests.

HARD RIGHT TURN AT 6 KNOTS

This maneuver is made at 6 knots so a feel of the turning radius of the
ship can be gotten at normal maneuvering speeds, rather than in the
full sea speed conditions with which the seagoing mariner is more
familiar. During the turn do not change engine speed, and remember
that the rate of turn will be affected by current and wind. Record the

Weather Conditions

SS/MV W i n d

Shallow water data Current

At

Date

Time Heading Speed Telegraph/ Turn rate Rudder Depth of

(seconds) (true) (knots) RPM
u throttle (°/sec) (degrees) water (ft.)

' M O D . - -

Fig. 1-2. Data sheet for trial maneuvers.

9
 — ARRIVAL —

data as shown on the sample data sheet. At the same time, observe the
area required to make this turn and compare it with a known reference
length, such as the distance from the bridge to the bow, for future use
when judging whether a vessel has sufficient room to turn in an anchorage
or harbor.
Keep in mind that the depth under the keel will cause the turning
diameter to increase until, in shallow water, it may be as much as twice
the diameter found for the same ship in deep water. Since for practical
purposes the rate of turn is about the same whether maneuvering in
shallow or deep water, the larger area required to complete a turn is
not immediately obvious to an observer. For these reasons it is stressed
that the shiphandler should carefully observe the turn and compare
the turning diameter with a known reference for use when planning
maneuvers in the future (fig. 1-3).

HARD LEFT TURN AT 6 KNOTS

Make the same maneuver, but this time turn to the left and again
observe the turning diameter. When handling smaller ships, the smaller
diameter and greater rate of a low speed turn to the left is apparent to
the observer, as compared to the turn to the right. These differences

Ship lengths

Fig. 1-3. Effect of depth on turning radius at slow speeds.

10
 — BACKING AND FILLING —

become less significant as ship size increases. Trial data for VLCCs and
ULCCs indicate that the differences between the turns to the right and
turns to the left for these largest of vessels are insignificant.
However, there are disadvantages to turning to the left when
maneuvering in confined waters that far outweigh this one advantage
of slightly reduced turning diameter. These other considerations, such
as the ability to back and fill, are discussed in following sections.

BACKING AND FILLING

For the purpose of these trials, this common maneuver is started with
the vessel dead in the water. The engine is brought to half ahead and
the rudder is put hard right. I t will be immediately apparent as the
ship moves ahead that the turning diameter for this accelerating turn
is significantly less than for a turn using constant revolutions, and most
ships will turn in about half the diameter required for the hard right
turn at 6 knots, assuming both turns are made in the same depth of
water (fig. 1-4).
When the vessel has picked up a good swing and some headway
(the amount of swing depending on the searoom available for the turn),

Water depth < 1.5 draft

Ship length

Engine stopped
(coasting)

C Revolutions
accelerating

Engine speed
unchanged

Fig. 1-4. Accelerating turn diameter.

11
 — A R R I VA L —

the engine is put half astern (or full astern for low-powered or deeply
laden ships). The rudder becomes less effective as the ship loses headway,
so it is first put amidships and then hard left as the ship begins to gain
sternway. Again, the duration of backing and amount of sternway
depend primarily on the space available for the turn, but the vessel
can be turned in about one-and-a-half-times her own length if required
by reducing the amount of ahead and astern speed the vessel is allowed
to develop (fig. 1-5).
Again observe the diameter required to make this turn, and get a
feel for the maneuver and the time required to reduce headway. The
effectiveness of the rudder while the ship is going astern can also be
ascertained at this time.
Do not be fooled by the fact that, during both this backing and filling
maneuver and the steady state turns, the ship at first develops a good
swing and then appears to be losing that swing as the rate of turn
decreases. This effect is sometimes misunderstood and the shiphandler
feels that the ship is going to stop swinging. The rate of turn will only
decrease until the forces affecting the ship reach a state of equilibrium,
after which a constant rate of turn is maintained. Be patient!

1. Half ahead/hard right.

2. Half astern/hard right.
3. Half astern/hard left.
4, 5. Half ahead/hard right.
6. Turn completed.

Repeat 2, 3, 4, and 5 as required.

Fig. 1-5. Backing and filling maneuver.

12
 — HALF ASTERN TO DEAD IN THE WATER —

Do not attempt to back and fill to the left unless you have no other
alternative, as a ship will normally lose her swing in that direction
when the engine starts turning astern. An excessive number of engine
maneuvers are required to back and fill to the left, and in many cases
the ship simply will not make the maneuver. Some of the uses of the
backing and filling maneuver are discussed in later sections.
There is not much point in collecting data during this maneuver.
The rate of turn and the turning diameter required to reverse the
vessel's heading are more a factor of the shiphandler's skill than the
ship's characteristics, so comparisons are not particularly meaningful.

HALF ASTERN TO DEAD IN THE WATER

The ship's behavior when backing can only be learned by observation.
It is a characteristic of each individual ship that the master and mates
aboard must have a feel for if they are to maneuver their ship properly.
While proceeding at 6 knots put the engine half astern and the
rudder amidships. Do nothing further except collect required data as
the ship comes to a stop. The data is most useful if the maneuver is
performed when there is a minimum of outside influences and the wind
is less than force three. Use visual and radar observations to fix in your
mind the distance required to bring your ship to a stop using just the
engine (fig. 1-6).
You will find that the ship changes heading significantly, in some
cases as much as 80 to 90 degrees in shallow water and somewhat less
in deeper water, although she does not travel a significant distance
from her original track. Despite the differences in ship behavior in
shallow water as compared to deeper water, there is not much difference
in the stopping distance required. The data collected during this

Initial speed = 6 knots

Rudder midships

)
Ship length- - 4

Change of heading 8 8 degrees

Fig. 1-6. Half astern to dead in the water.

13
 maneuver are useful for routine and emergency maneuvers—you have
a better feel for the ship and can better predict her behavior.
The ship's tendency to twist in this manner when backed directly
affects her performance of certain routine maneuvers. The greater the
magnitude of this twisting effect, the more effectively she can be backed
and filled in an anchorage or other confined area, but the more difficult
it is to stop in a narrow channel when it is necessary to keep the ship's
heading within reasonable limits.
Depending on the ship's configuration, especially the location of the
house and any large objects, such as containers on deck or an exceptionally
high freeboard, the backing and filling maneuver can be significantly
distorted by the wind. If you think ahead, though, this wind effect can
be used advantageously when maneuvering in tight quarters. Since
the ship moving forward usually wants to head up into the wind once
the rudder's effectiveness is lost, and to back into the wind once sternway
develops, the twisting effect that occurs when backing the engine can
be used to the shiphandler's advantage: plan to back when the wind
will amplify or dampen this twisting effect to your advantage.

STOPPING WHILE MAINTAINING CONTROL OVER HEADING

Again, the ship is proceeding at 6 knots on a selected base course. The
rudder is put left and as the ship begins to swing to port, the engine is
backed. The ship loses headway while the swing left decreases in rate
and finally reverses. When the bow starts swinging right, come ahead
again with left rudder to check and reverse the swing. Repeat these
maneuvers as required until the ship is down to the desired speed.
It may be necessary to put the rudder amidships when the engine
is going astern so that the ship loses her swing to the left as desired.
This can only be determined by trial, so it is important to practice this
maneuver at every opportunity. Do not wait until the ship is proceeding
up a narrow river on a rainy, windy night to learn how the ship behaves
when the engine is put astern.
This particular maneuver is obviously important, since it is used to
stop or reduce a ship's speed so a tug can be made up, to shape up for
docking, or any number of other important maneuvers in confined waters.
There is little need to collect data during this maneuver since this is
primarily a shiphandling exercise that yields little quantitative data.
Keep in mind that bottom configuration and the proximity of a bank
affect this maneuver. A ship may back "the wrong way," especially if
the starboard quarter is close to the bank or a shoal area at the edge

14
 — BOW AND STERN THRUSTERS —

of the channel, so that the swing to the left is not checked. This effect
is minimized if the ship is kept at or near midchannel when backed.
These possible variations in ship's behavior make shiphandling
interesting and ensure that the handling of ships will always be an art
rather than a science.

HANDLING A SHIP WITH STERNWAY

When the ship is dead in the water, put the engine half astern and back
for a period of ten minutes so good sternway develops. Note all the
previously discussed effects of backing and also note the degree to which
the ship follows her rudder—the ability or lack of ability of a ship to steer
while going astern is quite important when moving in confined waters.
Collect the usual data and particularly note the direction of the
wind relative to the ship. Since the ship with sternway wants to back
into the eye of the wind, it is especially important to be aware of the
wind. Back first with the rudder amidships and then try to steer with
the rudder after sufficient sternway develops.
BOW AND STERN THRUSTERS
Bow thrusters have become common aboard merchant ships and stern
thrusters are also seen occasionally. The bow thruster has its advantages
and disadvantages, as does any other equipment:

Advantages
Located at the extreme end of the
vessel for maximum effective-
ness.
Available at all times, unlike a
tug.
Gives good lateral control without
affecting headway.
Saves some expenses by reducing
the need for tugs.
Disadvantages
Becomes ineffective as speed
increases.
Less powerful than a modern
tug.
Cannot be used to slow a ship,
or hold against a current
from ahead or astern.
Requires continuous mainte-
nance to ensure reliability.
Unusable at very light drafts.

Thrusters are used much like a tug to move the bow and stern
laterally, steer the vessel when going astern, hold the ship alongside a
wharf or pier, and hold the ship into the wind at slow speeds and when
anchoring. The thruster's uses are more obvious to the seaman than
its shortcomings. The thruster is a useful tool to supplement the anchor
and tug, but certainly does not replace a tug in all cases.

15
 Keep in mind that the thruster is most useful at speeds of 2 knots or
less and should not be relied upon at higher speeds. This is very important.

TURNING WITH A BOW THRUSTER

The bow thruster's effectiveness can only be determined by experimen-
tation. The many diagrams that show this equipment being effective
at speeds of 6 knots and more are a figment of some naval architect's
imagination. More than one ship has a similar, carefully drawn but
incorrect graph posted in her wheelhouse. The person who developed
this graph obviously never got beyond sailing model boats in a test
basin, and the graph only demonstrates the gap that remains between
the theoretician and the real world.
Try your bow thruster first to the right and then to the left, making
it a point to orient your ship so you bring her bow through the wind
each time. This is an interesting maneuver for the mariner, since the
data collected makes it possible to predict with confidence the thruster's
effectiveness when steaming through a crowded anchorage or holding
the bow into the wind while the mate drops the anchor.
Perform this maneuver first at 1 knot and again at 3 knots. To see
how far the theoretical data is from reality try the thruster again at 6
knots. It will not have the effect shown on the previously mentioned
posted card, and it probably will not even be felt by the helmsman
holding the ship steady on a course!
Collect the usual data for later study in the comfort of your fo'c's'le.
Prepare a graph of speed versus bow thruster effectiveness (change of
heading in degrees per minute as measured by observation or rate-of-
turn indicator, if that equipment is available) for your own information
and for the use of pilots. There is no doubt that the graph prepared
aboard ship will be more accurate and useful than the one supplied to
the ship at delivery. Remember, it is not so much the power of the
thruster that is of interest in these tests, but the ship's speed through
the water at which the thruster is effective. A number of years ago a
tanker turning in the Delaware River collided with another tanker at
her berth while trying to use the bow thruster at 6 knots to assist in
making the turn. It is better to learn the capabilities of your equipment
during this trial maneuver. As possible, repeat these maneuvers for
your vessel in various loaded conditions and wind strengths. There is
no need to construct a graph for the data obtained during these
maneuvers, but the experience gained through use and observation of
the ship's thruster will bolster your skills.

16
 — APPROACHING SHALLOW WATER —

MOST EFFECTIVE MANEUVER

Professionalism in shiphandling entails looking for the most effective
maneuver, not just a random series of maneuvers that will put the ship
in a desired position using a minimum number of bells and helm orders.
Having completed the trial maneuvers, the shiphandler has a feel
for the ship and is better able to anticipate her behavior. It is therefore
possible to choose the most effective action to take in a situation.
The most effective maneuver accomplishes several tasks simultaneously
so the ship is handled with the minimum of orders and is always under
control.
For example, when i t is necessary to alter a ship's heading to
starboard and reduce her headway, the less experienced shiphandler
might first make the starboard turn, then check the ship's swing and
put the engine astern to reduce headway. The accomplished shiphandler
puts the engine astern first and the resulting starboard swing caused
by the ship's tendency to twist in that direction when backed takes the
ship around the turn while headway is simultaneously being reduced.

APPROACHING SHALLOW WATER

You have familiarized yourself with the local conditions of the port at
which you are about to arrive, planned your passage from sea to berth,
and have become confident that you have a good feel for your ship and
what she will do under various conditions. You now feel ready to bring
your command into her first discharge port.
The vibration felt throughout the ship's hull tells you the depth of
water under the keel is decreasing. Test gear, and then reduce speed
to minimize this vibration. Other changes to expect include:

1. Improved steering characteristics as the underkeel clearance decreases

until, in shallow water, a directionally unstable ship becomes easier
to steer and less unstable. This is true only if the ship does not squat
so much forward that she goes by the head, in which case the stabilizing
effects of the shallower water are negated by the change in trim.
2. T h e ship's turning radius increases until, in shallow water (depths of
1.2 times the vessel's draft or less), the radius can be as much as double
that experienced at sea.
3. T h e vessel twists more when backed.
4. T h e trim of the ship changes, the draft increasing more at the bow or
stern depending primarily on the hull form.

17
 — ARRIVAL —

These changes are significant and must be kept in mind as water

depth decreases (fig. 1-7).

Deep Water (at Sea) Shallow Water

Directional stability a
function of hull form and
trim.
Rate of turn dependent on
hull characteristics and
directional stability of
vessel.
Diameter of turning circle
approximately three times
the ship's length.
Speed loss significant when
making large course
changes.
Loss of headway in calm
water, with engine
stopped; a factor of dis-
placement, trim, and hull
form.
Vessel's head falls off to
starboard when the engine
goes astern.
Directional stability becomes
more positive (steering
"improves").
Rate of turn essentially the
same as for deep water.
Diameter of turning circle
increases to as much as
twice that of deep water
turn.
Speed losses occur with large
changes in heading, but to
a lesser extent than in
deep water.
Loss of headway with engine
stopped, in shallow water,
less than in deep water.
(The ship carries her way
longer in shallow water.)
Head falls off in the same
direction, but at a greater
rate, as depth decreases.

Figure 1-7. Shallow water effects on vessel maneuvering characteristics.

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
Directional stability affects the ship's steering characteristics, the
degree to which she can be checked when swinging, and the change in
her rate of turn when the rudder is put amidships. A hydrodynamicist
looks at directional stability in other ways, and tests for the degree of
directional stability that a ship possesses by putting the ship through
a series of "Z" maneuvers.
A vessel can have positive, negative, or neutral directional stability.
A ship that tends to steady up when the rudder is put amidships has
positive directional stability. If she swings at increasing rates of turn
when the rudder is amidships she has negative stability. A vessel with
neutral directional stability continues swinging at the present rate, or

18
 - DIRECTIONAL STABILITY -

continues along on her current heading until external forces take charge.
She has no tendency to either increase or decrease her rate of swing
when the rudder is left amidships.
The ship's directional stability is especially important when proceeding
up a channel or attempting to steer with a minimum of rudder at sea.
More rudder for a longer period of time is needed to check the swing of
a directionally unstable ship than is required to start that swing.
It may not be possible to check the swing of a directionally unstable
ship before she leaves the channel, even though the rate of turn is quite
normal for an average ship. Large rudder angles and constant attention
are required to steer her, especially in confined waters and when making
course changes. As a greater number of full-bodied ships, and especially
ships with open sterns and full sections forward, are launched, the
condition of negative directional stability becomes more common.
Because this condition is to a large extent draft critical, it is affected
by even small changes in trim. A few feet of drag will change the entire
personality of an otherwise "cranky" ship and give her positive directional
stability. An alteration in trim changes the underwater form of the
hull, shifting the greatest submerged cross-sectional areas of the hull.
For this reason, any ship significantly trimmed by the head has negative
directional stability, and a seaman finds that the characteristics of a
ship with inherent negative directional stability are the same as those
always associated with a ship trimmed by the head. More time is
required than usual to start such a ship swinging, and very large rudder
angles for longer periods of time are needed to check that swing. If she
gets away from the helmsman, watch out!
Directional stability is obviously a condition with which the mariner
has long been familiar, although that term may not have been used to
describe the condition. As more ships are constructed with hulls that
are inherently directionally unstable, it becomes increasingly important
to be alert for this condition. You are better able to predict your ship's
behavior when handling the ship yourself and when turning her over
to a pilot if steering behavior is considered to be a function of directional
stability.
Because changes in directional stability are significant as draft and
trim are altered, and because large, full-bodied ships with large block
coefficients often squat by the head, it is especially important that these
potential changes be given careful consideration when trimming such
ships for arrival.

19
 — ARRIVAL —

Fig. 1-8. "A few feet of drag changes the entire personality of a ship, Cap'. . . ."

I t is apparent then that directional stability:

1. Increases as the underkeel clearance decreases.

2. Becomes more positive as length increases.
3. Becomes more positive as drag increases.
4. Decreases as the block coefficient increases.
5. Decreases as the beam increases for a given length (length/beam
ratio decreases).
6. Decreases as the area of the forward sections increases relative
to the area of the after sections (as the pivot point shifts ahead).

EFFECTS OF BOTTOM CONTOUR

ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS
Changes in ocean bottom contour do not affect the ship's behavior until
shallow water conditions are encountered. Shallow water effects as
shown in figure 1-7 vary in magnitude with changes in average depth.
The additional effects of specific changes in bottom contour are
superimposed on these shallow water effects and cause (fig. 1-9):

20
 — ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS —

1. The ship's bow to move away from more shallow water. This
well-known "bank cushion" effect is caused by the pressure built
up on the area of the bow, as seen in the raised water that forms
between the ship's bow and the shoal or bank.
2. The ship to move bodily sideways toward a nearby shallow area
as her parallel midbody passes that area. This movement is
caused by the increase in velocity of the water flowing through
the restricted area between the ship and shoal and the resultant
reduction in pressure on that side of the ship.
3. The stern of the ship to move toward shallower areas or banks
due to the reduced flow of water to the area behind the ship, and
to the ship's propeller on the side closer to that shallow area.

Bank cushion is unfortunately often exaggerated in marine texts

that describe hypothetical ships "smelling" shallow water and heading
away from it, saving themselves from grounding. These tales are untrue
and dangerously misleading, and should be filed along with those about
sea monsters and falling off the edge of the world. It is more correct to
say that "a ship tends to head away" from shoal water—the effect is
not as strong as often indicated in classic books on seamanship.
Bank suction is more strongly felt than bank cushion and causes
a ship to sheer away from a shoal or bank. This is a significant effect
that can make steering difficult as the bottom contour changes in
shallow water.
All these effects are felt to some degree during the arrival phase of
a voyage as water depth decreases. The effects are more pronounced
as the ship proceeds up a channel and are discussed more fully in
applicable chapters.
(.4 41- • 1 0,
•
(-)

..• ••• • •. . . „ • • • ••• •" • • • •••

Fig. 1-9. Effects of changes in bottom contour or a near bank.

21
 — ARRIVAL —

HANDLING OF LARGER SHIPS IN SHALLOW WATER

A study was conducted by a group of shipping companies and
organizations in July 1977, using Esso Osaka to determine the handling
characteristics of VLCCs in shallow water.' This study has been widely
circulated and used to refine previous theories. The data were also used
to improve computer programs for the various shiphandling simulators
used to train deck officers (fig. 1-10).
While most of the information contained in the tests is discussed
in this text, it should be stressed that the tests proved that, contrary
to oft-stated opinions, VLCCs remain highly maneuverable in shallow
water and steer quite well with the engine turning ahead and stopped.
This now well-documented fact, based on both the Esso Osaka study
and on the experiences of masters and pilots who have handled these
larger ships in shallow water, should be comforting to the master
bringing a VLCC into shallow water for the first time. In fact, large
ships usually steer better in shallow water with the engine stopped
than they do in deep water. There is no need for a ship to move at
excessive speed to maintain steerageway.
It is encouraging to see greater attention being given to real-ship/
real-time data on shiphandling and maneuvering characteristics. The
data collected during the Esso Osaka trials, and several other shallow
water trials, such as those done by El Paso Marine Company with
liquefied natural gas carriers, can only result in safer handling of
present vessels and the design of better handling ships in the future.
APPROACHING THE PILOT STATION
It should be standard practice to station an engineer in the steering
gear fiat when arriving and maneuvering in restricted waters. It is too
late to send someone to shift to the trick wheel after steering is lost.
The engineer assigned to stand by must be trained in shifting over to
the emergency system and then steering by compass courses and conning
orders.
This operation must be practiced at sea before an emergency arises.
It is difficult enough for an experienced helmsman to steer in a confined
area with no visible horizon, let alone an untrained person under
emergency conditions with the noise of the steering gear machinery
making it difficult to hear helm orders. The half hour a month required
for practice is time well spent.

1W. 0. Gray, Esso Osaka Maneuvering Trials.

22
 — STOPPING OR REDUCING HEADWAY —

Fig. 1-10. The VLCC Esso Osaka. Courtesy Exxon Corporation

There must be a tested and reliable means of communicating between

the steering gear flat and the bridge. A good headset with a long cord
that leaves the wearer free to move about and use both hands is
recommended. The headset cuts down on background noise so instructions
can be heard.
Prepare the anchors for letting go with the claws and pawls off (or
clear whatever gear you might have aboard your particular ship for
securing the anchors at sea). Break the anchors out of the hawsepipe
to ensure that if needed they will run free, unless the ship is rolling too
heavily to allow this. The anchor may need to be lowered to the water's
edge if a large, bulbous bow prevents dropping it from the hawsepipe.
(See chapter 8 for a discussion of the uses of the anchor.)
STOPPING OR REDUCING HEADWAY
You now want to reduce ship's speed so the pilot can be safely embarked
and the ship maneuvered among other traffic and anchored vessels. The
most common methods to reduce a ship's headway include:

1. Using the ship's engine astern. (see figure 1-6)

23
 2. Slewing a vessel about a base course.
3. Large changes in heading, including a complete round turn (fig.
1-11).

The use of the engine astern to reduce a ship's headway is the

easiest and most common method for slowing or stopping any ship. It
is also often the least effective. A propeller is less efficient astern than
ahead—a large turbine plant may have as little as 25 percent of the
power astern than it has ahead—and a ship becomes difficult to handle
when the engine is put astern at higher revolutions. Time and searoom
are required to back a ship to a stop—so with a large ship it is often
impractical to use this maneuver alone. This maneuver becomes more
useful as headway is reduced to lower speeds, and is generally carried
out as described in the previous section of this chapter, so that the ship
remains reasonably close to the desired heading.
A preferred method for reducing headway, and with VLCCs often
the most practical method, is a series of course changes to starboard
and port of the base course. Using this slewing maneuver, the ship

Change of heading = 90° Change of heading = 180°

Speed = 6.5 knots Speed = 4.2 knots
Elapsed time = 4 M. 30 S. RPM = 52
Elapsed time = 9 M. 20 S.

/ Ship length

Total time = 21 M. 5 S.

Initial speed = 12 knots (60 rpm)

L J Rudder hard right

Fig. 1-11 Loss of speed during a round turn.

24
 — STOPPING OR REDUCING HEADWAY —

loses a significant amount of headway each time she swings, yet makes
good her desired track toward the pilot station or anchorage.
Keep in mind when other vessels are about that this slewing maneuver
may be confusing to them. They do not know if your change in heading
is an actual course change that will affect a meeting situation between
your two ships, or only a temporary heading change as you slew your
ship to reduce headway. This is especially true at night, when the watch
aboard the other ship sees your large tanker or containership showing
first a green and then a red sidelight, and then sees both sidelights as
you head directly for them. Good seamanship dictates that you contact
by VHF any ship that might be concerned and let her know your
intentions when slewing your ship to reduce headway.
The round turn maneuver, or even a large change in heading, quickly
takes the headway off any ship, with the reduction being greater for
larger ships. This maneuver disputes the claim that VLCCs can't be
handled safely in crowded waters "because it requires miles to stop
those big babies." A rule of thumb is that a VLCC loses 25-30 percent
of her headway for every 90 degree change in heading.2 If the ship is
proceeding at 12 knots, her headway is reduced to 2 to 3 knots at the
completion of a round turn, even though the engine continues to turn
ahead for steerageway. The ship completes this turn in about three
times her length in deep water, or a bit less than six times her length
in shallow water. (See figure 1-3.) That is much less than the oft-claimed
"several miles" stopping distance supposedly required for these ships.
This round turn maneuver is useful:

1. When in a crossing situation at sea it is necessary to maneuver

to avoid collision.
2. To slow a ship before arrival at a pilot station.
3. To make a lee for a pilot.
4. To stop a ship after losing the engine.

The round turn maneuver used in a crossing situation at sea

accomplishes several tasks simultaneously. Your ship is turned away
from the other vessel and makes a 360-degree course change while
reducing headway. At the completion of the turn she is back on her

2Ship Performance Data for VLCCs.

25
original heading at a minimum speed, and you probably find that the
other ship has crossed your course line and is safely on her way.
If a round turn is used to make a lee for a pilot, the ship sweeps a
calm area for boarding and loses headway.
The round turn can be used to stop your ship after losing her engine,
since she will usually respond to her rudder if given a chance. The ship
remains in the limited area needed to make the turn while losing
headway until stopped, or nearly so. While she might carry her way for
an extended period if moving straight ahead, she stops in a surprisingly
short time when put into a hard-over turn. It is stressed that the ship
does respond to her rudder without the propeller turning ahead at even
very low speeds.
A master or deck officer, accustomed to the ship's immediate response
to rudder movements at sea, might feel that she does not steer effectively
when the engine is stopped. Often a master advises the pilot that the
ship does not steer without the engine, or will not steer at less than
some excessive speed, such as 6 knots. In waterways such as the Panama
Canal, or in a port area where speed is naturally restricted, this lack
of steering capability would create an interesting situation if it really
existed. The Panama Canal locks certainly could not be entered at such
a speed, and yet the ship must be steered all the way into the jaws of
the lock. Ships do, in fact, respond to rudders at very low speeds if given
a chance.
This is a comforting fact as the world's merchant fleet becomes
almost exclusively powered by diesel engines. The odds increase to some
extent that the engine will not go astern if a ship is diesel propelled,
since it is stopped and restarted astern in most cases—but you can still
get the ship safely stopped using a round turn. The round turn is useful
in these and other situations, and every master or watchstander must
keep the maneuver in mind to reduce headway and avoid casualties in
the open sea and when maneuvering.

PICKING UP THE PILOT/MAKING A LEE

As you approach the pilot station after several days steaming at sea
speed, a conscious effort is required on the part of conning officers to
reorient themselves to the lower speeds necessary for maneuvering.
When making a lee for the pilot, be sure speed is reduced to 5 to 6 knots.
There are ports with high-powered boats and special boarding facilities
where it is preferred that the ship proceed at higher speeds. You are
usually aware of this requirement, or the pilot will inform you of it via

26
 — PICKING UP THE PILOT/MAKING A LEE —

VHF when you call the station two hours before arrival. Unless informed
otherwise, the 5-to-6-knot speed is comfortable, and yet not so slow that
the boat has difficulty staying alongside while transferring the pilot to
the ladder.
Make your approach so as to give the pilot a good lee, and remember,
it is possible to knock down a short chop by putting a swing on your
ship just before the pilot boards so the quarter is swinging away from
the pilot boat. "Sweeping a lee" in this manner is especially helpful
when there is a cross sea and swell, since you can block the swell with
the ship's hull and then knock down the contrary sea as the pilot boards
(fig. 1-12).
Making a lee often requires some careful planning, especially when
a shoal area or traffic restricts maneuvering. Here again, a complete
round turn may be the best way to make a good lee, even if it appears
at first to be very time consuming. Since the turn takes off a great deal
of the ship's headway, you can make up for some of the time required
to make this round turn by being able to approach the station at a
greater speed than would have been possible had you proceeded directly
and then slowed with the engine alone. More important, while it may
not look rough from the bridge, it is rough down there in that small

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r
c Cr)
co
co
,?
Sea
swept flat
for pilot
•
•'
•

Fig. 1-12 Ship in hard-over turn "sweeps a lee" for the pilot.

27
launch, and the transfer will often be hazardous. Professionalism
demands that you make the situation as safe as possible for the pilot,
regardless of how late you are arriving at the terminal, or how many
gangs might be waiting at the dock.
To further assist in sweeping a lee without gaining excessive headway,
you can use the previously described backing and filling maneuver.
Come ahead to start the ship swinging to the right and then put the
engine astern. The vessel turns about her pivot point while headway
is simultaneously reduced, so the maneuver does not require any great
amount of searoom. Remember, though, that all the way must not be
taken off the ship, as this makes it difficult for the pilot boat to stay
alongside. It is also important not to back so long that the wash reaches
the pilot ladder and sweeps the pilot launch away from the ship's side.
ESTIMATING SPEED THROUGH THE WATER
BY SHIP'S PROPELLER WASH
How, on a dark night without a Doppler log, do you tell what speed you
are making? By watching the wash from the propeller. When the engine
is going astern, the ship's speed is down to about 2 knots when the wash
from the propeller begins to move up the starboard side of the ship. So
long as that wash is being left behind the ship you are making something
in excess of 2 knots. Of course, as every seaman knows, once the wash
reaches halfway up the ship's hull, the ship is dead in the water. (See
figure 4-2.)
Would you want a good, sound ladder to scale a two-to-four-story
swaying building? The pilot wants at least as much when boarding your
rolling ship in a seaway.
Be sure a clean pilot ladder meeting current IMO and USCG
standards is properly rigged under the supervision of a licensed deck
officer. This officer must visually and physically inspect the ladder as
it is rigged and be in attendance while the pilot embarks or disembarks.
Two seamen must also be on hand at these times. Use only a proper
ladder, reserved for use as a pilot ladder, that is made up so that:

1. The rungs are of one piece hardwood.

2. The bottom four rungs are of reinforced hard rubber.
3. The rungs have a nonskid surface.
4. Rungs are at least 19 inches long, 4 inches deep, and 1 inch thick.

28
 — BY SHIP'S PROPELLER WASH —

5. The ladder is hung by single lengths of Manila or prestretched

(low stretch) Dacron.
6. There is a clear space 16 to 19 inches between the lines across
each rung.
7. There are 12 to 15 inches between the rungs.3

Have a heaving line available to handle the pilot's bag (it may
contain your mail, so handle the bag with care!) and a life ring with
waterlight. Maintain communications by walkie-talkie between the
pilot ladder and the bridge when the pilot is boarding or leaving. Keep
the ladder and the deck area at the head of the ladder well lighted.
Place a light aft but near the ladder, so it illuminates the ladder without
blinding the pilot boat operator.
Coming aboard on a winter night is dangerous enough without
having to use an iced-up ladder. Keep the ladder on deck in icy weather
and put it over the side only when the pilot boat is coming alongside.
Spreaders are required if there are more than nine rungs in the
ladder to keep the ladder from twisting. These spreaders must be at
least 70 inches long, placed at intervals not exceeding nine rungs apart,
and be secured behind and in-line with rungs."
The maximum distance that a pilot should have to climb is 9 meters
(30 feet), and an accommodation ladder must be used in conjunction
with the ladder (fig. 1-13) when the distance from the water to the deck
exceeds that amount.
Be sure to lash the accommodation ladder tight alongside the ship
with the frapping line B (fig. 1-14). This important line is often forgotten,
leaving the accommodation ladder free to swing away from the hull as
the ship rolls in a swell at the pilot station. The frapping line also holds
the accommodation ladder alongside when the ship has a small list,
and since the pilot ladder is lashed to the accommodation ladder at
point D, this in turn minimizes the amount the long pilot ladder is free
to swing.
The access to the deck must be either through an opening in the
bulwark or over the rail using stanchions at least 40 inches high secured
into the bulwark together with a sturdy set of steps. down to the deck.

3 Malcolm C. Armstrong, Pilot Ladder Safety, pp 8-12.

Ibid., p 15.

29
 — ARRIVAL —

Fig. 1-13 "It's a long way up." Courtesy J. Stuart Griffin.

Too many pilots have been needlessly hurt trying to climb over the rail
or gunwale (fig. 1-15).
Rig manropes on each side of the ladder. Make sure the manropes
hang free of the ladder so they do not hinder the pilot's climb. If the
manropes are swinging across the ladder, the pilot may request they
be pulled up on deck. Not all pilots use the manropes, but they should
be available to assist a pilot in transferring safely from ship to launch.
Have the manropes and ladder rigged well above the water so they
clear the deck of the launch lying alongside. A ladder lying on the launch
deck may trap and injure the pilot, while a ladder lying between the
launch and the ship's hull may be pulled down from the ship by the
pitching launch.
If a pilot hoist is used, be sure a conventional ladder is also rigged
alongside and available. Many pilots have had enough bad experiences
with these hoists that they refuse to use them, and even if the hoist is
used, the ladder must be available in case a problem develops.
Rigs for proper boarding facilities with various combinations of
freeboard and hull type are shown in figure 1-14. Titles of some useful
books and pamphlets about pilot boarding techniques and facilities are
included in the bibliography.

30
 — WIND EFFECTS ON STEERING —

WIND EFFECTS ON STEERING

As the ship slows, she begins to feel the wind and become more difficult
to steer if the weather is not the best. The freeboard or "sail area" that
the ship presents will be the principal factor determining how much
effect the wind will have on steering, although the ratio of the ship's
draft to freeboard will also be important. Needless to say, even if the

RIGGING FOR FREEBOARA NATION ARRANGE

OF 9 METRES OR F SHIPS WITH
REEBOARD OF MO
HANDHOLD THAN 9 METRES
STANCHIONS W H E N N O SIDE D O O R AVAILABLE
Min. D lam 32 mm
1.9.120crn
Above Bulwark

PILOT LADDER
MAN-ROPES Must extend
(without knots) at heart 2 metres
Mn Dion. 28rnm above lower.
Mac Diem. 32mrn pLstform
ACCOMMODATION
IF REQUIRED
LADDER
BYTHE PILOT SPREADER • 5 e c k r e d to
Min.1110cm long ships side
Laddermust be 1 % .
firmly attached M a t t i l m u m
to5shimetresp'ssideabove — F 4 5 . 4 0 1 . Should lead aft
1
SIDE ROPES MAXIMUM 9 STEPS plammodatkin
MM. Dian, 18mm lartereen wanders t f o r m L o w e r 0 . 5 m
platform — . I I " -
i c
, horizontal
1 1
ALL STEPS
Must lest firmly The lower 2mplatform
against ship's side
shall b..
31-35cm Apilot ladkv m i n i n x i m w - 9 metres
Recornmandad
requires a <Limb o f 5 metres — t f r e e b o a r d molt
of not less shun . b o n e the sea I
1.5 metres and b e e
no remthano i
9 metres
STERN BOW

5th STEP
from bottom
mustbe a spreader

PILOT
6 METRES - - - -
Accommodation
unobstructed 4 ladder should
s h i p ' s side Height
Requiredby Pilot
besecured to
ship's side
se
MINIM

PILOT ( U eyepad.1
1 • 7 • 0
((Using
gnetic or . . . a f t
pneumatic
system) ° N O U N

Fig. 1-14 Use of combination of pilot and accommodation ladders. Courtesy

International Maritime Pilots Association

31
 — ARRIVAL —

Handhold stanchions 1 1 1 . F R o g r O f f i c e r
rigidly secured to deck I n w i t h bridge

)))

Bulwark & Pilot ladder

Lifebuoy with secured to deck
self-igniting light strong points

Fig. 1-15 Typical bulwark steps and boarding area safety aids. Courtesy
International Maritime Pilots Association

amount of sail area is not great, if you are only drawing 10 feet forward,
you will find the wind a problem as you begin to reduce speed.
How much will your vessel feel the wind? As a rule of thumb—based
on tests with various types of ships—at very low maneuvering speeds,
a high-sided ship, such as a passenger ship or a containership, will feel
the wind significantly at a wind speed of three times the ship's speed,
while a loaded tanker will require a wind speed of at least five times
the ship's speed before being affected to the same degree. Other types
of cargo ships will fall somewhere in between these two ratios, depending
on their house configuration, deck load, and freeboard, and even ship
types that appear similar at first glance may have different
characteristics.5 (See figure 1-17.) For example, new classes of passenger

6Maryland Pilot Captain Brian Hope, El Paso Consolidated Maneuvering

Trials, El Paso Marine Company, Solomons, Maryland, 1978.

32
 — WIND EFFECTS ON STEERING —

%; .
--m i Sim
NO! i
No shackles, 6
knots or splices • , . . _ . : • b
kr, r t t
NO! r 1
The steps must be
equally spaced
i l o '
NO!
The steps must be • i
horizontal and c h o c k s — . ; . ' i
under the steps must be 1 I
tightly secured i 0 o
I I
NO! z 0
Spreaders must - - - - - - - . ' ? .
not be lashed 1 o 'i
between steps I .
1' • 0 .
NO!
Side ropes must
be equally spaced

NO!
The steps shouldn
epainted,
tb
o
dirty or slippery
3 3
g
NO! 1
Loops and tripping
lines present a
tripping hazard 1 , 0
and foul the
Pilot Launch

Fig. 1-16 Pilot ladder requirements. Courtesy International Maritime Pilots

Association

33
ships with deck after deck of closed balconies separated by vertical
bulkheads at right angles to the hull seem to catch the wind. The
shiphandler must allow for more leeway when approaching a berth or
anchorage for a given wind force. Apparently, the wind cannot pass
smoothly down the ship's side as it would along the hull of the conventional
ship, so the ship is pushed laterally at a greater rate due to what some
Wind speed
pilots in knots
refer to as an "ice tray effect" due to the appearance of these ships
with their row after row of recessed boxes. An experienced shiphandler
considers ship types and oddities, such as the ice tray effect, that
determine the impact of wind and the leeway required at slow speeds.
Keep in mind that a loaded containership, passenger ship, auto
carrier, or high-sided liquefied gas carrier with 75 feet of freeboard
presents 50,000 to 60,000 square feet of side to the wind (fig. 1-17). A
full rigged sailing ship carried about 45,000 square feet of canvas.
Obviously, the wind direction and force is at least as important to a
pilot or master handling modern motor ships as it was to ships' masters
maneuvering ships in the days of sail. Ships may grow larger and look
different, but the wind and sea have not changed and the basic principles
of shiphandling remain very much the same, no matter how many
flashing lights and alarms we put on the bridge.

20

15
,.te
•00- „ 6..,s
�t a k e s

10

ti
5

0 2 3 4 5 6
Ship's speed in knots
Fig. 1-17 Speed of vessel at which wind takes charge. (See footnote 5.)

34
 - WIND EFFECTS ON STEERING -

Conversely, the ship's speed can be reduced to a point determined

by that same ratio of wind force to ship's speed before you would begin
to have problems steering. This is not to say that you cannot steer at
that point, but rather, that you will then need to use the engine to steer,
giving a kick ahead as the ship starts to come up into the wind. When
you are trying to stop the ship this can obviously become a problem.
By punching the engine ahead—that is, significantly increasing the
revolutions for just long enough to start the ship swinging back to the
desired heading—you will be able to control the ship without significantly
increasing her headway. You should keep in mind that the wind will
become an important factor in handling the ship as you reduce speed
when making arrival or slowing to pick up the pilot, and consider this
factor when planning your arrival.
How will the ship react as you reduce speed? Ships of most
configurations will normally head up into the wind at increasingly
larger angles as the ship loses headway. When finally dead in the water,
the ship will usually want to lie beam to the wind. With sternway, the
ship will want to back into the wind. Be aware, though, that every ship
will behave a little differently, depending on the silhouette that she
presents to the wind; that is, the location of the house, deck cargoes,
amount of freeboard, and trim. Only you will know exactly how your
ship will behave in a strong wind, and then only after extensive
experimentation with her. Again, it is stressed that you should get as
much experience as possible handling your vessel under varying
conditions. Do not let your natural reluctance caused by lack of experience
deter you from creating opportunities to handle your ship and develop
a feel for her at slow speeds. Any damn fool can handle his ship at sea
speed!
Here again, a potential problem such as a strong wind can be made
an aid once the shiphandler begins to appreciate his ship's behavior
and plans his maneuvers with that behavior in mind. An example would
be a ship that must turn around and head to an anchorage, or perhaps
to sea. If she is loaded with containers, it might not be possible to turn
in a direction that requires the bow to come through the wind—she
might be held on her heading by the wind much like a sailing ship in
irons, and her speed would increase without any significant change in
her heading. If the ship is instead turned away from the wind (or back
and filled around if the amount of searoom available will not allow a
normal turn), and her stern is brought across the wind during the
maneuver, the wind will assist the ship in turning. As sternway develops

35
the ship will turn easily as she backs into the wind, so that when she
comes ahead again the wind, now on the quarter, will assist her in
turning. This is true even if due to the configuration of the channel or
anchorage the ship must back and fill in what ordinarily would be the
"wrong way," to the left—since the normal tendency of the stern to go
to port when the engine goes astern would be overcome by the wind as
the ship gains sternway.
This demonstrates once again the value of appreciating the forces
of wind and current, and the need to add sail training to the curriculum
of our maritime schools. Apart from the important but more esoteric
benefits of sail training, such as self-discipline, attention to tasks at
hand, and appreciation of the demands of the ocean environment, there
are important direct benefits. The skills required to navigate and handle
a ship being affected by wind and current are as important today as
they were in the years of the Down Easters, and these seafaring skills
can best be learned by working a ship under sail. Sail training should
supplement the seagoing experience already given potential deck and
engineering officers.
COMMUNICATIONS WITH OTHER VESSELS
The VHF radio can be a great aid to the ship's officer if it is used
properly. By making use of good voice communications via VHF radio,
it is possible to avoid many dangerous situations, as well as make
passing and meeting arrangements. While there are good references
available on proper radio procedure, to ensure that the VHF is used to
its best advantage, there are also practices that may not have been
discussed sufficiently:

1. Do not transmit overly long messages, with tiresome and

unnecessary repetition of your ship's call letters after each
transmission. It is necessary to give your call letters only when
making an initial transmission, and after the last transmission
of your discussion. Between first and last transmissions you need
only give your call sign at ten-minute intervals, although you
will hopefully keep radio communications shorter than that.
2. Call the pilot station, discuss the placement of the pilot ladder,
update your estimated time of arrival (ETA), and ask if there
are any special requirements for boarding facilities.
3. Use the VHF to contact the pilot services before arrival at the
station to discuss the traffic and weather that you might encounter

36
 — COMMUNICATIONS WITH OTHER VESSELS —

as you approach the station. This is often better information

than you can obtain from a traffic control system, which we will
cover in a later chapter when we will discuss traffic movements
and control in general. Suffice to say that the pilot is able to give
you this information and make your arrival safer and easier.
4. When talking to other ships, remember that while US-flag ships
are accustomed to discussing meeting situations according to
their intentions for meeting and passing, ships of most nationalities
discuss how they will change course to pass. Therefore, i t is
prudent for the mariner to state any meeting arrangements in
two ways to be sure that the other ship understands those
arrangements. For example: "Golden Gopher, this is the tanker
Prudence. I will alter my course to starboard, to meet you port
to port."

This will avoid any misunderstandings, even if there is little English

spoken on the other ship. If you are in US inland waters, add "for one
whistle meeting." This phrasing of communications on the radio is
commonly taught to apprentice pilots and should be adopted by ships'
officers as well.
Use the ship's whistle to supplement radio communications and
further clarify the planned meeting, whether or not this is required by
the Rules of the Road. There is an unfortunate reluctance of deck officers
to use the ship's whistle today.
There was a collision years ago between a US Navy mariner-class
support ship and a Liberian-flag, Chinese-manned, bulk carrier at the
entrance to the Chesapeake Bay. It could have been avoided if these
recommended procedures had been followed. The non-English-speaking
crew of the bulk carrier thought the naval ship was going to alter course
to starboard, when in fact the naval ship had requested on the VHF
radio a starboard to starboard meeting. The only word clearly understood
by the Chinese master was "starboard" and, since the rules that most
of the world operates under outside US waters discuss course changes,
not meeting situations, his mistake was natural and quite common.
The seagoing community is international, speaks many tongues, and
care is needed when speaking via VHF to arrange meetings and passings.
Lastly, do not call another ship by saying, "Ship on my starboard
bow." A call on VHF can be heard at sea even under the worst conditions
over an area of at least 1,400 square miles, so it is obvious that you are
certainly not defining the ship that you want to speak with. There are

37
many other means of identifying that ship, such as adding an approximate
course that she is steering, or a geographic location, the type of ship,
or the hull color.
Technological advancements, such as the Automatic Identification
System (AIS), selective calling for VHFs, and the use of transponders
have reduced some of the confusion that has been prevalent when
identifying individual ships in congested waters, but these aids do not
eliminate the need to correctly identify the vessel you are calling and
the importance of making certain your communications are clear and
precise.
It is also important that mariners appreciate and make use of
equipment that extends communications beyond the spoken word and
radio messages. Graphic presentations on a laptop used in two-way-
based DGPS systems, such as the Panama Canal innovative
communications tracking and navigation (CTAN) system, are just as
much a communication as spoken messages. In fact, the "C" in CTAN
stands for communications because designers of that system intentionally
included features that used the equipment for communications. A
graphic presentation that includes AIS capability will communicate
more information in an instant than a mariner or traffic coordinator
could provide in two or three minutes of spoken communications. This
is especially true in restricted waters, when experienced pilots relate
the visual presentation to existing weather, currents, channel restrictions,
and a developing situation to accurately predict what will happen as
a vessel proceeds from the known point.
Successive generations of mariners have relied on flags, blinker
light, and whistle signals for communications. These visual and audible
communications were supplemented by verbal communications via
VHF radio. Now, graphic presentations have developed as the next
generation of communications for many purposes. This form of
communications must now be considered when questions arise as to
whether ships and mariners have effectively transmitted intentions
and actions from ship to ship. The concept of graphic communications
also extends to radar and automatic radar plotting aid (ARPA)
presentations, although delays while making calculations and the need
for interpretation make them less useful for communications than
high-definition, real-time DGPS-based systems and systems that use
graphic presentations in lieu of alphanumeric lists and long, sometimes
rambling radio communications. Changes and innovations bring new
forms of communications for each successive generation of mariners.

38
 - PILOT ABOARD -

Uses of these graphic presentations are evolving as pilots and mariners

find additional ways to use this tool.
This does not mean that new systems always replace the old.
Mariners should use all modes of communications as appropriate. The
VHF can be used to tell others what you will be doing before it will be
obvious to someone monitoring a radar or laptop, but the whistle signal
is still appropriate, because it makes clear to everyone in the vicinity,
including those not monitoring a VHF or laptop, that a ship is about
to change course or put the engine astern. Traditional tools are as
useful as ever when maneuvering relatively close to another vessel,
but the new modes extend the range and speed of communications so
shiphandlers can know what is happening several miles away and
arrange meeting and monitor progress of ships even though they are
not yet visible to each other. (See also chapter 12.)

PILOT ABOARD
After the ship's officer brings the pilot to the bridge, there are several
items that should be covered before the ship's conn is turned over for
the passage up the channel. The first should not be to have the pilot
write his name; there are more important things to be taken care of,
such as shaping up for the channel and meeting other traffic.
Several pilots were gathered around the table at the pilot station,
waiting for the arrival of their ships so that they could begin their
night's work. Coffee was passed.
"Got myself a Japanese containership tonight, which should make
for a pleasant night's work. They will be as efficient as hell, make their
ETA, and have a hot cup of coffee waiting for me when I get up to the
bridge."
"Yeah, and I can't think of anything I'd like more after boarding on
a cold night like this."
The junior member of the group was to go aboard a German
refrigerated ship. He joked that the first thing the captain would say
was, "Where have you been, pilot? We have been waiting for ten minutes,
and we do not like being delayed like this."
This observation has been made by a thousand pilots, on a thousand
nights such as this, and always raised a laugh.
"I have an American ship, light draft, and a long way to the bridge.
After going up 30 feet of icy ladder, and climbing six decks, I'll be
panting like a race horse."
"Yeah, and the first thing you'll be handed won't be coffee!"

39
 "That's for sure. They'll stick the damn bell book in my hand and
want me to write my name!"
This brought a bigger laugh from all in the room.
This is a scene common to pilots from all over the world. Before a
pilot can get a US-flag ship headed fair, or even catch his breath, he is
asked for his name. No coffee, no sandwich, no "May I take your coat,
pilot?" Professionalism calls for something better than this. Keep it in
mind the next time you welcome a pilot aboard your vessel—let the
man catch his breath, get the ship steadied up on course, hand him a
cup of coffee, and then ask for his name.
PILOT-MASTER EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION
The pilot will need information from the master. While IMO
regulations now require a card to be posted in the wheelhouse showing
some of the ship's particulars and maneuvering characteristics, this
card is not much good on a dark night on a ship that is underway. The
same information will be much more useful if it is also contained on
a small pocket-size card that the pilot can look at with a flashlight
while starting up the channel. Further, there is other information of
more use than that found on the maneuvering card which should be
supplied by the master. Is the engine in proper operating condition?
Does it respond quickly? Does the ship have any steering peculiarities?
Can she maneuver on heavy oil, or must you change to diesel prior to
reducing to maneuvering speeds? Will there be any problem letting
go the anchor or making up a tug due to deck cargo or the ship's
construction? This and many other items must be exchanged, as it is
obviously to the master's advantage that there be no surprises for the
pilot at a later time in the passage. The additional information required
will vary from ship to ship and voyage to voyage. It is here that the
professional knowledge of the master alone can serve, and he must
give some thought before arrival at the pilot station to making up his
own list of pertinent information to supplement the posted information
required by regulation.
The pilot should also provide several pieces of information to the
master. Every port is different, with its own unique requirements, so
it is impossible to design an exchange that will be useful in every port.
There is some controversy regarding this pilot-master exchange and
the amount of information that a pilot should provide to the master for
what is, after all, a fluid situation, where much is subject to change as
the ship transits from dock to sea or vice versa, but the concerns are

40
 — PILOT-MASTER EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION —

,41V ( N V f 4 IN

h
11�I.1,11111

/ I , 1114
*.T-Mt M a l . " TaratigNYTAtinv,cirrairm977(,,Cri.1;:1,..:(4',ITICA,r
_ M ' ` (,,,a116"

Fig. 1-18 "Welcome aboard, Mr. Pilot. She's on full ahead, steady on 275, and all
yours."

overblown and should be put aside given the professional relationship

that exists between these two experienced mariners.

41
 In general, the pilot should provide the master with any information
that is relevant to the vessel's passage. A t a minimum this would
include:

• Reviewing the "pilot card" with the master and discussing ship's
particulars and any peculiar handling characteristics.
• Fixing the current position and reviewing the general route from
that point to the berth or anchorage.
• Discussing the draft, trim, GM, and any considerations when
speed will be limited due to squat and underkeel clearance.
• Discussing any hazards to be encountered (that is, working
dredges, the possibility of reduced visibility, or recent shoaling).
• Reviewing traffic that will be encountered en route.
• Discussing limitations, special notice, manning, and other matters
affecting use of the engine.
• Communicating local regulations that will affect the passage and
any required radio communications.
• Providing estimated call-out time for the crew, need for an anchor
watch, and any special engine maneuvers.
• Discussing the berth, arrangement of lines, and any special
problems anticipated while docking.
• Anticipating weather conditions and currents.
• Timing of pilot changes en route.
• Establishing locations where tugs, if any, are expected, including
special tug escorts.
• Reviewing special operating requirements, such as speeds, areas
where ships cannot meet, the time and location to put out a ladder
for docking pilots, readiness of anchor, and the need for lookouts.
• Discussing bridge equipment and its operation, as well as the
pilot requirements for deck officers to monitor the radar and fix
the ship's position.
• Completing any special equipment tests and communicating any
other special information peculiar to a particular port.

This exchange can actually be completed in a few minutes. The

entire passage will be easier and safer for all involved when everyone
on the bridge has been properly briefed prior to beginning the passage.
The pilot can then assume the conn with a definite, clear statement so
all on the bridge know that the conn has changed hands, make any
security calls, and proceed.

42
 — POSTING OF MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS —

In the past, there have been attempts to regulate a long and rather
onerous exchange, and even some consideration for requiring ships to
anchor or otherwise delay proceeding until that exchange is completed.
These proposals by regulatory agencies are unnecessary if the pilot and
master provide a full and proper exchange for a given port on a voluntary
basis. It is in the best interest of the ship's officer, master, and pilot to
make sure complete information is passed relevant to the ship's passage.
Some pilot associations have adopted forms specific to the port to
facilitate this information exchange. These pilot forms are generally
more effective than the more generic company forms that must fit all
ports at which the company's ships call. The pilot forms contain specific
information needed by the master and pilot for the intended passage.
The American Pilots' Association and the state associations have been
active in this area so the pilot-master exchange is now widely accepted
and commonplace.6

POSTING OF MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS

The applicable sections of the Code of Federal Regulations are excerpted
to show the information required on the posted card, and the minimum
information that should be presented to the pilot on the recommended
wallet-size card. Several other items should also be included, such as
the ship's length, beam, displacement, and horsepower; the distance
from the bridge to the bow and stern; distance from the bridge at which
visibility is restricted; the present draft; a check-off list showing the
operating condition of the engine, radar, and other navigational
equipment; the bow thruster; and any other items pertinent to your
particular vessel.
The information required by law is general in nature and is for
deeper water than the pilot would ordinarily be interested in. Since the
data is for specific conditions and is too often based on analytical
calculations or model tests, it is of limited use at best. Here again, it is
obvious that the master should collect his own data based on actual
trials that he will have conducted at the earliest available opportunity
after taking command of a new vessel. Since there have been so few
actual trials under shallow water conditions, any data derived by
calculation, or from simulations based on such calculations, should only

6Master-Pilot Exchange, A Position Paper, International Maritime Pilots'

Association, February 5, 1997.

43
be considered a good approximation of a vessel's performance. As more
tests are conducted, such as the aforementioned El Paso Marine Company
and Esso Osaka tests, there will be more valid data available. Hopefully
more complete shallow water tests will be conducted in the near future
for other classes of ships as well. As stated in the Code of Federal
Regulations: Aboard each ". . . ocean and coastwise tankship of 1,600
gross tons or over, the following maneuvering information must be
prominently displayed," etc., in the pilothouse on a fact sheet:

(1) For full and half speed, a turning circle diagram to port and starboard
that shows the time and distance of advance and transfer required to
alter the course 90 degrees with maximum rudder angle and constant
power settings.
(2) The time and distance to stop the vessel from full and half speed while
maintaining approximately the initial heading with minimum application
of rudder.
(3) For each vessel with a fixed propeller, a table of shaft revolutions per
minute for a representative range of speeds.
(4) For each vessel with a controllable pitch propeller, a table of control
settings for a representative range of speeds.
(5) For each vessel that is fitted with an auxiliary device to assist in
maneuvering, such as a bow thruster, a table of vessel speeds at which
the auxiliary device is effective in maneuvering the vessel.
(6) The maneuvering information must be provided for the normal load
and normal ballast condition for:

(i) Calm weather—wind 10 knots or less, calm sea;

(ii) No current;
(iii) Deep water conditions—water depth twice the vessel's draft
or greater; and
(iv) Clean hull.

(7) At the bottom of the fact sheet, the following statement must appear:

WARNING
The response of the (name of vessel) may be different from those listed
above if any of the following conditions, upon which the maneuvering
information is based, are varied:

(1) Calm weather—wind 10 knots or less, calm sea;

44
 — POSTING OF MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS —

(2) No current;
(3) Water depth twice the vessel's draft or greater;
(4) Clean hull; and
(5) Intermediate drafts or unusual trim.
* * *

(8) The information on the fact sheet must be:

(i) Verified six months after the vessel is placed in service; or

(ii) Modified six months after the vessel is placed into service and
verified within three months thereafter.

(9) The information that appears on the fact sheet may be obtained from:

(i) Trial trip observations;

(ii) Model tests;
(iii) Analytical calculations;
(iv) Simulations;
(v) Information established from another vessel of similar hull
form, power, rudder, and propeller, or
(vi) Any combination of the above.
The accuracy of the information in the fact sheet required is that
attainable by ordinary shipboard navigation equipment.

(10) The requirements for information for fact sheets for specialized craft
such as semisubmersibles, hydrofoils, hovercraft, and other vessels of
unusual design will be specified on a case-by-case basis.

When you are sure that the pilot is fully briefed, then and only then
can the conn be turned over to him. For some reason, it is the custom
aboard too many ships to have the ship on full ahead and on the general
heading for the channel when the pilot gets to the bridge. The turnover
of the conn then consists of, "She is on full and heading 330, pilot." Too
many masters think that the faster the changeover takes place the
more professionally it has been done. Ridiculous! And that is just how
the pilot involved in such a turnover feels about it. Give the pilot
sufficient time to get his eyes adjusted to the night, gather all the needed
information, and then turn the conn over to him. A professional is never
in a hurry to do anything aboard ship, yet more often than not aboard
the merchant ships of most nationalities this hurried evolution takes
place. It has taken you two weeks to get to this port. What is five more
minutes?
45
 Chapter 2

SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Seamen, with their inherent sense of order, service, and discipline,
should really be running the world.
—Anonymous

The squall passed as suddenly as it had arrived, and all that remained
was the mist rising off the hot, wet deck. Only a few minutes ago we had
been feeling our way up the winding river channel as the driving rain
blinded those on the bridge. The pilot had navigated primarily by radar,
alternating between that equipment and the forward wheelhouse windows,
where he peered through the heavy rain to verify what he was seeing on
the screen. Never was a voice raised as courses and engine speeds were
given to keep the ship in the channel, and this display of skill and
confidence was appreciated by all on the bridge.
The aura of professionalism that surrounded this pilot's actions is
as much a product of experience and attitude as it is the result of technical
training and skill. It is essential that all seagoing professionals develop
this aspect of their work along with their technical skills. Professionalism
is a learned trait, qualitative in nature and difficult to define. We have
all observed the shipmaster or pilot who is obviously in command of a
situation, a person who is a professional, and the manner in which he
performed his work was, of itself, a definition of professionalism.
Because of the uniqueness of the seagoing environment and of the
seaman's work, the "showboating" often resorted to in other professions
to impress one's peers and superiors is out of place aboard ship. Decision
making committees and the substitution of rhetoric for content are
mechanisms that can be used to hide inability in some fields. Not so
aboard ship. Here you must be competent and confident about your work,
and any lack of skill will become evident in a short time. Further, you
must also appear competent to those you work with so they too have
confidence in your skills and respond without the delay or questioning
that leads to confusion.
Since professionalism cannot be learned from a book, those who
teach at the various maritime academies and schools, and more
importantly the senior officers aboard ship, have a responsibility to

46
 - BANK EFFECTS -

nurture its development among younger officers just starting out in their
careers. This offers a significant challenge in an era when it is fashionable
to denigrate traditional skills and quiet competence. Demand
professionalism from all aboard. Ships cannot function properly without
a singular high standard of performance and sense of responsibility.

BANK EFFECTS
In the portion of a river where the channel narrows, the ship begins feeling
the steep bank close on the starboard hand. She wants to sheer to port as
the combination of suction on the starboard quarter, and to a lesser degree,
the cushion of water built up between the ship's starboard bow and the
bank become more strongly felt. The problem is compounded when it is
necessary to slow the ship; the rudder loses some effectiveness as the flow
of water is reduced, while the suction at the stern, which is primarily a
factor of the ship's speed through the water, remains strong. The ship must
be moved farther from the bank and the rudder angle increased.
But what if the ship gets so close to the bank that she starts to sheer
across the channel? Do not reduce engine speed, because at this point
the rudder needs to be as effective as possible, and any reduction in the
ship's speed that might result from a change in engine revolutions will
be negligible in such a short period of time. Rather, let the head fall a
few degrees off course across the channel while maintaining some rudder
angle toward the near bank and increase engine speed so the flow of
water past the rudder increases significantly. When the heading has
changed a few degrees toward the center of the channel, increase the
rudder angle toward the near bank to first check the swing, and then
to bring the ship back on course as she reaches the center of the channel,
or at least reaches a distance from the closer bank that will allow her
to be steered safely. Only after getting away from the bank should the
engine speed be reduced so the ship loses some headway and the tendency
to take a sheer is reduced. It is obvious that a ship should not proceed
in a narrow channel at full maneuvering speed, since she would not
have any revolutions in reserve should they be required.
Remember too that a ship wants to move closer to a bank, due to
the increased flow of water and the resultant reduced pressure along
her side closest to the bank. For reasons explained by Signore Bernoulli,
a ship wants to move laterally toward a closer bank even though her
heading is parallel to it. Either keep the ship headed at some small
angle away from the bank or hold her in the center of the channel when
not meeting another vessel.

47
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

As is pointed out again and again in this text, the forces acting on
a ship can often be put to your advantage, making an aid of what seems
to the non-mariner to be a hazard. When making a turn, a bank can be
put close enough to the quarter to cause the ship to sheer in the direction
of the turn and thus make a turn that she otherwise could not navigate,
or at least could not navigate at the speed that is possible using these
forces. As an example, there are turns in the Gaillard Cut in the Panama
Canal that theoretically cannot be negotiated by many ships without
tug assistance, and yet ships have been making these turns easily
throughout the life of the Canal with the aid of bank suction. If your
ship should transit the Panama Canal or another narrow waterway,
watch the rudder angle indicator and the position of the ship, and you
will find the ship going around many turns with the rudder amidships.
A seaman routinely uses learned skills to turn potential hazards into
aids in close water and offshore.
This same bank suction can also assist a ship to pass another vessel
in a narrow channel, to locate the center of a channel in times of limited
visibility, or to make routine maneuvers, as long as it is planned and
allowed for. Keep in mind, though, that speed must be restricted so the
ship can come ahead if the sheer should become greater than desired.

Fig. 2-1. "The quiet manner in which the pilot went about his work."

48
 - TIDE AND CURRENT -

PLANNING AHEAD
Once again, we see the importance of planning ahead to use natural
forces to advantage. Thinking ahead and planning maneuvers based
on an understanding of the forces acting on the ship, much like a chess
master who wins by planning several moves at one time so they follow
in a logical order, is essential if a ship is to be moved efficiently and
safely. The process of thinking several steps ahead underlies every
maneuver discussed in this text. Its importance in your development
as an excellent shiphandler, rather than just as an acceptable shiphandler,
cannot be exaggerated.
Understand ship behavior, properly reduce ship's speed, use existing
conditions and forces to advantage to assist the ship's rudder and engine
in maneuvering, and most important, think ahead of the ship so that
she is reacting to your orders rather than your orders being given in
reaction to the ship's behavior—these are the basics of excellent
shiphandling. Think ahead of your ship at all times.

TIDE AND CURRENT

Many rivers cannot be negotiated by larger ships without a fair current,
since a head current hinders them in making turns. As shown in figure
2-2, a fair current helps the stern around a bend when it strikes the
quarter, so the stern comes around at a greater rate. At the same time
the bow is assisted by the eddy currents reflected out of the bend and
the lack of current on the bow on the point side of the bend. In contrast,
for a given speed over the bottom, a ship stemming a tide has a greater
flow of water passing between her and the bank, retarding the stern's
motion around a turn and forcing the bow and ship bodily toward the
bank (fig. 2-2).
Since a ship that is closer to the bottom is more difficult to control,
high water makes the pilot's job easier—aside from just putting enough
water under a deep-loaded ship to ensure that she is in the desirable
state of being always afloat! By moving with a rising tide to ensure a
fair current and deeper water, a ship is using tide and current to her
best advantage.
The current changes at each area of a channel at a different time
and is affected by several factors, such as freshets resulting from heavy
rains upriver and strong off- or onshore winds, so tides may occur at
significantly different times than predicted. Keep a seaman's eye on
the current. Develop the habit of looking at pilings, buoys, and other
fixed objects to check the actual current against that which has been

49
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Fig. 2-2. Fair current assisting a ship making a turn.

predicted until the practice becomes as natural as breathing. It is the

difference between the neophyte and the professional.
TYPES OF RUDDERS AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS
While the mariner has an academic interest in the characteristics of
all the various types of rudder and propulsion systems used on ships
today, the shiphandler must first be concerned with how the ship
responds to the system with which she is fitted. He can't change that
rudder or engine, whether or not the ship handles poorly, but must live
with the ship as she is. A practiced shiphandler will know in a very
short time how effective the rudder is and how the ship will respond
to varying amounts of rudder angle. Unfortunately, the tendency toward
smaller rudders on larger ships has made the shiphandler's task more
difficult.
Again, plan ahead so the rudder and propulsion system can be used
as effectively as possible. Proceed at a moderate speed so greater engine
revolutions can be used as needed to increase the flow of water past
the rudder, thus increasing the rudder's effectiveness without creating

50
 - TYPES OF RUDDERS AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS -

other problems. By using the engine in this manner for only as long as
needed to obtain the desired results, the shiphandler can usually
overcome any inherent deficiencies in the ship's design. This tactic is
particularly effective with a diesel ship, since immediate, large changes
in revolutions can be obtained; a steam turbine ship increases revolutions
more slowly and more care is necessary to keep the ship's speed down
while still controlling steering. Obviously then speed is important when
steering a ship—sufficient headway is needed to make steering possible,
yet speed must be kept down to minimize unwanted hydrodynamic
effects and to have sufficient engine speed in reserve to increase rudder
effectiveness when required.
Ships fitted with balanced spade rudders often will not steer when
large rudder angles are used. A turbulent flow develops over the rudder's
surface, so its lifting effect is lost and it stalls. Occasionally a ship is
still designed with such a rudder, and all those involved in her design
and construction seem surprised when she goes aground early in her
life while trying to negotiate a normal turn. Years ago, a class of large
German Containerships was fitted with such a rudder and suffered
several groundings within a few months. Tug assistance was required
so those ships could make turns that other ships of similar size navigated
routinely. If a ship's profile drawings show a spade rudder, beware of
turns requiring the use of more than 5 to 10 degrees of rudder angle.
The rudder may stall, and the loss of effectiveness means that the ship
will just continue along her course as if she had no rudder until she
fetches up at some point where you never intended to be.
Propeller design has a significant effect on the handling characteristics
of a ship. The direction of rotation affects the ship's behavior, the
direction in which the vessel tends to twist when the engine is put
astern, and the diameter of the turning circle for right and left turns,
as discussed in chapter 1. The size of the propeller affects the stopping
and steering ability of the ship, since higher revolutions are required
to get a good flow over the rudder at reduced speeds when the ship is
fitted with a smaller diameter propeller.
The handling characteristics of a ship fitted with a variable-pitch
propeller are significantly different from those of a ship with a fixed
blade propeller. Variable-pitch propulsion systems have advantages,
since a diesel engine so fitted does not have to be stopped and restarted
to go astern, and an almost infinite choice of speeds is available. Further,
you can go astern indefinitely, which is not possible with a turbine-
driven ship, and unlike a conventional motor ship, you can change the

51
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

direction of propulsion repeatedly without being concerned about

exhausting the supply of starting air. These advantages have at times
been used as a basis for recommending that VLCCs be fitted with this
type of propulsion. The drawbacks should also be considered before
deciding whether variable-pitch propulsion is as desirable as claimed:

1. When reducing the speed of a ship fitted with a variable-pitch

propeller, the flow of water past the rudder is significantly
disrupted unless the pitch is reduced very gradually. The adverse
effect on steering is significant. The propeller cannot safely be
put at zero pitch to reduce the ship's headway since this completely
disrupts the needed flow of water to the rudder.
2. A variable-pitch propeller going astern is less effective than a
conventional propeller. This compounds the aforementioned
steering problems, since because it is more difficult to drift the
way off a ship fitted with a variable-pitch propeller, it is often
necessary to use the engine astern for longer periods of time to
stop her.

When approaching a berth, lock, or pilot station, i t is therefore

necessary to start slowing a ship equipped with this type of propeller
sooner than would be required with a conventional propeller, and to
then use m i n i m u m pitch to steer at slow speed once headway is
sufficiently reduced.
Since a variable pitch propeller is normally turning at high RPM—
even when in position and stopped at the berth at zero pitch—be sure
to keep stern lines clear of the water when docking. Inform linehandlers
on the dock that this is necessary, as a line can become fouled in this
rapidly turning propeller in an amazingly short period of time. A tug
working at the stern must also be cautioned.

DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS

In collaboration with Capt. Paul Ives and Capt. Earl R. McMillin
More ships and tugs are being built with new types of propulsion and
rudder configurations, including the Voith-Schneider and Shottel
systems used primarily for tugs and self-propelled barges and Azipod
propulsion systems being used a t this time primarily for passenger
vessels, a few tankers, and some special-purpose vessels, such as ice
breakers.
These omnidirectional drives make a vessel highly maneuverable,

52
 — DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS —

and for ships, they make it possible to operate more safely in restricted
waters and call at marginal ports under conditions not previously
possible. Schedule keeping is improved and operating expenses for port
calls are reduced since fewer tugs are required.

Advantages
This is primarily a text on handling oceangoing ships, so this discussion
of omnidirectional propulsion will focus on the uses of a generic Azipod
system, rather than other omnidirectional systems that are more
commonly used on smaller vessels. There are more similarities than
differences between the various omnidirectional systems, so with a few
exceptions, any discussion of advantages, disadvantages, standardized
terminology, and commands for Azipod systems also apply to other
omnidirectional propulsion systems.
There are some obvious advantages that make omnidirectional
systems particularly attractive for passenger vessels, and to a lesser
extent, some other special-purpose ships:

• Electric generators power the Azipod system and the drive motors
are at the stern, outside the hull. This gives the naval architect
some freedom in design.
• Machinery is in more appropriate areas within the ship's hull,
so high-revenue spaces are available for staterooms and passenger
services.
• A shaft is not required to transmit power to the propeller.
• The system is inherently quieter, so noise is reduced in all areas
of the ship.
• The system is safer, because the engine does not have to be
stopped and reversed to go astern, eliminating the risk of losing
engine power that is always present when conventional diesel
engines do not restart while maneuvering ahead and astern.
• A i r compressors can be significantly smaller, since the engine
will not be repeatedly stopped and restarted.
• The ships are highly maneuverable because the drives are variable
speed and directional, with controls for twin drives that can be
split in Harbor mode so power is applied in two directions
simultaneously.

These and other advantages are obvious to experienced mariners

who maneuver ships fitted with Azipod propulsion and similar systems.

53
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Concerns
There are also potential problems stemming from the manner in which
Azipods are sometimes operated. Those problems are not inherent to
the Azipod system. They stem primarily from improper application,
and they can be minimized i f shipowners and operators accept the
potential negatives and deal with them in a constructive manner. Some
of the more important concerns include:

• The power and maneuverability of Azipod systems create the

illusion that traditional shiphandling skills and the practice of
good seamanship are less important with these new systems.
• Terminology for various equipment, operating modes, and
maneuvers must be standardized industry wide so officers, crews,
pilots, and others who maintain and operate the systems speak
a common language.
• T h e plethora of Azipod configurations makes the system
unnecessarily complicated to operate if the shiphandler attempts
to use all possible positions instead of adopting a few standard
configurations.
• The potential for single-person operation to steer and maneuver
creates a very real risk that the concepts of bridge resource
management will be ignored.
• Computer-assisted operation of the Azipod system can be used
inappropriately to dock, undock, and maneuver in restricted
waters.
• There is also some expectation that Azipod systems will be more
expensive to maintain due to the cost of repairs to the system
and lost time when a ship is out of service for maintenance.
• There is a real concern that traditional shiphandling and
seamanship skills will be lost as officers serve aboard ships fitted
with highly powered and maneuverable omnidirectional systems.

Each of these points is discussed in more detail in the following

paragraphs.

An Excellent Aid, But Recognize Limits

I t is possible to use brute power to maneuver Azipod vessels into
situations that no skilled shiphandler would accept. The problems that
inevitably occur when high horsepower replaces good seamanship can
be masked when shiphandlers use the system continuously at full or

54
 DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS —

near full power. This occurs most commonly when less experienced
ship's officers operate the system. It is particularly common when using
the joystick and computer input. Skilled mariners and pilots never
work a ship at its maximum, and they always have options as they
maneuver, dock, or undock. When the ship is put into situations that
require continuous use of the thruster and engine at half and full engine,
the ship is at risk.
Unfortunately, less experienced shiphandlers often fail to recognize
when this point is reached until wind or current increases further or
the ship is setting down on an adjacent vessel and they find they have
no reserve power or options. All systems are operating at their maximum,
and very quickly an apparently routine docking or undocking becomes
a certain accident. Skilled shiphandlers would never do that, since they
plan ahead and always have options for maneuvering if the wind
increases or shifts, currents are stronger than anticipated, or other
conditions change.
Experienced masters and pilots bringing conventional ships alongside
a dock while repeatedly using engine revolutions for half and full ahead
and astern know instinctively there is a problem. Rapid and repeated
changes in engine and thruster at higher revolutions are often the first
indication that an Azipod vessel is at risk. The computer will attempt
to fulfill any instruction—right or wrong—using every tool available
until there are no additional options available, regardless of the
consequences. Rapid changes . . .higher power . . . and the use of every
asset with maximum and rapid rudder movements as the computer
attempts to complete an order are all signs the ship is being put in
jeopardy.

Shiphandlers should reevaluate any maneuver i f engines and

thruster must be used at half or full power for more than occasional
short periods of time as the ship approaches a dock or maneuvers
in close quarters.

This may sound like common sense, but unfortunately, anecdotal

information from pilots and mariners indicates this practice is
increasingly common while maneuvering this generation of Azipod
ships. It is incumbent upon shipowners and shiphandling instructors
to stress that ships are ships and the Azipod system is an improved
shiphandling tool. The same practices of good seamanship and

55
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

shiphandling that apply to other types of ships also apply to ships

equipped with Azipod propulsion systems.
Design and Controls
The design and controls may differ from ship to ship, but the design is
basically the same. Pods containing electric drives are fitted at the stern
of a vessel. The pods are rotated 360 degrees, so the direction of thrust
can be changed and even reversed by rotating the pod or reversing the
direction and speed of the propeller mounted at the forward end of the
pod. The external electric drive receives power from the ship's diesel
generators. A typical installation is shown in figure 2-3.
Some installations also have a fixed pod on the centerline. Naval
architects and builders have plans for other modifications of this Azipod
design, including having a propeller on both ends, one pulling and one
pushing. There are also designs that use a conventional shaft and
propeller with a pod immediately astern of that propeller. In port the
pod acts as a stern thruster.

Fig. 2-3. Typical Azipod propelled ship. Courtesy Koaerner-Mass Yards

56
 — DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS —

Azipods are controlled in several ways. Typical controls include

nonfollow-up lever controls, a conventional wheel with throttle controls,
large knobs, and combination controls that simultaneously rotate to
determine the direction of thrust and move forward and aft to apply
more or less power and determine the direction of propeller rotation.
Most systems also have a joystick control to change the orientation
of the pod and the drive motor speed, and thus the direction and thrust
of the propeller. The systems can be controlled by a helmsman at a
conventional helm stand, or by the officer on watch, or a conning officer
operating the system from a console, with or without computer assistance
(fig. 2-4).

Use of Standard Terminology

The systems have various operating modes. Terminology to describe
the arrangements and modes varies from one manufacturer and vessel
operator to another although most can be broken down to an "open
water" or "cruise" At Sea mode, a Harbor or maneuvering mode, and a
Docking mode for use when actually going alongside or leaving a berth.
The modes can be further categorized as automatic or manual. Typical
modes and commands in use include:1

Company A Company B Company C

1. Call Combi (Cruise) 1. Open Sea (At Sea) 1. Maneuvering
2. Separate RPM (Cruise) 2. Maneuver Direct high
3. Call Azimuth (Maneuver) (At Sea) 2. Maneuvering
4. Call Joystick Dynamic 3. Aziman—Port or low, port, or
Positioning (Maneuver) starboard (Maneu- starboard
a. High speed ver) 3. Joystick
b. Low speed 4. Joystick—(At Sea (Cruise or
or maneuver) Maneuver)

The language of the sea was developed out of necessity so mariners

could give orders, provide instruction, and operate systems safely and
effectively as they moved from ship to ship and company to company.
Needless variations that reflect the designer's whim more than any
actual difference in operations serve no purpose. Some standardization
of terminology is particularly important given the increasingly inter-

' Information from a chart by Larry Reimer, RTM STAR Center.

57
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Fig. 2-4. A typical Azipod control console with various steering, engine, and
thruster controls, plus instrumentation. Courtesy RTM STAR Center

7Y V 3

qq..\---- . 6

I AUTOMATIC. I DENTI Fl CAT I 0 NI

2 A Z i POPS
3 B o w RADAR
4. D G P S A N T E N N A
5 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
6 S TA B I L I Z E R S
7 STERN RADAR
8 THRUSTERS
9 T V MONITORS

Fig. 2-5. "No matter how many bells and whistles she has lads, she is still a ship."

58
 — DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS —

national mix of ships' crews and owners. The ship's bow should be called
the bow regardless of which company operates the ship.
The sooner the industry accepts a standard nomenclature for this
innovative propulsion system the better, since training and operations
are hindered when mariners refer to the same controls and modes by
different names as they move from one ship to another. There are
enough similarities in modes that general terms can be used in any
discussion focusing on these systems from the viewpoint of operation
and shiphandling.

For the purpose of this text, there are three modes: "At Sea," "Harbor,"
and "Docking," with minimal configurations in each mode. The At Sea
and Harbor modes are further categorized as automatic or manual.
Minimize Modes of Operation
Good seamanship requires adopting standard modes of operation for
most situations and describing those modes using terminology accepted
industry-wide. Once that is done, it is also possible to take the next
step in the evolving operation of Azipods and adopt standard conning
orders so the ship can be maneuvered from any location on the bridge
by a shiphandler or pilot no longer confined to standing over the control
console.
Modes and procedures for Azipod operation currently vary in several
ways from company to company. For example, some owners encourage
the systems be used in all possible modes, positions, and power settings,
regardless of how redundant some positions might be or how confusing
the operation might become. Other shipowners and manufacturers limit
Azipod position and power to a few options. The latter policy is based
on the premise that many arrangements have the same net effect on
vessel movement.
Operation can be kept simple without compromising the advantages
of the system. Some ship operators have already adopted the policy
with notable success. The validity of this approach is demonstrated
when skilled shiphandlers and pilots are training on bridge simulators.
Without coaching or direction, these experienced shiphandlers quickly
evolve to the same basic configurations for the Azipod drives because
they recognize from experience the most effective operation for a
particular situation.

59
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

At Sea Mode (Sometimes Called Cruise or Open Sea Mode)

When operating in open water in the "at sea" mode:

• The rotation of the pod is limited to 35 degrees to port and

starboard of the centerline.
• Full power is available.
• Pod movement is synchronized so pods move in unison.
• The pods, and thus the ship, can be steered using the helm, wheel,
mini-wheel, autopilot, or differential positioning system.

Power A t Sea is about double the horsepower available while

maneuvering in Harbor mode. The pods are synchronized to move
together and power is reduced to zero if operators attempt to rotate the
drives to angles greater than 35 degrees from the centerline.

Harbor (or Maneuvering) Mode

There are some variations among systems, but when most Azipods are
in "harbor" mode:

• Power is reduced to approximately 50% of the power available

at sea.
• The pods can be rotated 360 degrees.
• The pods can be rotated independently and be used at different
and total variable angles (there are exceptions with systems that
allow only one pod to be rotated).
• Steering is done by pod control, combi-controls, differential
positioning system, joystick, nonfollow-up steering, and by varying
revolutions of the port and starboard engines ahead and astern.

Basic Configurations
Based on watching experienced shiphandlers at work, there is good
basis for limiting Azipod operation to a few configurations—three-to-
four in most cases. Those configurations are changed only periodically
as conditions change; that is, the shiphandler will use one configuration
for open channels, another for approaching the berth, and a third for
going alongside. They will probably adopt one or two others for special
situations, but in any case, the modes are minimized.
As previously stated, some basic configurations were adopted based
on pilots using the systems in varying situations. Interestingly, these
are the same positions described in a pamphlet distributed by Electronic

60
 — DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS —

Fig. 2-6. At Sea Mode configuration #1.

and Marine Research.' Other configurations are described in that

publication, but it is interesting that experienced pilots quickly evolved
to the same configurations described by Electronics & Marine Research
Industries (EMRI). This is not a coincidence—there are good reasons
to select these configurations.
Keep in mind while discussing these configurations that the propeller
is on the forward end of the pod and turning ahead as indicated by the
arrows when the pods are operating in the normal position.

Configuration #1 (At Sea Mode)

In open water, the pods are placed parallel to the centerline and are
moved together in a synchronized mode, much as rudders are moved
with conventional ships (fig. 2-6).
Note that steering using Azipods is very similar to steering with an
outboard motor or tiller, since the pod is turned to port to turn the ship
to starboard.'
This takes some thought at first when using the lever or combi-
control, since the wheel has been used for so long to steer a ship. Wheel
commands were standardized for merchant ships many years ago, so
a rudder command "right ten" means to put the wheel to the right to
move the ship's head to starboard. With the Azipod system, the pod
follows the control. The pod is turned to port, which moves the stern to
port and the ship's head to starboard, so the ship turns to starboard.

2Steering Control Systems for Azipod. Electronic and Marine Research,

Herlev, Denmark, 1998, p 4.
3 STAR Center Azipod Lecture Material. Capt. Paul Ives, Instructor RTM
STAR Center, Dania, Florida, February 2002.

61
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Fig. 2-7. Harbor Mode configuration #2.

This operation quickly becomes intuitive when the shiphandler accepts

the concept that the steering control and the pod are tiller controls, so
steering a ship with the Azipod in this configuration is exactly like
steering a small boat with an outboard. The operator moves the handle
of an outboard to port to turn the boat to starboard. This is true in all
modes, although the concept is first encountered in the open channel
when the pod configuration in figure 2-6 is being used.
Configuration #2 (Harbor Mode)
In this configuration, the pods are placed at 45 degrees in opposition
to each other. The propeller setting is changed to maneuver while the
pod remains in this fixed position. The arrangement is particularly
useful at slow speeds in open channels and anchorages (fig. 2-7).
An instructor at the RTM STAR Center, a facility where many
passenger shipmasters and pilots are trained, refers to this arrangement
as the "bicycle mode."4 This term is quite descriptive of the manner in
which ships are handled in this arrangement. For example, the port
control is moved ahead and the starboard control is pulled back to turn
the ship's head to starboard. This is the same motion as the handlebars
of a bicycle, where the left side moves forward as the right side is moved
back to turn the bicycle to the right. The two handles are in line; that
is, the setting of both propellers is the same, to move straight just as
the handlebars of a bicycle would be in line when moving straight ahead.
The angle of the pods also helps stabilize the ship at slow speeds, and
by increasing the setting of one pod only, the stern can be held against
a wind to assist keeping the ship on a desired heading at slow speeds.

4STAR Center Azipod Lecture Material. Capt. Joseph Lobo, Instructor

RTM STAR Center, Dania, Florida, February 2002.

62
 — DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS —

Fig. 2-8. Docking Mode configuration #3.

There is some dispute over the usefulness of this configuration.

Shiphandlers are using this arrangement less often, and some companies
are recommending against using Azipods in this manner. Mariners
report some difficulty in maintaining course in narrow channels because
Azipods have so much power that even small changes in settings can
cause unacceptable changes in heading. At the same time, many pilots
seem to like this configuration when proceeding at slow speeds. The
information is offered so shiphandlers can try this configuration and
decide for themselves whether the configuration is useful—as has been
the theory—or that the parallel pod arrangement with conventional
steering should be used all the way to the berth.

Configuration #3 (Docking Mode)

The shiphandler orders the Docking mode at an appropriate time as
the ship approaches the dock. The pod closest to the berth, that is, the
port pod when docking port side to, is set parallel to the centerline. The
pod away from the berth—the outboard pod—is put in a three o'clock
position relative to the centerline (fig. 2-8). In this position the fore and
aft unit is used to move the ship ahead and astern. The unit at right
angles to the centerline and acts as a powerful stern thruster to steer
and move the stern toward or away from the berth by moving the stern
to starboard or port. In conjunction with the bow thruster, the ship is
turned, moved ahead toward the berthing position, and turned to move
into the open dock area and toward the berth. Handling is simplified
and intuitive, and the ship is always under control with this arrangement.

Standardized Commands and Conning

The multiplicity of pod configurations is an engineer's dream, but a
shiphandler's nightmare. It would be impressive but illogical to discuss
all the configurations and nuances possible with Azipods, or to try and

63
 - SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL -

use them. There are several advantages to limiting and standardizing

the pod position, including the fact that standard commands can then
be adopted.
Pilots using Azipods at the RTM STAR simulator tried various
methods and commands for conning a ship while standing away from
the console. In other words, they took the Azipod system to the final
stage of development by integrating the controls into proper ship
operations. Two methods were used to conn the ship and both work well.
In configuration #1, steering and engine commands are given in the
same manner as done for conventional ships.
In configurations #2 and #3, the pods are positioned by degrees or
clock positions relative to the bow and engine orders are given in percentage
of power ahead or astern.
For example, commands might be port engine at ten o'clock, twenty
percent power ahead; starboard engine at two o'clock, twenty percent
power ahead. The ship is then steered by increasing or decreasing power
on the two engines as previously described. The ship would be turned
to starboard by a command "port engine 50 percent ahead; starboard
engine ten percent ahead."
Some pilots use standard engine commands of dead slow, slow, half
and full ahead, and astern while configuring the pods, thus the direction
of thrust using relative headings. In that case, the port engine is at 315
degrees, half power; starboard engine is at 45 degrees, half power. More
important than the terminology used is the fact that the orders are
standardized and spoken. Once standard commands are adopted, it is
no longer necessary for the conning officer to stand and operate the
controls in a manner that violates all accepted principles of bridge
resource management. The bridge crew and pilot work as a team to
safely move the ship once commands and configurations are standardized.
A good case can be made to use percentage of full power rather than
conventional engine orders, since power applied through the electric
drives in the pods is totally variable. At the same time, there are
advantages to using clock positions for Azipod configuration, since
relative headings for the pod can be confused with compass and ship's
headings while maneuvering in restricted waters.
Based on observations of pilots and experience using the Azipod
system, recommended standard commands are:

1. Engine commands use percentage of power from zero to 100 in

a forward or reverse direction in the At Sea and Harbor modes.

64
 - DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS -

2. Conventional rudder commands in degrees to port and starboard

are used and executed using a standard wheel-type control at sea.
3. Pod configuration uses clock settings relative to the ship's bow
in Harbor mode, where engines are used primarily in fixed
positions.

Azipods evolve to the next level for ship operation when standard
commands and configurations are adopted. The conning officer is relieved
from distracting steering responsibilities. The bridge crew is again
working as a team in compliance with internationally accepted standards
for bridge resource management with the pilot or conning officer in
control of navigation.

Computer Control
A computer-controlled option is available in all modes. Controls for the
automated or computer-controlled mode differ from one shipowner and
manufacturer to another, but all are similar. Most are controlled by a
joystick for input of desired resultant power, speed, and direction of
vessel movement. The system's computer translates joystick input to
engine speed, pod rotation, and bow thruster orders in the manner
determined by preprogrammed algorithms.
Shiphandlers must remember they are controlling resultant power,
speed, and vessel movement, not actual revolutions and direction of
thruster, engine, and rudder movements.
Automated controls are not new for open water, since gyro-controlled
steering has taken ships from port to port for half a century. Computer
control for Azipod operation in harbor conditions is obviously more
complex and should be used with some care.
Interestingly, experienced masters, mates, and pilots are more
cautious about computer-controlled operation than less experienced
ship's officers.
Skilled shiphandlers, be they shipmasters, officers, or pilots, are
trained to plan ahead and be proactive. Computer-controlled systems are
reactive. This difference is important. No matter how quickly the system
detects and reacts to wind shifts or set, the system cannot anticipate and
plan ahead based on past experience and local knowledge. The best systems
detect leeway and set almost instantly, but they are still reacting rather
than anticipating, as a trained shiphandler would do.
Experienced shiphandlers consider crew skills, anticipate external
forces and known hazards, and know what works and what does not

65
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

work in a particular situation based on experience over a period of

years. They also adhere to the concept of "most efficient maneuvers"
and use a minimum of commands and maneuvers to accomplish a task.
Computer-controlled systems will overwork engine and steering to
power through a maneuver that experienced shiphandlers would avoid.
In the computer's rather simplistic universe there are engines, thrusters,
and existing external forces—period. High power and overuse of the
engine and thruster compensate for the limitations of computer controls,
and unfortunately create the previously discussed illusion that ships
can move safely in restricted waters with computer input and a joystick.
At the risk of being repetitive, it is stressed that shiphandlers must
master essential, specialized skills before docking a ship in close quarters,
regardless of the system used. Some will argue this point, just as they
once argued that bow thrusters made tugs obsolete and bridge control
eliminated the engineer on watch, but time will prove that computer
controls do not make shiphandlers out of inexperienced deck officers with
little shiphandling experience and no local knowledge. At the same time,
in the hands of an experienced deck officer these are very helpful tools
while moving the ship toward a berth. The computer controls are an
additional aid to the shiphandler—a sophisticated tool, but an aid only.
One Ship Length Rule
Pilots and experienced mariners are learning from experience to limit
the use of computer-controlled systems with wide agreement that the
system should not be used near docks and fixed objects. At a minimum,
good seamanship seems to support a "one ship length rule" to decide
when to change from automatic to manual control.
The computer often applies power in an unpredictable manner.
Lines are parted when the computer attempts to move a ship laterally
rather than at one end only. Most systems allow the pivot point to be
shifted to allow for this maneuver, but the system becomes progressively
less automated as the pilot makes more of these adjustments. As one
pilot with experience handling Azipod vessels stated, "You find yourself
trying to outguess and correct the computer."5
One pilot compared computer control to having an apprentice pilot
aboard. The apprentice handles the ship but the experienced pilot is
constantly monitoring the apprentice and using skills learned through
experience to undo the mistakes of the apprentice. It is usually easier

5Capt. Earl R. McMillin, Canaveral Pilots' Association, December 6, 2003.

66
 - DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS -

and safer to do the job yourself. There is a reason to do the extra work
to train an apprentice, but it is difficult to rationalize the same effort
to supervise a computer. Automatic controls are an advance in an
anchorage or when using adaptive autopilot at sea but the "one ship
length rule" is good seamanship when docking or undocking.
As previously discussed, pilots see an increasing number of situations
where ships are put into risky positions because the computer does not
know when an ordered maneuver is unsafe or inappropriate. At some
point, professional skills must override the computer-assisted system,
and pilots and deck officers are learning that point is reached early in
a maneuver.
The "one ship length rule" for shifting off computer controls seems
reasonable except in the most basic conditions. Obviously, pilots and
ships' officers may want to shift to manual controls long before that
point. This may change as programming and input to the systems
becomes more sophisticated.

Bridge Resource Management and Azipods

Azipods are more than just a refinement; they are a breakthrough
technology that reaches its full potential when expectations are
realistic and sound shipboard practices are followed with minimal
modifications. Having a single person standing at the console handling
the engines, thruster, and steering to bring the ship directly to a
berth or anchorage is clearly not one of those modifications.
Unfortunately, this has become a common practice aboard too many
ships, where the pilot becomes an adjunct—an advisor—to the bridge
team and the mates stand aside while keeping records and providing
support, with little or no knowledge of what is being done or the
details of any passage or docking plans.
The practice totally disregards the importance of local knowledge
and the principles of bridge resource management when entering a
channel, anchoring, docking, or undocking. Bridge Resource Management
(BRM) is based on situational awareness, a shared mental model, a
plan, the learned practice of thinking ahead of the ship, and feedback
from the entire bridge team, which has an active role in support of the
conning officer or pilot. These proven principles that are so basic to
safe, efficient ship operation are being ignored aboard too many ships
with omnidirectional propulsion systems.
Approximately 90 percent of all marine accidents occur in restricted
waters, because that is when ships are exposed to the greatest hazards.

67
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Fig. 2-9. "The captain says Azipods are magic, so we never know what tricks he
is pulling out of his hat."

Bridge resource management practices have been developed to

significantly reduce the human factors that, according to the National
Transportation Safety Board, cause 75 to 80 percent of those casualties.
This includes proper communications skills, situational awareness,
stress, fatigue, and interactive decision making. Proper bridge
organization uses a team of officers to navigate, monitor ship's progress,
steer, and communicate in a manner that supports the master and
pilot, who move about the wheelhouse and bridge wings to maneuver
the ship safely and expediently to or from the dock. The master must
get away from the Azipod controls and end the current one-man operation
that dominates vessel operation with at least tacit encouragement from
shipowners.
BRM establishes minimum manning standards under various
conditions. (See chapter 11.) This does not mean the officers and crew
should simply be at stations; they must also be doing meaningful work.
If all parties are not involved:

68
 — DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS —

• The one-person operation leads to operation based on a single

individual's perceptions of a situation based on scanty information,
with no input from the officers or pilot; at the same time that
person is prone to make errors due to being overloaded.
• There is no monitoring of the operator's actions, so there is no
way to minimize one-person errors or break the certain-to-occur
"error chain."
• There is an imbalance in the workload and no working organization
to support the master and pilot, even though it is impossible for
one person to perform all tasks involved in maneuvering to the
berth, regardless of how maneuverable the ship might be.

There is a direct relationship between situational awareness and

safety, yet without a traditional bridge organization and standard
commands for conning, there is no way for anyone on the bridge to know
what is being done to maneuver the ship. As a result, there is no way
to check for single-person errors or break the error chain as long as the
master is independently moving levers and adjusting controls without
discussion with anyone. There is good reason for giving and repeating
conning orders between parties. Those practices are not anachronisms.
They continue for good reason, and simplistic, unprofessional single-
person operation will result in preventable accidents. It is no way to
run a ship!
This excellent propulsion system will not deliver to its full potential
as long as operating policies conflict with sound BRM practices. Some
claim traditional BRM is outmoded because of a plethora of alternative
arrangements for the propulsion system and the lack of standard conning
commands or commonly used terminology to describe Azipod modes
and operation. This is simply not so. Ships are ships, so the practices
of good seamanship and shiphandling skills are as important when
handling ships fitted with directional propulsion systems as any other
type of vessel.

Pilot-Master Relationship
There is an additional consideration when discussing the increasingly
common but improper one-man operation that effectively excludes pilot
control of the navigation and maneuvering of the ship. A state-licensed,
compulsory pilot is charged by the licensing authority with the duty to
care for the safety of the vessel, its cargo and crew, and equally important,
with a public responsibility to move the ship from point to point consistent

69
 - SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL -

with federal and state laws and port regulations in a manner that
minimizes risk of collision, oil spills, and environmental damage.
Public policy requires the pilot, as a citizen subject to the control
and laws of the host state, to protect the public's interest, as well as
provide shiphandling and pilotage services to the ship. This responsibility
is clearly established by law and precedent, and it is inherent in the
state pilotage system. This aspect of the pilot's role has been reinforced
in an era when ships are susceptible to external threats and use as a
weapon in modern terrorist-based warfare.
The pilot must be able to fulfill that responsibility by exercising his
or her final authority to control ship movement in pilot waters. This is
not possible if officers at consoles do whatever they feel is appropriate.
In reality, the pilot is not conning when he or she has to find out after
the fact what is being done by looking over the operator's shoulder.
Pilots should consider stopping the ship or going to anchor and reporting
the situation when they do not have effective and complete control.
Shiphandling and piloting are always subject to the traditional
pilot-master relationship, with the understanding that a master may
relieve the pilot for appropriate reason, but on a daily basis and barring
cause, the pilot has a legal responsibility and authority to control ves-
sel movements—not monitor the actions of others and provide commu-
nications.
There must be standard commands and conning practices so the
pilot can fulfill this responsibility to the licensing authority and play
his or her essential role in the pilot-master relationship. (See also
chapter 11.)

Lost Shiphandling Skills

Lastly, there is a concern that shiphandling skills traditionally passed
from generation to generation will be lost since Azipod systems allow
for one-man operation, with little or no involvement or discussion with
junior officers. This is particularly true when computer-controlled options
are selected during the docking or undocking. Shiphandling skills lost
in a fleet are lost forever, and when a system or system components
fails, masters and pilots will not have the skills needed to proceed using
conventional skills. This is not an academic problem. It is a real concern,
so it is in the best interest of shipowners to ensure that mariners
maintain traditional shiphandling skills.
Deck officers should also have an opportunity to practice handling
ships with Azipod propulsion in the same manner prescribed elsewhere

70
 - EFFECT OF TRIM ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS -

in this text for conventional ships. They will have needed skills to
maneuver when an engine or steering motor fails, or situations arise
where shiphandling skills are needed. It will happen, and officers must
be prepared.
There is precedent in maritime law that a ship begins its voyage in
an unseaworthy condition when officers did not receive training in less
common equipment found aboard that vessel. In that case, the impact
on liability limitations makes the additional cost of training look like
a bargain, even ignoring the benefits of having fully trained and competent
officers aboard the ship. More training is needed for unconventional
vessels of any type.
EFFECT OF TRIM ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS
As a ship's trim by the stern increases, she becomes more directionally
stable and her tactical diameter increases. The latter change is minor
and of no practical significance to the shiphandler as long as the drag
remains within practical limits. There is a marked increase in the
diameter of the ship's turning circle as the bow comes out of the water.
From the shiphandler's point of view, assuming there is not an
excessively strong wind on the higher bow, a ship usually steers better
as drag increases.
The steering characteristics of a ship on an even keel vary depending
on the ship's hull form. A ship with a large block coefficient steers poorly,
tending to be directionally unstable. This condition is amplified if the
ship trims by the head as she enters shallow water. A ship with finer
lines may be directionally stable, or have neutral stability when on an
even keel. The behavior of a ship with moderate block coefficient can
only be determined by trials, since there is insufficient data available
at present to allow an accurate prediction of her steering characteristics.
A ship trimmed by the head is directionally unstable for almost all
hull forms. When in this condition the ship requires large amounts of
rudder for excessive periods of time to check her swing. The vessel
becomes cranky and difficult to handle. I f she trims by the head in
shallow water the problem is compounded.
Why does a ship behave in this manner when the difference between
the forward and after drafts decreases? One must look at the immersed
sections of the ship to better understand this phenomenon, especially
the sections having the maximum submerged area.
The ship is turning as a result of couples formed at the rudder and
through the center of gravity. One of the forces forming the latter couple

71
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Net pressure on submerged

hull is forward of CG.
(+)

..,

1. Initial stage of turn—all ships

(directionally unstable).

Net pressure aft of CG.

(+) ( + ) (+)
.------
P \
, G
-T13-------
H
2. Turning at constant rate—ship
trimmed by stern (directionally stable).

Net pressure fwd of CG.

(+) ( + )

(-)
3. Turning at constant rate—ship
trimmed by head (directionally unstable).

Fig. 2-10. Effect of trim on steering.

is the imbalance of pressures about the submerged portions of the hull

(fig. 2-10). As the ship begins turning, there is a new increase in pressure
below the waterline on the bow away from the center of gravity; that
is, the outward bow. This resultant imbalance of forces in that location,
forward and outside of the center of gravity, causes the ship to be
directionally unstable.
All ships experience the same imbalance in the initial stages of a
turn. I f a ship is trimmed by the stern, though, the pressures shift
farther aft along the side of the hull as the ship stabilizes in the turn,
while the corresponding pressure drop on the quarter on the inboard
side of the turn continues to increase. The resultant couple has then
shifted aft of the center of gravity so the ship becomes directionally
stable.6

6 John H. La Dage, Modern Ships, pp 203-04.

72
 - EFFECT OF TRIM ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS -

Ships trimmed by the head experience a larger initial positive

pressure at the bow due to the increase in submerged area forward,
while the negative pressure is reduced at the quarter due to the
reduction in submerged area. The couple therefore remains ahead of
the center of gravity throughout the turn and the ship continues to be
directionally unstable.
This condition is indicated to the shiphandler by the shift forward
of the apparent pivot point of the ship—so the ship seems to pivot about
a point nearer the bow than normally expected—and by the ship wanting
to continue to swing after the rudder is placed amidships.
A large VLCC with full sections forward will experience the same
distribution of pressures in a turn when on an even keel as a finer ship
does when trimmed by the head. Obviously then, if a VLCC is trimmed
by the head, she will be even more unstable, since the resultant couple
is magnified accordingly.
The effect of trim by the head on a vessel's steering can be anticipated
by referring to the curve of areas of the immersed sections. This curve
is developed by the naval architect by measuring on the ship's line
drawings with a planimeter that portion of the cross-sectional area at
each station that will be submerged at a particular draft and trim.
These areas are then put into the form of a curve by measuring outward
from a baseline a linear distance equal in units to each station's
submerged area. After plotting the corresponding point at each station
a curve is faired through the points. The curve will reach a maximum
at that station having the greatest submerged area—the location of a
vessel's center of buoyancy—and as the vessel is trimmed by the head,
the apex of that curve will shift progressively forward. More use should
be made of this curve, since it is one indication of the changes that can
be expected in directional stability of a particular hull as trim changes.
Sample curves should be included with the ship's stability and trim
booklet for use by the ship's officers.
The value of this curve is unfortunately limited at present, since,
like all relative indicators, some norms must be established against
which the mariner can compare the curves for his own ship. Hopefully,
these norms will be developed as part of future model, simulator, and
trial testing. Larger ships are being built, with higher block coefficients
and a greater percentage of their total submerged area in their forward
sections, so this curve and the steering characteristics that it indicates
are becoming increasingly important.

73
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

With this in mind, what steps must a mariner take to safely handle
a potentially directionally unstable ship? First, she must not be trimmed
by the head. Keep sufficient drag to ensure that the ship maintains
positive directional stability, allowable draft permitting. Second, on a
ship with marginal directional stability, the rudder will have to be used
for a longer period of time to start the vessel swinging, after which large
amounts of rudder are needed for longer periods of time than normally
expected to check a swing. The rudder is put back amidships as soon
as the swing begins, since the rate of turn will increase even when the
rudder is amidships. If the rudder is kept on too long the ship will get
away, and it might not be possible to check her swing in time to avoid
leaving the channel.
Do not overlook the importance of having a trained helmsman who
is experienced in steering your particular ship. A directionally unstable
ship requires special treatment and the helmsman's experience can be
invaluable.
Even this potentially unsatisfactory condition can be put to advantage
if the shiphandler watches the steering closely, since a directionally
unstable ship can turn in a very small area. It is not suggested that the
ship be purposely loaded to obtain this condition, but often the mariner
must live with a ship "as she is," and in such a case he or she can at
least take advantage of the situation.

MAKING A TURN IN A CHANNEL

There are two basic considerations when making a bend or turn in a
channel: where to begin the turn and how much rudder to use.
It is impossible to make a turn properly if the turn is started at the
wrong place in the channel. I f the turn is started too late, excessive
amounts of rudder and engine revolutions are necessary to complete
the turn while remaining in the channel, or in the desired location in
an anchorage. A more common error, though, is to start the turn too
soon, since it is human nature to be conservative and to become impatient
when waiting to reach a desired point. This results in having to check
the ship's swing and then start the turn again at a later time. Starting
a turn too early may not always cause a problem and is certainly
preferable to starting a turn too late, but if you have to check the ship's
swing in a channel where suction can be experienced, it may be difficult
to start the ship turning again once that swing is lost.
Begin the turn when the ship's pivot point is nearly at the turning
point at the end of the reach or range, not the ship's bow or bridge (fig.

74
 — MAKING A TURN IN A CHANNEL —

1 (
/
/ I
1. "Advance" at maneuvering
speed, as determined
during master's trials.
turn when pivot
2 . i n t ■nearly abeam center
p oStart
of estimated turn circle.
3. Pivot first on buoy #7,
then on buoy #5.
Fig. 2-11. Use the pivot point to position a ship in a turn.

2-11). Remember, ships turn circles, not corners. Since you have fixed
the diameter and advance of the turning circle in your mind during the
previously described trial maneuvers, you should be able to judge when
to start a turn (fig. 2-12).
While it is possible to determine this point by constructing diagrams
based on channel widths and the theoretical turning radius of the ship,
such an approach to a routine maneuver is not practical and encourages
the mariner to get involved with unworkable methods. It is better to
learn to handle the ship by instinct and feel developed from experience
and trial maneuvers.
If in doubt about the amount of rudder required, use a larger amount
than you feel necessary. Reduce the rudder angle as needed to place
the ship at the desired point in the reach using the reference point
method discussed in the next section. Practice making exact turns at
every opportunity, even if a ship is in an open anchorage and there is
no need to put the ship in an exact location at that particular time. A

75
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Fig. 2-12. Allow for ship's turning characteristics when starting turns and
maneuvering.

professional makes turns neatly and with a minimum of helm orders,

and it is only through practice that the feel for making precise turns
can be developed. Turns can also be practiced with great benefit on a
simulator, since you can get a very realistic feel for rate of turn and
relative movement when working at such an installation. These are
skills that, like riding a bicycle, are never lost once learned.

USING AIDS TO NAVIGATION WHEN TURNING

As the ship proceeds up the channel, numerous aids to navigation are
available to the pilot and master. While the primary purpose of these
aids is to determine the ship's position relative to the axis of the channel,
there are other ways in which these aids can be used.
A buoy at a turn can be used as a rate-of-turn indicator by aligning

76
 — USING AIDS TO NAVIGATION WHEN TURNING —

...mEINIMNICI.Zi.••:1•O.m........ , . . . . . . . . . / • • • • . . . e . . . . . = , . . . = . . . . = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • I r . . .

Distance from buoy

Decreasing Increasing
...-- . . en *
—rt,_
I• ....-1:
t A...... 1,
. a t e L . ..

Fig. 2-13. Pivoting on a reference point when turning.

the buoy with a fixed point on the ship, such as a stay, stanchion, or
window frame (fig. 2-13):

1. I f the relative bearing changes toward the bow, so the buoy is

moving forward relative to the reference point, the ship is turning
at a rate that will bring her closer to that buoy. She will be closer
to the buoy at the completion of the turn than she is at present.
I f the rate at which the buoy is moving ahead of the reference
point is increasing, then obviously the rate at which the ship is
turning is increasing.
2. I f the buoy is remaining steady relative to the reference point
the ship is turning at a fixed rate. She will maintain her present
distance from the buoy as she makes the turn. In practice, the
ship will actually be a little farther from the buoy when the turn
is completed, since she is sliding sideways during the turn at a
rate relative to the speed at which she is moving. For practical
purposes, the ship can be considered to be maintaining a constant
distance from the buoy during the turn.
3. If the bearing is opening away from the bow so the buoy is moving
aft relative to the reference point then the ship's distance from
the buoy is increasing. If the rate at which the buoy is opening
is increasing then the rate of turn is decreasing.

Using a buoy in this manner is especially effective when turning in

a strong current, since it is the vessel's movement relative to the buoy

77
 - SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL -

and channel (the net movement resulting from the combination of vessel
momentum, swing, and current effects) that is of interest to the
shiphandler. This resultant motion is immediately apparent when the
ship is turned using a fixed reference. By adjusting the rudder to alter
the buoy's relative movement a shiphandler can position the ship in a
turn with great accuracy.
The angle between the lines of buoys marking the port and starboard
sides of a channel can be used with great accuracy to predict the ship's
future position in a reach into which she is turning, and to know the
vessel's position relative to the centerline after she has steadied up in
that reach. Further, the rate at which a vessel is sliding laterally can
be quickly determined by watching the change in angle of those buoys
during a turn.
A range can be used to determine the ship's position relative to the
channel, but do not overlook the fact that the rate at which a range is
opening or closing is of equal importance. This information is used in
the same manner as the change in angle of a line of buoys to position
the ship in a reach or channel.

MEETING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW

If a channel is of sufficient width, meeting another vessel is simply a
matter of staying on your own side. The problem then is one of determining
what "sufficient width" is, this being primarily a question of ship size
and especially draft and beam.
Ships routinely meet in the 500-foot-wide reaches of the Panama
Canal with no problems when their combined beams total up to 170
feet. (The only exceptions are the Panamax class vessels that do not
meet any ship in those 500-foot-wide reaches due to their own inherent
handling limitations.) This limit was established based upon the
operating experience of the pilots in that waterway and confirmed by
simulator tests; it can serve as a guideline, although ships do meet in
channels of less width than 500 feet under the proper conditions.
As ships approach the 170-foot-combined beam limit it becomes
necessary to meet in the manner shown in figure 2-14. In such cases
the ships:

1. Meet nearly head-on, and when approximately one-and-a-half

ship lengths apart, put their rudders to starboard to move to
their own side and pass safely.
2. When one ship's bow is abeam the bow of the other, her helm is

78
 — MEETING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW —

III.a&bk".a•aftaeA.a.-.s-x.""a"'""'hjmfta'• - - . . . t i o a a w a s . . . . . - s i k a w 1 0 0 0 1 " . " & b l i k a m a

(-)
3.
(+)

(-)
1 " w " " " " " u " " . " V " " " " I m n r w , n g w w • W m n w n m i s w . • " w w w i w . , . . ,

(-)

I
(-)

(-)

(-)
fil,••• • • 1 . ,

Fig. 2-14. Meeting in a narrow channel.

79
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

shifted to move her stern to starboard until she is parallel to the

bank.
3. The rudder is again put to the right to check the swing. Caution
is required at this point, so watch the ship's head closely. Your
vessel wants to continue swinging due to a combination of the
bank suction on the starboard quarter and the effects of the other
ship as her quarter comes abeam your bow; that is, your ship
wants to turn to port as her bow passes the other ship's stern.
Use sufficient rudder to check this swing and maintain control
despite the effects of suction at the bow and stern.
4. Do not increase the right rudder at this stage; instead, allow
your ship to sag slowly to port so she is heading away from the
bank once again. It is now unlikely that you could hit that ship
if you tried since she has passed your bow and is moving away.
So long as you do not come together laterally, which is unlikely
unless you are close enough to shake hands with the mate on the
bridge of the other ship, you will pass safely.
5. Finally, as the stern of the other ship passes your stern there is
a mutual suction effect that moves your stern away from the near
bank as the two ships pass clear and proceed on their way.

Again, the ship's speed is key. The ship must be moving at less than
full maneuvering speed so suction is minimized and sufficient engine
speed remains to come ahead and increase the effectiveness of the
rudder as needed. This passing maneuver is not as difficult as it might
sound, and is probably best demonstrated in the Houston Ship Channel,
where the pilots have perfected what for them is a routine meeting
maneuver.
A great deal of study is being done using simulators and actual ship
trials to determine the limits for safe navigation and meeting in various
types of channels. The results of this research can be used to safely
handle vessels in narrow channels as ship size continues to increase
without a commensurate increase in channel width and depth.
Hopefully, t h e practice o f using the services o f experienced
shiphandlers to perform these tests will continue. A great gap still exists
between theoretical hydrodynamics and the real world, limiting the
value of any tests not performed by competent shiphandlers.

80
 — USING SHIPHANDLING INSTRUMENTATION —

OVERTAKING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW

The mechanics of handling a ship while overtaking another vessel are
routine and safe as long as the shiphandler realizes it is the speed at
which the maneuver is performed that is most important. If the overtaking
ship is abeam of the other vessel or tow for any length of time, she
increases the chances that the overtaken vessel will become unmanageable,
particularly when her stern is abeam the bow of the vessel being
overtaken. Give the overtaken ship as much room as possible and
maintain a moderate speed to minimize the period of time the two ships
are abeam.
The overtaken vessel reduces her speed as much as possible before
the maneuver begins while still maintaining steerageway to further
reduce the time required to complete the overtaking maneuver. While
being passed, the slower vessel increases revolutions as needed to
increase the flow past her rudder and maintain steerage.
The Rules of the Road give the ship or tow being passed the
responsibility for agreeing to any passing situation. It is obvious why
this is so. It is the overtaken vessel that is most likely to have a problem
and will be the most likely to go aground should any problem arise. No
prudent mariner agrees to be passed until the maneuver can be performed
under conditions where he or she feels comfortable.
USING SHIPHANDLING INSTRUMENTATION
While the seaman's eye remains the best aid to shiphandling and
maneuvering in channels and restricted waters, other aids are available
to supplement experienced judgment. Radar and other electronic aids,
such as DGPS-based navigation systems, have become increasingly
useful. These tools have evolved in accuracy and operating features to
the point where they are equally useful as offshore navigation equipment
and aids to pilots and mariners moving ships in restricted waters.
That said, it is a fact that the gyro and fathometer remain the
essential tools for shiphandling, even though the newer equipment
attracts more attention. Pilots wisely navigate primarily by eye, using
the gyro for directional reference and fathometer to monitor depth under
the keel. The other instruments have become essential to safe navigation,
but in no way do they replace the tools that provide direction and depth.
Navigation tools used by pilots include:

1. Gyro
2. Fathometer

81
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

3. Radar, including ARPA

4. ECDIS
5. Doppler Speed Logs
6. Rate-of-Turn Indicator
7. DGPS and Portable Piloting Units
8. VHF
9. AIS
10. Console presentations of wind force and direction and other
pertinent operating data

The gyro is used to maintain direction, supplying the point of

reference for almost all maneuvers. The gyrocompass may also serve
as an accurate audible rate-of-turn indicator as it clicks off the fractions
of each degree during a turn. I t is surprising how accurately an
experienced seaman can judge the rate of turn, and of equal importance,
whether a desired or undesired swing has begun, without having to
continuously watch the gyrocompass. Unfortunately, the solid-state

104.•tiotn va-0 01E1.1

• " " "

Nod. o x / 0 0 0 ,

9
00 .0 • •-•
••
- I r y • NI. 01111.1111.0.1•11,41

7-710M1011111•01111110/0r•

000

11.11 EOM
Homing K....1;

M E M I N I M M I
234 8

Ell

Rudd*,
000 00)

NIGKI . 1 • 0 1 1 G 1 1 4
010111Ar . 0 0 1 P 1 A y

Fig. 2-15. Conning station with centralized readouts of fore/aft and lateral speed,
rudder position, heading, wind direction and strength, vessel position, and other
navigational information. Courtesy Concordia Maritime

82
 - USING SHIPHANDLING INSTRUMENTATION -

era has brought with it an "improved" silent gyrocompass, and this

audible aid may become a thing of the past. Mariners would welcome
the addition of an audible indication of a heading change; in effect, an
electronic click.
The fathometer provides the soundings the mariner needs to predict
when a ship might become difficult to handle due to shoaling, and to
know the clearance beneath the keel. Squat can then be anticipated,
as well as the need to reduce speed as bottom clearances change. The
fathometer must be routinely watched; the development of the digital
fathometer mounted on the forward bulkhead of the wheelhouse to
supplement the recording fathometer in the chartroom has done much
to increase shiphandling safety. The fathometer seems too often forgotten
once the pilot is aboard—this is unfortunate, since the depth of water
is a basic shiphandling parameter.
Due to the mass of today's larger ships and the greater height from
the water at which the pilot is now working, it has become more difficult
to detect an error in judgment and to recover from that error. It is
important to have an accurate means of determining the ship's
movement— both ahead and astern over the bottom, and her lateral
motion at the bow and stern. The ship can then be accurately positioned
at a pier or at the single-point moorings commonly used by VLCCs, and
also steered at the low speeds involved when the bow and stern are
moving at a fraction of a knot. While a single-point Doppler log is useful
at sea, the complete Doppler presentation showing ahead and athwartship
movement is needed to supply the information required in maneuvering
situations with large ships (fig. 2-15).
On larger ships and ships with restricted visibility from the bridge,
such as Containerships, it is important to have a rate-of-turn indicator
to enable the mariner to detect and control the ship's rate of swing in
a turn. A rate-of-turn indicator usually supplies turn information in
tenths of a degree per second, although degrees per minute are used
occasionally, showing a rate to the right or left that corresponds to the
direction of the movement of the ship's bow. This information in itself
is not of great value (fig. 2-16). It is the relative indication that is
important—that is, whether the rate is increasing or decreasing, and
by what amount. It is interesting and instructive to watch a helmsman
do his first trick aboard a ship fitted with a rate-of-turn indicator. After
a short time, he begins to steer using the indicator, as well as watching
the jackstaff move across a point of reference as helmsmen have done
for centuries. While holding the ship steady on a compass heading, the

83
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Fig. 2-16. This fully integrated bridge includes a helm station containing a gyro
repeater, rate-of-turn indicator, and all appropriate steering options suitable for
the ship's steering system. Courtesy Maritime Institute of Technology and
Graduate Studies

rudder is used to keep a zero rate of swing. As soon as swing is indicated,

the helmsman uses sufficient rudder to check that swing, often applying
the rudder before any movement of the bow to the right or left can be
detected by eye.
When a ship is directionally unstable due to her hull form or trim
the rate-of-turn indicator becomes essential, making it possible to
navigate restricted channels safely. By accurately knowing the rate of
turn the shiphandler can limit that rate to a known safe maximum and

84
 —THE BASICS OF SQUAT —

always keep the ship under control. As an example, a current class of

liquefied natural gas carriers, which have to be trimmed to an even
keel to meet the draft requirements of their terminal port, are safely
handled in spite of being directionally unstable at that trim. By limiting
their rate of swing to less than 3/10 of a degree per second it is always
possible to easily check their swing. While the readout is basically a
relative indication, this rate of turn of Vio of a degree per second is
comfortable under most conditions. A rate of turn of 6/10 of a degree per
second is a safe maximum for an ordinary turn—that is, a 36-degree
change in heading in one minute.

THE BASICS OF SQUAT

In collaboration with Larry L. Daggett, PhD,
and Christopher Hewlett, P.E.
As a ship begins to make way through the water she undergoes a change
in mean draft known as sinkage. This change may occur equally forward
and aft, or may be greater at the bow or the stern, resulting in a change
in trim, as well as a change in mean draft. The combination of sinkage
and trim is called squat.
There have been some inconsistencies among definitions as used
to describe the components of squat in various studies and nautical
publications. Because research is providing more detailed information
about this subject, and because from the shiphandler's viewpoint the
subject is more complex than previously thought, a few basic, common
definitions are provided for the purpose of this text. These definitions
would seem useful for all discussions of squat if the most recent research
is accepted:

Sinkage is the bodily increase in draft—that is, the increase in

mean draft due to the effects of moving in a restricted channel.
Trim or, more accurately, dynamic trim, is the rotation about the
transverse axis due to the change in pressure and the resulting
change in draft along the length of the ship, with the greatest
change in trim being at the bow or stern, depending on hull form.
Squat is the combination of sinkage and trim, the largest change
and location of that change along the ship's hull depending on
the location of maximum change in trim.

In practical terms, the mariner will say the ship squats some num-
ber of feet or meters by the head or stern since it is the net result of the

85
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

sinkage and trim that is of most interest to the shiphandler moving a

ship in shallow water. In fact, more attention should be paid to all three
components—sinkage, trim, and squat—because they all affect shiph-
andling. This is becoming more obvious as ongoing research provides
a better understanding of the causes of squat and changes in underkeel
clearance.
Squat is a natural phenomena as a ship moves through a restricted
channel. The ship displaces an amount of water equal to her own weight.
This water must move outward from and around the hull in all directions.
The water so displaced moves primarily along and under the hull, and
returns astern of the ship to "fill" the space left by the ship as she moves
on. Naturally, the faster the ship is moving, the greater the velocity of
this flow under and along her hull, and the greater the corresponding
pressure drop as a result of that increased velocity.
This is a basic principle of physics known as the Bernoulli Principle.
Depending upon where the greatest drop in pressure occurs along the
length of the hull, this reduced pressure will result in greater sinkage
(increase in draft) at the bow or stern, although the draft increases to
some degree all along the length of the ship.

Blockage factor fB — b x T
Bx H

I ummosol
N i l I i l e u l
1 0 1 1 I I
I I I I
I 1 1 I I a

Fig. 2-17. Blockage factor in restricted channels.

86
 — THE BASICS OF SQUAT —

MAJESTIC MAERSK - NORTHBOUND, GAILLARD CUT

12 1 2
11 1 1
NOTE VERTICAL AXIS SCALE CHANGE
10 1 0
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 < 6
CONTAINERSHIP, L O A = 9 6 5 B E A M = 106.1. DRAFT = 38.7
5 5
tn
C 4
---- 3 ' A 4 3
LB w p a 2
Fn' 0 .
1
51
(9 2
n
5 ' '
` . ' 3 ' 8 —L
r - ' ' 1 . c e '

. . •
t..1._..R
L.'
s o • • • • 0 _....i. Ai
-1 ' w -1
_SW. -- .iidutiktali,.,. . . „ .....7 7
r 5
-2 ,
-3 P d , ,. . 1 - 3
-4 I L T I t h f i l l i g l i b i e l l . r m - 4
-5
-6 - 6
-7 - 7
-8 I 1 1 I I I I I I I I - 8
1400 1500 1 6 0 0 1 7 0 0 1 8 0 0 1 9 0 0 2000 2100

CHANNEL STATION (HUNDREDS OF FT)

Barr Sinkage - Stern Sinkage • C h a n n e l Bends V e s s e l Speed

Fig. 2-18. This graph shows the relationship between speed and squat. Note that
the squat (lower lines) increases as the speed (upper line) increases. This fine
hull containership trims by the stern due to the effect of squat. Courtesy
Waterway Simulation Technology

As the ship enters shallow water the flow of water becomes increas-
ingly restricted due to the reduced clearance under the hull. I f the
channel is shallow and narrow, the flow of water becomes restricted
under and on one or both sides of the hull, depending on the ship's
location in the channel. The effect of this restriction or "blockage factor"
is dependent upon several variables:

1. The speed of the ship through the water.

2. Ratio of the ship's draft to the depth of water. VESSEL SPEED (KNOTS)
3. Ratio of the ship's cross-sectional area to the cross-sectional
area of the channel (fig. 2-17).
4. The ship's block coefficient. (The previously explained effects
on draft and handling characteristics of a high block coefficient
are amplified in shallow water.)
5. The ship's displacement, which determines the amount of water
that must pass around and under the ship's hull at a given speed.
6. The rate and period of acceleration as the ship increases speed.

87
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Consider first the effect of ship's speed, since this is the factor over
which the mariner has the greatest control. It has been found, based
upon observations of actual ships and models, that squat varies in
proportion to the square of the speed. If ship's speed is doubled, squat
increases by a factor of four. With today's large ships and minimal
underkeel clearances, it becomes immediately obvious why speed and
resulting squat must be very much on the shiphandler's mind. It should
be noted that the ship's speed here refers to the speed of the ship through
water and not the ground speed, so if the ship is moving against a
current, the speed effect will be increased.
The maximum cross-sectional area of the submerged portion of the
ship's hull, as seen by looking at the midships section in the ship's file
of drawings, is significant when compared to the cross-sectional area
of a narrow channel. The ratio of these two areas, referred to as the
blockage factor, determines the clearance through which the displaced
water must flow. The less area available, the greater the velocity at
which the water must flow for a given ship's speed—and the greater
the resultant pressure drop around and under the hull.
The other variables listed also affect the flow in a similar manner
and their importance will be obvious to the mariner.
The formula most often used by mariners was contributed by C. B.
Barrass, PhD.7 The total squat in open water can be calculated with
sufficient accuracy for a VLCC using the formula:

S (meters) = C b X V2/100 or
S (feet) = C b x V2/30
where:

S = squat
Cb= vessel's block coefficient
V = vessel's speed in knots

Squat in shallow, confined waters is double the quantity S found

by the above formula; that is, in shallow, confined waters the squat
equals 2 x S.
When aboard a ship with a block coefficient of 0.8 proceeding in
shallow water at 10 knots, she will sink approximately 1.6 meters (5.33

7C. B. Barrass, Ship Squat and Its Calculation, p 11.

88
 — THE BASICS OF SQUAT —

feet). If the speed is reduced by half, to 5 knots, the same vessel sinks
only 0.4 meters (1.3 feet), or one quarter the squat experienced at the
higher speed.
It should be noted that this formula for predicting squat generally
overestimates the squat, thus providing a margin of safety. In some
cases where this formula has been compared to measured squat, the
margin of safety was found to be too large for practical operations. In
those cases, other predictive formulas have been found to fit measured
squat more accurately when a more accurate prediction of squat is
required. Many of the available predictive models are described in a
PIANC publication.8
Recent measurements of ship squat using high-accuracy differential
GPS equipment have shown that the most accurate predictive model
is dependent on the ship type and waterway characteristics. For example,
measurements of twenty-six ships on the St. Lawrence Seaway9
demonstrated that squat could be predicted with mean errors of 0.08
meters (0.26 feet) or less and standard deviations of less than 0.13 (0.42
feet) meters using formulas suggested by Tuck, Eryuzlu et al., Barrass,
and Tothill, depending on the ship type and whether the transit was
in a canal or lake. However, Tuck was often nearly as good for predicting
squat as an estimate made using the "best fit" technique. Recent
measurements demonstrated that the predictive model presented by
Eryuzlu et al. produced a mean error of -0.02 meters and a standard
deviation of 0.07 meters for a VLCC in the Delaware Bay and River.
Comparison of predicted and measured squat in the PC studies has
yet to be conducted on a vessel type basis or on a fully combined database,
but comparisons for individual ships have yielded some useful results.
After generating comparisons for several of the aforementioned published
numerical methods, three formulations were found to provide the best
agreement with the measured data from the Gaillard Cut.
That said, it is obvious that there is no single best formula for all
conditions and the Barrass formula does, as stated earlier, consistently
provide an important margin of safety.

8Approach Channels: A Guide for Design, Appendix C. Final report of the joint
working group PIANC and IAPH, in cooperation with IMPA and IALA, published
as a supplement to Bulletin 95, June 1997.
9 Larry L. Daggett, J. C. Hewlett, David Stocks. Maximization of Ship Draft in the
St. Lawrence: Volume I, Squat Study. Fleet Technology Limited and Waterway
Simulation Technology, Inc., Transport Canada TP 13888E, December 2001.

89
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

The Barrass formula has been discussed. The two other formulas
referenced are Tuck/Huuska:
2
S b = 2.4V F , h —K
2 s

LPP J 1 — FA

Sb = bow sinkage in meters

V = ship volumetric displacement in meters3
LPP= ship length between perpendiculars in meters
K = 7.45S + 0.76 for Si > 0.03
= 1 for :Si < 0.03

Where Si = As/ Ac/ Ki

As= ship underwater cross-sectional area
A = cross-sectional channel area
K1= 1 Channel-type parameter for canal with no overbanks
Fnh = Froude number based on the undisturbed
water depth = V/(gh)"2
where V= ship speed through the water in m/s
g = acceleration of gravity in m2/s
h = water depth in meters

and Eryuzlu and Hausser:

T 0.27
Sb = 0.113 (ii) B F n n ; T = ship draft; B = ship beam

For fully loaded tankers in unrestricted shallow water: 1.08 < h/T
< 2.75

It would be appropriate at this point to also discuss the effect that

blockage and speed have on handling characteristics of a ship. Since a
ship in confined waters can be compared to a piston in a cylinder, it is
obviously more difficult to drive the ship ahead as the blockage factor
increases. There is therefore a practical limit to the speed at which a ship
can proceed up a channel—the ship that makes 16 knots at eighty
revolutions in open water might make only 9 or 10 knots with the same
number of revolutions in shallow water. This limit is reached when the

90
 - UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE -

water is flowing at relatively high velocities, so the ship becomes difficult

to steer, experiences heavy vibrations throughout the hull, and generates
a much greater wave pattern astern. The wake becomes short and steep,
breaking along its length and moving outward at a greater angle from
the ship as the point of maximum flow around the hull is reached. The
ship is now said to be "pulling a lot of water."
Depth of water—thus underkeel clearance—also affects turning and
steering, and underkeel clearance is directly related to squat. When a
ship is maneuvering in shallow water that restricts water flow—generally
when the underkeel clearance is less than 0.5 of the ship draft—the ship
will become more stable, and therefore, more difficult to turn. Greater
care should be taken as the shiphandler decides when to begin a turn and
the amount of rudder to use to make a turn.
Squat, depth, trim, hull form, speed, and other factors affecting steering
and turns are interrelated. The effects of near banks are also important
in any discussion of steering and turns. The shiphandler should review
discussions of bank effects elsewhere in this text when considering the
factors presented in this section.
Will the squat occur by the head or by the stern? This can only be
determined with accuracy through observation, but a commonly accepted
rule of thumb is that a ship with a large Cb (greater than 0.75) will tend
to squat by the head. Vessels having such block coefficients are generally
large tankers and bulk carriers that are very full in their forward sections.
The previously discussed curve of submerged cross-sectional areas is
therefore also helpful in predicting squat by the head or stern. If the curve
reaches its maximum point at a more forward station, the ship can be
expected to trim by the head. Hulls having forward sections of varying
fullness should be tested so some criteria can be developed and published
to determine how far forward this peak in the curve can be located before,
as Containerships with a block coefficient (Cb) of less than 0.7 have been
found to trim by the stern (fig. 2-19).
Squat becomes increasingly important as ships get larger and load
to deeper drafts. It is imperative that mariners allow for squat and reduce
the speed at which a deeply loaded ship navigates in a shallow channel.
Ships exist to carry cargo, and by limiting speed to minimize squat, a ship
can lift the maximum possible deadweight.

UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE
The squat phenomena, as discussed to this point, has been well known
and understood for many years to the extent it affects a single ship, and

91
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

GLOBAL CHALLENGER - NORTHBOUND, GAILLARD CUT

11 11
BULK CARRIER, L O A = 738, BEAM = 105.9, DRAFT = 39.5
10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7
6 6
5
NOTE VERTICAL ASIS SCALE CHANGE
45 4
to
aw 3 3
2
:5
) „.. „..
2
8 . g E 2
1 E 1 .
Fc a .‹ g
1
tu
0 0

1 -1
-2 wee . 4 11111 0 . -2
rirtirP'.
-3 3

-4 -4
-5 i I I I . -5
1500 1600 1 7 0 0 1 8 0 0 1 9 0 0 2000 2100
CHANNEL STATION (HUNDREDS OF FT)

Bow Sinkage - Stem Sinkage e l C h a n n e l Bends W e s e l Speed

Fig. 2-19. Full hull, high block coefficient bulk carriers such as MV Global
Challenger trim by the head. Note that the difference between sinkage at the bow
and stern decreases and speed decreases at station 1600. Note also that squat
increases in narrower reaches of the Panama Canal for the same speed, such as
between stations 1700 and 1800, where the blockage factor was greater. Courtesy
Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc. /Panama Canal Authority

so far as ship's draft changes for a given channel configuration, hull form,
and speed through the water. Additional discussion is needed of factors
other than squat that affect underkeel clearance as larger ships load to
greater drafts. Ports and channels that were once considered suitable for
deep draft ships are now marginal, as larger ships load to deeper drafts
VESSEL SPEED (KNOTS)
and underkeel clearance is reduced to the minimum considered safe for
the port.
In the past, some research was done to predict squat and underkeel
clearance under more complex conditions, such as when multiple ships
pass in narrow channels, but the findings and accuracy of the data was
questionable. Much of the research was conducted in test tanks, so practical
considerations, including the impact of ship stability, changes during
periods of acceleration, and effects of ship interaction on squat were rarely
applicable to day-to-day maneuvers in shallow water.

92
 — UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE —

Fig. 2-20. All the effects expected in a confined channel can be seen in the
Gaillard Cut.

More advanced tests have been conducted using survey grade DGPS
to measure changes in draft and trim of ships underway in narrow channels
under dynamic conditions. These tests have focused on underkeel clearance
(UKC), which is the primary concern for mariners handling ships in
shallow water and narrow channels. In the past, shiphandlers often
considered squat and UKC as basically synonymous, although they are
actually something quite different, and that difference is increasingly
important, as more ships arrive at a port loaded to the maximum safe
draft. In fact, factors including acceleration, ship/ship interaction, and
rolling in turns are at least as important as squat in any discussion on
underkeel clearance. All factors are dynamic, since ship speed, stability,
hull configuration, and channel profiles are interrelated, and a change of
any one of those factors affects UKC. Mariners and pilots tend to focus
on squat when they discuss UKC, but these other factors were found to
be at least as important when navigating in some areas of the Panama
Canal and other waterways (fig. 2-20).
Definitive tests were conducted by Waterway Simulation Technology,
Inc. (W'ST) for the Panama Canal Commission (PCC) in 1998, when
drought conditions made draft and squat critical.10, 11,12Because of its
scope, this landmark work expands significantly on past theory regarding

93
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

squat and UKC requirements in shallow water. The opportunity to measure

these conditions in the Panama Canal was unique. The tests were performed
in a controlled operating environment, so conditions and measurements
could be repeated and confirmed in a reliable manner. These conditions,
and the extremely close cooperation between the parties involved in the
tests, created a situation that came as close as may ever be possible to
having test tank conditions using actual ships and full size test tanks
within the very accurately surveyed Panama Canal channel for weeks at
a time. The results affect not only the Panama Canal, but also ship
movements and operating parameters in all waterways and routes with
shallow water and restricted channels.
The PCC (Panama Canal Commission) invested the time and work
necessary to conduct these tests and reassess classic squat and UKC
theory because the waterway, by its very nature as an international
waterway serving world shipping, must be particularly sensitive to the
needs of all Panama Canal users. There is a real need to maximize carrying
capacity of ships transiting the Canal consistent with safety. The tests
were conducted for the Panama Canal, but the results are an important
contribution to an understanding of ship behavior in all narrow and
shallow channels.
For the Panama Canal study, pilots maneuvered all types of ships
while WST personnel measured results under various operating conditions.
Operating procedures and regulations were modified based on the test
results for all ship types in various situations. Survey-grade DGPS
equipment was installed on the bow, stern, and bridge wings to measure
vertical displacement and draft and trim changes were recorded. The
resulting hard copy graphs and tables documented findings that were at
times surprising. The findings might not have been accepted if the
measurements were not well documented.
The tests provided a basis for predicting underkeel clearance and
expanding the understanding of squat effects and changes in draft under
a wider range of situations. Practical applications for the data include

1° Larry L. Daggett, PhD, PE, and J. Christopher Hewlett, PE. Study of Ship
Squat in the Panama Canal. Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc. for the
Panama Canal Commission, Balboa, Republic of Panama, March 20, 1988.
11Ibid., May 8, 1988.
12 Larry L. Daggett, PhD, PE, and J. Christopher Hewlett, PE. Panamax Ships
Meeting in the Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal. Waterway Simulation Technology,
Inc. for the Panama Canal Commission, Balboa, Republic of Panama, September
10, 1999.

94
 —UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE —

revised draft restrictions for various ship types in the Gaillard Cut in
Panama and speed limitations in various waterways for ships at or near
maximum draft.
It is noteworthy that the test results support the application of classic
squat theory as developed by Dr. Barrass, PhD, for the Panama Canal
Gaillard Cut to the extent squat is affected by speed, blockage factor, and
block coefficient under the less complex conditions for which the Barrass
formula is most often used. Equally important, the tests also increase the
knowledge base for the squat phenomena in a range of conditions for light
and loaded drafts at various speeds, including a few conditions not
previously discussed in professional literature. For example, the study
documents squat and changes in UKC as ships meet and pass in narrow
channels, accelerate in shallow water, turn and roll in twisting channels,
and move between areas with varying and irregular channel cross sections.
To that extent, the Panama Canal tests provide greater knowledge of
hydrodynamics affecting squat and draft that must be disseminated to
the industry.
Similar tests conducted in other waterways, including the St. Lawrence
Seaway, Houston Ship Channel, and Delaware Bay and River, verified
the results of the Waterway Simulation Technology studies in the Panama
Canal; however, it was found that specific predictive formulas for particular
ship types and channel characteristics provide more accurate estimates
of squat than the Barrass formula. Based on these waterway-specific
measurements, the predictive model, and updated channel survey data,
a UKC calculator can be developed for use in analyzing UKC for a planned
transit. To summarize the test findings, it was confirmed that:

1.Speed through the water is the most critical factor when determining
and maximizing UKC.
2. Squat increases for a given block coefficient as speed increases,
with the increase in squat being greater for ships with higher block
coefficients.
3. The rolling effect for various ship types turning in narrow channels
is significant, and for wide-beam ships where draft increases
significantly for each degree of roll may limit UKC more than squat
at lower speeds. This is especially true for Containerships, since
they sometimes discharge water ballast to reduce draft in restricted
channels and thus have a lower GM.
4. In general, ship type is a factor when predicting changes in UKC
in narrow channels.

95
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

5. Squat may be as much as double the calculated squat for constant

speeds when high-power ships accelerate from a stop or increase
speed quickly.
6. The effect of "crabbing" due to bank suction that causes a ship to
proceed at some angle to the axis of the channel does not seem to
increase squat, although more research is required in this area.
7. Squat varies as ships pass through channels, with changing
symmetry as the blockage factor changes.
8. Squat generally increases 50% as two ships pass in a channel or
other restricted area, but can increase by as much as100% depending
on the ships' approach speed and separation distance.

Safe Speed for Minimum Underkeel Clearance

The PCC squat study verified the classic principles for calculating squat.
Change in squat is geometric. Basically, for the same conditions, squat
varies approximately as the square of the speed. Double the speed, and
you increase squat by a factor of four. This is especially important in
shallow water, where the tests demonstrate that, as a rule of thumb, 6
knots is a practical speed limit for ships in channels where UKC is 5 feet
or less, considering variables such as acceleration and rolling in turns, in
addition to squat effects. Of course, good seamanship should prevail at
all times.
The shiphandler will always consider factors such as a rocky versus
mud bottom, the quality of charts and accuracy of ranges and buoys, the
type of ship, its stability, and other factors that affect concerns with
grounding in a particular area. They may routinely navigate a channel
with a mud bottom at a higher speed. At the same time, they may proceed
at a slower speed to have greater clearance when the bottom is rocky.
Pilots make these adjustments routinely, and often proceed at higher
speeds because of their local knowledge of channel symmetry and bottom
type that permit higher speeds with safety. This is the essence of piloting
and the reason pilotage and local knowledge are irreplaceable in the safe
handling of ships, regardless of changing technology.

Absent specific local knowledge to the contrary, the 6-knot speed limit
for 5 feet of UKC is a useful rule of thumb for shiphandlers that is
suitable for safe navigation in almost all conditions.

96
 - UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE -

Effects of Stability on UKC

There is an apparent contradiction between points 2 and 3 (on the previous
page) as demonstrated by the DGPS measurements. Ordinarily, wide-
beam, full-hull ships, such as tankers and bulk carriers, are expected to
experience greater increases in draft because squat is greater for ships
with a greater block coefficient. Those ships would ordinarily require a
greater UKC for a given speed. In fact, at slow speeds, wide-beam ships
with finer hulls may require greater UKC because GM is less and they
will roll more for a given speed than the ship with a large block coefficient.
For example, the deep draft of a 106-foot beam Panamax ship increases
approximately 11 inches for every degree of roll.
The reality when considering changes in UKC for various ship types
is often different from what might initially be anticipated. Bulk carriers
and tankers usually have larger block coefficients (above 0.8), less horsepower
(6,000-14,000), and greater stability (GM more than 3 feet). They are
more likely to squat by the head and accelerate more slowly. Due to high
GM, this ship type will usually roll less due to rudder-induced rolling in
a turn. These ship types are relatively similar in hull form—regardless
of owner and place of construction—so squat, sinkage, and changes of
draft are generally more predictable for these ship types.
Car carriers, Containerships, and passenger ships usually have lower
block coefficients (less than 0.8), greater horsepower (15,000-65,000), and
less stability (GM commonly less than 2 feet). They are more likely to
squat by the stern and accelerate more quickly. These ship types will roll
more in turns in narrow channels, and there are greater disparities in
hull forms among ships of this type. For these reasons squat and changes
in draft while underway are less predictable.
General cargo and ships carrying specialized cargoes have characteristics
that are somewhere between the aforementioned ship types.
The WST trials make a good case for allowing less underkeel clearance
for the more predictable bulk carriers and tankers than for other types of
vessels, which is quite the opposite from what would otherwise be expected
for high block coefficient ships based on squat alone. They heel less in a
turn. They heel less due to rudder-induced rolling. They accelerate more
slowly and have less horsepower, so speed changes will have less effect
on draft.

Acceleration
Ship acceleration is an important consideration when handling ships in
shallow water. Changes in engine revolutions have a greater effect on

97
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

UKC than previously anticipated. The tests indicate that initial squat
while accelerating is approximately double the squat as calculated by the
classic formula. That formula assumes constant speed, so a high-powered
ship put on full ahead may strike the bottom while accelerating, even
though there would be sufficient clearance under the keel once a specific
speed is reached. Pilots and ships' officers must accelerate in increments—
dead slow, slow, and then half—instead of going directly to half ahead
when UKC is less than double the squat calculated for constant speed. A
modern containership increased draft more than 4 feet in the initial few
minutes as the ship accelerated from a dead stop using revolutions for
half ahead. In this particular test, the squat decreased to 2 feet or less
when the ship reached normal half ahead speed, even though revolutions
remained constant throughout the period the ship was gaining headway
in shallow water. This increase was due primarily to an induced heel to
the starboard during the acceleration.
The Waterway Simulation Technology (WST) tests showed that
underkeel clearance varies when a ship moves between channels of
different formation in asymmetrical channels where the slope of the bank
is different on one side of the ship than the other. The change occurs each
time the symmetry of the channel changes. The cause of this change is
not obvious, although it may be due to changing blockage factors, or to
disruption of what is otherwise a stable condition as the ship proceeds
along the channel. There is little that can be done to minimize this effect
other than reducing speed and allowing for the increase in draft each
time the channel cross profile changes.
Tests showed the draft for a 612-foot-long by 95-foot-beam bulk carrier
changed by as much as 2 feet while proceeding at a moderate speed when
the shape of a 1,000-foot-wide channel changed, so the effect of changing
channel symmetry on draft can be significant. A ship could ground if the
pilot does not minimize speed when channel width and symmetry are
changing from one area to another.13

Meeting and Passing

Squat also increases significantly as two ships meet in a channel or other
restricted area. Tests were conducted by WST to measure the effect of
ship/ship interaction on squat. The tests were done at a range of speeds

13Study of Ship Squat in the Panama Canal. Waterway Simulation

Technology, Inc. p 34.

98
 — UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE —

in the thoroughly surveyed Panama Canal channels where the chance of

grounding was minimal. Squat was additive as the ships met and passed.
A ship squatting 4 feet meeting another ship squatting 3 feet and moving
in the opposite direction would experience a cumulative squat of
approximately 7 feet as the two ships passed in a narrow channel.
Obviously, the distance between ships and the channel width has an
effect on the increase in squat. In the tests, the channel was approximately
four times the combined beams of the two ships. Tests were repeated for
several days with fairly consistent results, and the increase in squat was
consistently more than might be anticipated prior to these definitive trial
runs. In all cases, squat generally increased by about 50%, with increases
from 60-100% occurring when two ships passed in a channel, depending
on speed and distance between ships. The increase is greater at higher
speeds and for larger ships. Sinkage was greater for bulk carrier/tanker
type vessels than containerships. Increased heel was also a primary factor
for changes in the vertical for typical containerships in meeting situations
(fig. 2-21).

EVER REFINE - NORTHBOUND, GAMBOA REACH, MEETING WITH NEDLLOYD DEJIMA

SHIPS MEET

13 13
12 12
11 t i 11
10 10
CONTAINERSHIP, LOA = 985, BEAM = 106 DRAFT = 29.5
9 9
8 8
7 7 a
6 6 1c-,
NOTEVERTICALAXIS SCALE CHANGE
5 5 f
4
a
3 w
2 2.3,-
5)
1,1
0 02
-1 1it!
-2 2
-3 3
-4
-5 5
-6 6
-7 4.118 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 , 1 4 1 . -1-1-111 - 7
1475 1480 1485 1490 1495 1500 1505 1510 1515 1520 1525 1530 1535 1540 1545 1550 1555 1560 1565 1 5 7 0 1575

CHANNEL STATION (HUNDREDS OF FT)

- Bow Sinkage - Stem Sinkage • Channel Sends V e s s e l Speed

Fig. 2-21. Ships meeting in restricted channels will experience a significant

increase in squat as the ships pass. Note that sinkage nearly doubled to 7 feet
when this vessel passed approximately 150 feet from the containership Nedlloyd
Dejima. Consistent with findings, this low block coefficient vessel trimmed by
the stern due to squat. Courtesy Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc. / Panama
Canal Authority

99
 — SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL —

Shiphandlers must not underestimate the effect of this ship/ship interaction

on squat and draft. The increase can be drastic and rapid, so ships moving
at high speeds in narrow channels could ground immediately as they meet.
It is noteworthy that a 900-foot containership traveling at 11 knots in an
otherwise safe 700-foot channel immediately increased draft by more than 7
feet as the ships passed.14
Overtaking
One would expect that squat would be greater for two vessels in an overtaking
situation than for a single vessel in the channel. One would also expect squat
to be greater for two vessels in an overtaking situation than for two vessels
when meeting and passing, and the increase would last longer, since the ship/
ship interaction continues for a longer period due to the lower speed differential
between overtaking ships.
There is a lack of data on this situation, so it is not possible at this time
to say with any certainty that this assumption is correct. For safety reasons,
and until there is data available to support or refute that assumption, it seems
proper for shiphandlers to assume the increase in draft when ships overtake
in a narrow channel is the same or greater as when ships meet, and that it
lasts for a longer period.
Squat, underkeel clearance, ship stability, speed, hull form, channel form,
and all the other factors discussed in this section could cause a ship to ground
in an otherwise safe channel. Also, in addition to grounding, recent research
clearly shows the importance of considering all factors affecting steering and
shiphandling in narrow and shallow channels.

STOPPING AND MANEUVERING IN A CHANNEL

The berth is now in sight but the tugs are not yet available, so it is necessary
to stop your ship during her passage up the channel and hold her in that
location until tugs arrive. It would have been better to have had the tugs
made fast before needing to stop, but it is certainly not a problem to stop
without them. The maneuver for stopping your ship while maintaining her
heading is discussed in the section on master's trials in chapter 1, and since
you have kept the ship's speed moderate at all times, you are in control of the
situation with or without tugs.
The experience gained during the master's trials helps you judge whether
the ship can be stopped in the distance available using only routine maneuvers.
Remember, it is often possible to perform two or more maneuvers simultaneously,
such as using the tendency for the bow to swing to starboard when the engine
is put astern, to both make a turn to the right and reduce headway.

14Ibid., p 41.
100
 Chapter 3

USE OF TUGS
We maneuvered in the outer harbor until it was dark. When we put
in the Chief came to the bridge, wiping his hands with a wad of
cotton waste and his forehead with his sleeve. "Blimey, Skipper,"
he said, "you certainly kept us busy." I had. . .I found out that she
was indeed a lovely ship; you couldn't expect her to do more and
still be called a tugboat.
—Jan de Hartog, The Distant Shore

The heavily bearded docking master burst through the wheelhouse door,
grabbed the old man's hand, and welcomed him to the port in a voice
two tones deeper than our whistle. Taking the radio in hand, he instructed
the two tugs that would be assisting us to the dock to come alongside
and make up.
"How do you like your coffee, Cap'?"
"Black please. Just black and hot will be fine," the docking master
replied to the captain.
"Call the standby and have him bring up a pot of coffee, Cadet."
"`I'll get it, sir. It will only take me a second to go downstairs for it,"
replied the cadet.
The docking master glowered at the cadet, but said nothing until he
had left the wheelhouse. Obviously, he didn't like the young man's reply.
"Downstairs! Downstairs! Where the hell does that kid think he is,"
bellowed the heretofore jovial docking pilot.
"They don't go down below anymore, they go downstairs. Decks are
floors, lines are ropes, and the other day one of these kids called a mooring
wire a cable." He paused long enough to catch his breath, but it was
obvious that he had hardly begun his dissertation on the preservation
of the seafaring language and the use of proper shipboard terminology.
In fact, we were lectured on that subject for the rest of the docking.
Unfortunately, it is true that the vocabulary of the mariner is often
ignored and those who have been working around ships for any length
of time are not happy about it. Perhaps this is because so many landsmen
rush to the water on weekends to play, and most of what is written and
filmed in the United States about living and working on the water is
directed toward, and produced by, these neophyte admirals who do not

101
 - USE OF TUGS -

understand that the language of the sea is steeped in tradition. Nautical

vocabulary allows those aboard ship to communicate orders and ideas
clearly and concisely in a manner that is not open to misinterpretation.
For this reason it is important that the shiphandler use proper and
accepted shipboard terminology when giving orders.
While practitioners in the medical, legal, engineering, and scientific
fields have and use a specialized vocabulary peculiar to their profession,
the language of the sea is now being misused with regularity. This is
sad, since seafaring is not just a job, it is a way of life, and the seaman's
vocabulary captures the very essence and spirit of life on the water.
The argument has been made by some that the seafarer should
"modernize" nautical language so it could be immediately understood
by all, even though this would actually mean that it would be clearly
understood by no one. Without a unique nautical vocabulary it would
be impossible to accurately express ideas or describe conditions in the
marine environment. A whole series of long and ambiguous sentences
would be needed to express the same thoughts that the seaman can now
convey with but a few words. Consider the paragraph of instructions
that would have to be given to a seaman tending the spring line to get
the same reaction that the mariner gets from the three words: "Check
the spring."
Just as doctors or lawyers would not bastardize the language of their
professions, nor tolerate others in their field who do not master that
language, neither should the mariner accept the misuse of the language
of the sea. It is another aspect of professionalism.
After being properly chastised the cadet went forward to assist in
the docking, having assured the docking master that his point had been
made.

The work of the tugmaster is a subject unto itself, and it is beyond

the scope of this text to discuss that work. Only the use of tugs to assist
in the movement and berthing of ships will be covered here (fig. 3-1).
There are several types of tugs, each of which has its limitations
and advantages. The single-screw harbor tug is still in use in some
ports, and because it requires the most skill to use effectively, will serve
as the basis for this chapter. I t is essential that the shiphandler
understand the tug's work, and her limitations and capabilities, so that
he or she can do the best possible job without endangering the assisting
boats.

102
 — MAKING UP A TUG —

Fig. 3-1. Tugs alongside, arriving Baltimore Harbor. From an oil

painting by Maryland Pilot Capt. Brian Hope.

MAKING UP A TUG
Having proceeded to within sight of the berth and taken the docking
master aboard, the crew makes the tugs fast and gets ready to go
alongside. The tugs can be made fast in several ways, depending on
where they are to be placed and the work they are going to do.
If the tug is to assist in a routine docking or undocking and is to be
made fast on the bow or quarter, she generally puts up two lines. The
first line sent aboard, to be led forward and put on a bitt on the ship's
deck, is the backing line. This line is made fast to a bitt on the tug's
foredeck. Since this line will take a heavy strain as the tug backs against
it to pull the bow or stern it must be put on a bitt aboard the ship. Too
often the mate on the bow or stern puts the backing line on a small
cleat on the bulwark, or on some other unsuitable fitting that is out of
the tug master's line of sight. When the tug later backs on that line for
the first time, the cleat pulls off the bulwark with the very real danger
of injuring or killing someone aboard either vessel. The second line sent
aboard from the tug is led from the tug's foredeck to her bow, and then
up to the ship. This come ahead line is led aft on the ship's deck and is
used by the tug to work against and get into position to push (fig. 3-2).
If the ship will be backing into or from a slip, a stern line may also
be rigged so the tug does not fall around as the ship gathers sternway.

103
 — USE OF TUGS —

Come ahead line

.41—Backing line

Stern
line
(if required)

Fig. 3-2. Making fast a single-screw tug.

Fig. 3-2a. Tractor-type tugs have replaced conventional single-screw tugs in

most ports. They are better able to work using a single hawser. Courtesy
Sanmar Shipyards

104
 - COMMUNICATING WITH A TUG -

The ship's speed must then be kept to a minimum, since the tug is
at nearly right angles to the ship while backing, with the full length
acting as a drag and putting a heavy strain on that line that increases
geometrically as ship's speed increases. Two of the ship's crew must
stand by to let the line go promptly on signal from the tug and slack
it with a messenger to the tug. I f the line is not let go promptly the
tug is either unable to get in position to work, or the line is parted
by the strain as the tug and ship maneuver. There is a very real risk
of getting the stern line in the tug's propeller if the messenger is not
used and properly tended when slacking the stern line down to the
boat.
Twin-screw tugs, due to their ability to maneuver, will often give
the ship only a backing line, since they can use their two engines to
get at right angles to the ship to push without a come ahead line.
Tugs having one of the various patented drives that allow
maneuvering in all directions will only need to send a hawser to the
ship, which allows the tug to work with greater freedom and to be more
useful to the shiphandler. Patented drive tugs, such as the Voith-
Schneider, can do everything that twin-screw tugs can do with the
added advantage of being able to work (to direct their thrust) at right
angles to the ship when the ship has headway. The closer the tug is to
being at right angles to the ship, the more of her power is being used
to move the ship in the desired direction. These patented drive tugs
can also work closer to the stem or stern of the ship because of their
ability to maneuver around the flare of the bow or curvature of the
ship's run aft. The closer to the ends of the ship that the tug is able to
work, the more effective it can be in moving the ship.
The patented drive tugs usually keep their working line on a winch
with sufficient power to shorten or lengthen the line while working
against it. The tug is thus able to change position without losing
effectiveness and to work at more than one location around the bow or
stern without having to shift lines.
COMMUNICATING WITH A TUG
While various tug signals have been developed that are peculiar to a
port, or even to a particular berth, certain basic signals and maneuvers
are common to almost all ports at which you will call in the United
States. Signals to be given with a hand whistle or the ship's whistle
include:

105
 — USE OF TUGS —

ONEBLASTI f pushing or backing, stop. I f stopped, come ahead

with normal power.
Two BLASTS B a c k with normal power.
ONELONGBLASTC o m e ahead dead slow.
SERIESOF SHORT,
RAPIDBLASTSI n c r e a s e to full power, ahead or astern, depending on
the direction in which the tug is presently working.
ONELONG AND
TWOSHORTBLASTS...Tug is dismissed. Let go the tug's lines.

Now that the radio is supplementing the whistle, the shiphandler

can verbally instruct the tug to perform these same maneuvers. The
use of the radio has resulted in safer and more professional work, since
it is possible to specify a tug by name, and to give more precise instructions
to the tug. When using a radio to work more than one tug, good practice
dictates that the name of the tug be repeated twice so there is no
misunderstanding about which tug should follow a particular order:
"(name of tug) Come ahead full (name of tug)."

USING A TUG
Rule oned o not use the tug.
Make the needed tugs fast, but plan the job so as to deliberately
minimize their use. Let's look at the reasons for this. The tug is simply
another tool available to the shiphandler to accomplish the task at
hand, supplementing the engine, rudder, bow thruster, anchors, and
mooring lines. Use the tug only when these other tools will not by
themselves accomplish the task. There are several reasons for this:

1. The only way to develop a skill in and a feel for handling ships
is to do the work. If a ship is pushed and pulled into position
primarily using the tug, you are not developing any skill in
shiphandling; you are only learning to push and pull with tugs.
2. If a job is planned to minimize the need for the tug, then those
tugs are available as additional tools if required—an ace up the
shiphandler's sleeve. If the job is done in a manner that makes
the use of tugs essential, this backup capability is lost. By making
the tugs fast, and then working as if they were not available, the
tugs can be used to correct any problem that might arise.

Unfortunately, there seems to be an inverse relationship between

shiphandling ability and the availability of powerful tugs. No great

106
 — USING A TUG —

skill is required to berth a ship under normal conditions with a little

common sense and a few powerful tugs to push and pull the ship into
position. It is a pleasure, though, to watch a skilled pilot or master
move a ship using only her engine and rudder, making her perform
without fuss or confusion. The only way to develop that degree of skill
is by handling a ship with minimum assistance.
The tug's power, when working alongside, is used primarily to move
the ship laterally, although a properly made-up tug can direct forces
in all directions and move the ship ahead, or slow the ship and hold
her in position. This flexibility is one of the reasons a pilot will sometimes
use a tug on a ship even though she is equipped with a thruster. A
shiphandler should never hesitate to use a tug in appropriate situations,
even though the master insists the thruster will be sufficient. At times
tug fees are a necessary cost of safe docking or undocking.
Keep in mind, when using a tug to maneuver, that ship's speed has
a crucial impact on the tug's effectiveness. The tug has only a limited
amount of power available, and as the speed of the ship increases, more

Fig. 3-3. A tug's force affects the ship's lateral motion and her headway.

107
 — USE OF TUGS —

of that power is needed just to "keep up" with the ship, so less power
is available to assist the ship's maneuvers. Keep the ship's speed to a
minimum for maximum tug effects when maneuvering.
As stated, backing a tug also slows the forward speed of the ship,
and simply dragging the tug along with its deep hull at some angle to
the ship's centerline will have some slowing effect. Keep in mind that
the opposite effect occurs when the tug comes ahead. The tug's force
increases the speed of the ship since some of her power is pushing the
ship ahead. It is possible to compute by vector diagram the percentage
of the total force being generated by a tug that is acting in the desired
direction under a given situation, but in the real world it is sufficient
to know that the tug is in fact having more than one effect, and to use
these effects to your best advantage (fig. 3-3).
Other than the pushing and pulling effects on the ship's bow, the
bow tug can also be used to follow a ship which is going astern, working
stem to stem to steer the ship by pushing on either bow as required.
The tug trails the stem and comes ahead against the port bow to move
the stem to starboard and thus turn the ship to port. Pushing on the
starboard bow has the opposite effect.

0
Tug's hull affects
the ship like a
rudder placed at
angle "A."
0

0 0

Ship's stern set

toward pier

Fig. 3-4. Effect of a tug made fast on the quarter.

108
 — USING A TUG —

Fig. 3-5. Using a tug on each bow.

The bow tug is used to hold the ship alongside in position after
arriving at the berth until mooring lines are out and tight. By keeping
the tug at some angle to the ship, that ship can be held against a flooding
or ebbing current, as well as alongside her berth until she is secure.
Other uses of the bow tug are covered in sections on approaching the
berth in chapter 4 and going alongside in chapter 5.
The after tug—or stern tug—if placed on the quarter, is made fast
in the same manner as a tug on the bow; that is, with a backing line
and a come ahead line. The tug backs and pushes against the hull in
the same manner and with the same effects as the bow tug, with two
important differences:

1. The after tug acts as a drag, reducing the effectiveness of the

rudder, especially at slow speeds when the shiphandler is trying
to move the stern laterally, without any significant increase in
speed.
2. The stern tug tends to set the stern away from the side on which
she is made fast—toward the pier or wharf in a docking situation—
which creates an additional problem for the shiphandler. This
effect increases as the angle at which the tug lies to the ship
increases, since the tug is acting as a rudder of the dimensions
of the tug's underwater profile (fig. 3-4).

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 — USE OF TUGS —

Tug ahead to left Tug ahead to right

1. Ship's stern moves left. 1. Ship's stern moves right.
2. Ship turns to right. 2. Ship turns to left.

Tug full astern

1. Ship's headway reduced.

Fig. 3-6. Tug used on stern.

For these reasons it is best to have the stern tug stand off until
actually needed to assist the ship, and to be let go after undocking at
the earliest practical time.
Occasionally, a tug will be secured on each bow when the ship is
approaching a berth or lock, or holding a position in a channel (fig. 3-5).
Either tug can then back or come ahead, alone or together, to move the
ship's bow as required. More importantly, when both tugs are backed
simultaneously the ship's heading is maintained while reducing the
ship's speed, as the tugs back against the ship's headway. The ship's
engine can also be used as required so that she is steered and stopped
with maximum control.
A tug can be placed astern of the ship and made fast with one or
two lines (fig. 3-6). In this position the tug backs to slow the ship or
comes ahead to either the right or left to move the stern, acting much
like an active rudder to supplement the ship's own rudder. The tug can
also be used to steer without the ship's engine, controlling the ship
without developing excessive headway. It is claimed in some shiphandling
texts, and occasionally by pilots in ports that do not normally use tugs
in this manner, that there is some hazard to a tug made fast on the
stern. This is simply untrue. For example, tugs have been used astern

110
 — TUG ON A HAWSER —

to assist literally thousands of ships through the Gaillard Cut in the

Panama Canal at speeds of 6 to 8 knots without any problems. Often
texts recommend using a tug on a hawser ahead of the ship to assist
the ship to steer. This arrangement is less effective and potentially
more hazardous. A conventional US harbor tug working ahead of a ship
with any significant headway is always in danger of being tripped or
rolled over.
The ship should always keep an officer and two crew members
standing by the tug lines, especially when they are led through the
ship's quarter chocks, in case the tug should have to let go on short
notice. Too often ships' crews make a tug fast and then walk off, giving
the tug on the stern no alternative but to let go the lines from her end
should it be necessary to break away. This leaves the lines in the water
near the ship's propeller—not a desirable situation!

TUG ON A HAWSER
Although it is not as common to see a tug work on a hawser in the
United States as it is in other parts of the world—which might be called
the "European style" of shiphandling—the use of a hawser should be
considered. There is no point in discussing the relative merits of the

Fig. 3-7. "The pilot wants a tight lash-up, Harry, so. . ."

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 - USE OF TUGS -

European and US systems, since the design of the tug used, the experience
and habits of the shiphandler, and the physical layout of the port all
determine the style of working.
As Shottel and Voith-Schneider tugs become more widely used in
the United States, there will be a corresponding increase in the amount
of hawser work seen by the mariner. These tugs are designed to be used
on a hawser, having winches that are properly located relative to the
tug's pivot point so they can work safely in this manner. This is not
generally true of conventional US harbor tugs.
There are occasions when a conventional harbor tug can be put on
a hawser, most commonly when handling a dead ship, or a ship with
such a light draft that it is not possible to make up alongside. In this
case, keep the ship's speed and the use of the ship's engines to a minimum
to avoid getting the harbor tug in irons, abeam the hawser, and rolling
her over.
When working a tug in this manner, it is common to use radio
communication to give the tug a speed and direction to pull, and otherwise
to use that tug in much the same way as has been previously described
for a tug alongside. Tugs on a hawser can also be used in opposition to
one another to increase or reduce the way on a ship, or to hold a ship
in a particular position in a stream or at berth. In chapter 4 other uses
of tugs on hawsers when approaching a berth are discussed.

LASHING UP A TUG
When a ship is moved in a confined area or as a dead ship, it is often
effective to lash up a tug at her bow or stern. The tug lies alongside
and puts up a head line, stern line, and an aft leading spring line to
the ship. The head and stern lines are kept as short as possible, leading
as much like breast lines as the situation permits, and heaved up very
tight. It is important that these lines be tight so the ship and tug work
as a unit, or the lash-up will be more of a hindrance than a help. Do
not allow the ship to be moved if it is not possible to get a tight lash-up
due to the ship's draft, hull configuration, or the location of her chocks
and bitts.
The tug (or tugs) may be lashed up on the stern and used in place
of the ship's engine and/or rudder. If a tug is lashed on each quarter,
the ship is handled much like a twin-screw vessel. In sheltered waters
a large ship can be moved significant distances quickly and safely in
this manner. When using tugs in this manner helm and engine orders
similar to those used aboard a twin-screw ship are appropriate.

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 — L A S H I N G UP A TUG —

Tug lashed up to
take ship stern first
from a berth.

1. Tug backs against

spring to lift ship's
stern off the dock.
2. Tug comes ahead, rudder
hard left, to lift the
ship's bow off the dock.
3. Tug's engine and rudder used
to steer ship from berth.

Fig. 3-8. Undocking with a lashed-up tug.

Tug ahead, rudder

hard left.
Ship's engine ahead,
rudder hard right.

Fig. 3-9. Working with tug and ship in opposition to move the ship laterally.

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 - USE OF TUGS -

When only one tug is lashed up, the off-center location of the tug is
felt until the ship has some headway, so the ship initially tends to move
laterally, away from the tug. It is more effective to back the tug to turn
the ship to the side on which the tug is lashed up; that is, back a tug
lashed to the port quarter to turn the ship to the left (stern to right,
bow and ship to the left). Once it has headway, a small ship can be
moved efficiently with only one tug lashed up.
The other common type of lash-up places the tug on the ship's bow
heading aft. This might be done when only one tug is used to back a
ship from a berth around another ship docked astern, or to back a dead
ship from a berth. After being lashed up (fig. 3-8), the tug is backed to
move the ship's stern off the dock to get clear of the berth and around
any ship astern. When the ship has sufficient angle to the berth, the
tug comes ahead as needed to steer the ship from the berth. Helm orders
are used similar to those used to move the ship from a berth under her
own power.
When leaving the berth stern first, left rudder is used by the tug to
move the ship's bow to port and thus her stern to starboard. This can
be confusing, so face aft in the direction in which the ship is moving
and give helm orders to the tug; the maneuver is immediately simplified
and the helm orders needed are obvious. Once clear of the berth, with
sternway on the ship, the tug is given a course or steadied on a heading
and the tug master steers the vessel much as a helmsman would.
A ship with a tug lashed up can be stopped by backing the tug. If
the tug is lashed up on the starboard quarter when moving ahead, or
lashed up on the port bow when moving stern first, the ship will twist
and can be handled like a single-screw ship with a right-handed propeller.
A lashed-up tug can often do the work of two tugs when used together
with the ship's engine, moving a ship laterally without developing
headway. Use of a tug in this manner requires close cooperation between
the shiphandler and tug master, as well as a good tight lash-up. The
tug lashes up at the bow heading aft. She comes ahead with her rudder
hard over in the direction of the pier while the ship uses her engine
ahead and rudder hard over, also in the direction of the berth. The
ship's bow and stern then move together away from the berth, the ship's
engine working in opposition to the tug so the ship gains no way ahead
or astern (fig. 3-9).

114
 Chapter 4

APPROACHING THE BERTH

There are many old pilots, and many fast pilots, but there are few
old, fast pilots.
—Traditional

The docking master hadn't left the center window of the wheelhouse
since beginning the approach to the pier. He continued to give helm
orders slowly and quietly, signaling with his hands to the right or left
as he gave the rudder commands to the helmsman. With a strong
northwesterly breeze setting us toward the dock it certainly was not
going to be a routine docking, and yet he showed no signs of tension or
concern. I f the docking master's demeanor was any indication, the
docking apparently was not going to be as difficult as those of us on the
bridge had expected.
As the ship came up to the pier the docking master walked out on
the bridge wing, where he stayed until we were in position alongside the
berth. Even when the bow fell off the wind toward the berth the orders
came slowly and deliberately, and i f the docking master had any
apprehension about the evolution it never showed. Docking on this
blustery afternoon was uneventful—about as exciting as watching grass
grow—just the way it was supposed to be.
GOOD BRIDGE PRACTICES
Several important aspects of the shiphandler's work have been touched
upon here, all of which are as important as the technical skills involved
in docking a ship:

1. The docking master did not move about the bridge while working.
2. Hand signals were given to clarify all helm orders.
3. The pilot remained calm and unexcited throughout the docking.

Select one location to work from when handling a ship and do not
move from the position until nearly alongside. Too often the shiphandler
will move from wing to wing and back again to the wheelhouse at a
frantic pace that increases as the ship gets closer to the dock. Ostensibly,

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 — APPROACHING THE BERTH —

this is done so it is possible to get an unobstructed view of the approach,

but in fact, it only makes it very difficult to appreciate distance, speed,
and motion. The ship's heading is immediately obvious from any vantage
point, but less obvious is her motion ahead and athwartships. It is
important that the shiphandler pick one location—generally amidships—
and stay there until close to the dock. When nearly alongside, when
cargo and superstructure block the shiphandler's view, a move can be
made to the bridge wing, where the shiphandler should remain until
the docking is completed.
Helm orders must be supplemented by hand signals to right and
left to avoid any misunderstanding due to language differences or
inattention. It is quite common, especially during a long passage, for a
helmsman to repeat an order correctly and then put the wheel in the
opposite direction. I f the shiphandler points in the desired direction
when the order is given this mistake is rarely made by the helmsman.
The pilot's manner of working ensures that a calm and orderly
atmosphere prevails throughout the docking. Often, i f a mistake in
judgment or action occurs, it is because people become excited—and
excitement is contagious. Even when a problem develops, if the
shiphandler—be he pilot, master, or deck officer—controls emotions so
his concerns are not obvious to others, there will be none of the shouting

Fig. 4-1. "He's planning the docking. . .says shiphandling is an art."

116
 — DISCUSSING DOCKING PLANS —

and running about that only complicates a bad situation. The shiphandler
controls the mood of the bridge as well as the movement of the ship.

DISCUSSING DOCKING PLANS

Discuss the approach and docking plans well before reaching the berth.
The docking master appreciates the opportunity to brief you, and to be
assured that the ship and crew are ready to respond as required. Do
not expect him to predict each bell and helm order in detail, but do get
an understanding of:

1. The approach, including any special maneuvers or engine

requirements.
2. The placement of tugs.
3. The configuration of the berth, including any special problems,
such as poorly located dolphins, ships to be maneuvered around
or between, and any unusual space restrictions. This is the time
to learn of potential problems and to cancel the docking if you do
not feel it can be done safely. Do not wait until the ship is halfway
up the slip and being set down on the vessel in the berth astern.
4. Any special requirements, such as a need for the anchor, or for
any unusual leads for the mooring lines.
5. The current and wind to be expected at the berth. This is often
different from that indicated in the current tables and can best
be ascertained from the docking master, who has the local
knowledge required to make accurate predictions.

In turn, be sure to give all the same information to the docking pilot
that is described in chapter 1 for the channel pilot. Too often the docking
master is not properly briefed since the "passage is almost over." It is
at least as important that the docking master be as fully informed as
the channel pilots.
Do not hand the docking master a two-page preprinted form asking
for a detailed description of the "docking plan," including the engine
bells that will be required and the heading of the approach. The docking
master cannot do this, nor would you want to restrict him to any such
predicted set of maneuvers. Such forms and procedures only reflect the
lack of professional background of the originating party and create an
embarrassing situation for the master and the pilot who must deal with
such absurdities. An intelligent discussion between two professionals
to ascertain the general plan for the docking will suffice.

117
 — APPROACHING THE BERTH —

If you do not agree with the proposed plan, let the docking master
know about it. Do not wait until the middle of the evolution.

TIMING ARRIVAL—HOLDING IN A CHANNEL

For a number of reasons, it may be necessary to plan a vessel's passage
to arrive at a berth, turning basin, or lock at a specified time. The master
or pilot may wish to dock at slack water, or the tugs or berth may not
be available until a particular time. This is a routine navigational
problem.
When timing arrivals, the mariner often attempts to arrive exactly
as scheduled and allows no time for unforeseen delays. Any reluctance
to arrive early and have to maneuver the ship to hold her in position
in a channel for some period of time is natural but unnecessary. The
ship can easily take an hour to go the last mile to a desired point, so
there is no reason not to allow some extra time when planning a passage.
The master or pilot can:

1. Anchor to a short scope of chain with a head tide.

2. Steam on an anchor at slow engine speeds and hold a position
and heading in the channel even if there is a moderate wind from
abeam.
3. Hold with a tug on each bow, using the engine as needed while
the tugs minimize headway.
4. Back and fill as necessary with surprisingly little advance up a
channel.

Further, by arriving early the master has an opportunity to practice

any or all of these maneuvers to sharpen shiphandling skills and develop
confidence. Arriving early presents no problems, but arriving late causes
the mariner to use excessive speed—the shiphandler's worst enemy.
SPEED OF APPROACH
The major difference between the neophyte and experienced shiphandler
is the speed at which they work. The less experienced shiphandler generally
works too fast. Do not equate increased speed with increased ability.
When beginning an approach to a berth, speed should be reduced
to bare steerageway. This is much slower than most mariners realize,
and it is a rare ship that, under calm conditions, will not steer at speeds
of less than 2 knots if given a chance to respond to her rudder. Further,
by using the engine in short bursts or kicks with hard-over rudder,

118
 - SPEED OF APPROACH -

even the worst handling ships will respond. I f additional response is

needed, use the tug or work against an anchor, rather than increase
headway. If unsure of speed take all headway off the ship—you are now
certain of her speed through the water—and then come ahead as required
to steer and make minimum headway to the berth.
There are several methods available by which the mariner can judge
speed:

1. Doppler log and/or GPS giving direct readout.

2. Fixes by radar or visual bearings.
3. Position of the ship's quickwater.
4. Observation of passing objects and comparisons with known
distances.

The Doppler log gives direct readout of speed over the bottom (or
speed through the water when the ship is offshore and the log is indicating
speed referenced to water mass). Both single-point and three-point
Doppler logs have proven to be extremely valuable shiphandling tools,
especially when moving larger ships, where speed is critical and tolerance
for error small.
GPS units, especially those with a differential or wide area
augmentation system (WAAS) correction, provide an extremely accurate
indication of speed over the bottom. Bear in mind that the speed shown
is the resultant speed at which the GPS unit's antenna is moving. Even
when a unit is interfaced with the vessel's gyro, the speed provided by
the GPS becomes less useful once the vessel begins to swing.
Fixes by radar or visual bearings are neither convenient nor
sufficiently accurate for determining speed in a docking situation.
The position of the ship's quickwater—that is, the wash from her
propeller as the engine goes astern—is extremely useful to the shiphandler
at low speeds. If that quickwater falls behind the ship when the engine
is put astern, the vessel's speed is 3 knots or more. When the quickwater
begins to move with the ship, the speed is about 2 knots. When the
wash reaches the midsection the ship is dead in the water. Since 2 knots
is a comfortable approach speed for an average size ship, it is convenient
to be able to put a light on the water at night and then go astern until
you see by the position of the ship's quickwater that the speed has been
reduced to the desired 2 knots (fig. 4-2).
Some experience is needed before the relative motion of passing
objects can be used to estimate ship's speed, although it is possible for

119
 — APPROACHING THE BERTH —

Fig. 4-2. Estimating headway when backing. Note: This figure depicts the
quickwater from a right-hand propeller. The location of quickwater at various
speeds is reversed for a left-hand turning propeller.

an experienced seaman to judge speed visually with surprising accuracy.

How does an experienced seaman become experienced? By practice!
Estimate your ship's speed of approach at every opportunity and compare
it with the speed shown on a Doppler log, or the speed indicated by the
time required to advance along a pier of known length, or by comparing
your estimate with that of a more experienced shiphandler, such as
the docking master. Apprehension is usually the result of uncertainty,
and the ability to judge your ship's speed with reasonable accuracy will
do much to make you a confident and capable shiphandler.
When estimating ship's speed, look at objects abeam or a little abaft
the beam, since an optical illusion occurs when looking ahead. Objects

120
 - REDUCING SPEED EARLY -

forward of the beam do not seem to be moving, and if you use them as
a reference you will find your ship is going too fast when she reaches
the berth. Try an experiment to satisfy yourself that this is so. Stand
in the wheelhouse at night when the ship's speed is most difficult to
judge, and while watching an object ashore forward of the beam, slow
your ship to a minimal speed. Now look abaft the beam and see how
fast you are actually moving.
Judging absolute speed visually can be difficult, but it is possible
to develop some rules of thumb to improve your accuracy. For example,
at the Panama Canal the pilots use the long fluorescent lights that
illuminate the banks at night to judge a ship's speed. By aligning the
after edge of the light with some point on the ship, such as the wheelhouse
window, and counting the number of seconds required for the entire
light to pass that point of reference, a surprisingly accurate estimate
of speed can be made: the light passes in 2 seconds at 2 knots. It is
because of aids and skills such as this that the pilots in the canal, where
scheduling and timing are so important, are able to move ships as
efficiently as they do.
The shiphandler must differentiate between speed over the ground
and speed through the water. Obviously the speed over the ground
determines the speed at which the ship arrives at the pier, while speed
through the water affects the ship's response to her rudder. Docking
while stemming the current is an advantage, since the shiphandler can
steer even when moving at minimal speeds relative to the berth; docking
with the current from astern creates the opposite situation and requires
a greater degree of skill.
All of the aforementioned means of judging speed give ship's speed
over the bottom, except the use of her quickwater.
REDUCING SPEED EARLY
Speed is especially important during the approach, since a ship is less
controllable when her engine is used astern to reduce headway. If speed
is kept to a minimum, it is possible to use the engine as needed without
arriving at the berth with excessive headway. If speed is not reduced
early in the approach the shiphandler finds himself with a tiger by the
tail—needing to reduce speed, and yet having to use the ship's engines
ahead to control the vessel when shaping up for docking.
Many shiphandlers make it a practice to stop a ship completely
about one ship length from the berth, especially at night, when it is
more difficult to estimate a vessel's speed. They are then certain of the

121
 - APPROACHING THE BERTH -

speed—it is zero—and can use the engine as required without concern

about arriving at the berth at an excessive speed.

THE APPROACH
A good docking actually begins long before the ship comes alongside
the pier. The approach is at least one-third of the docking. If the speed
is reduced, the ship properly lined up with the pier or wharf, and then
steadied up so that all lateral motion is eliminated, she practically
docks herself.
When berthing starboard side to the pier, assuming that the ship
has a right-hand turning propeller, the ship approaches at only a small
angle to the dock. When the engine is put astern to take the last headway
off the ship, the stern moves to port, so if the ship is already at a
significant angle to the berth, it will be that much more difficult to get
the ship flat alongside. It is natural for a ship to behave in this manner
at any time when backed, and this behavior is amplified by the quickwater
trapped between the hull and berth moving up the ship's side. For this
reason a deeply loaded ship will normally require a tug aft to hold the
stern up to the pier when docking starboard side to.
The same ship approaching to dock port side to the pier must maintain
a greater angle to the berth—approximately 10 to 15 degrees to the
dock in most cases, with the bow heading for the area of the pier that
will be amidships when the ship is finally in position alongside (fig.
4-3). After the engine is put astern to stop the ship, the stern will move
to port and reduce the angle of approach so that the ship comes flat
alongside. By using left rudder and a kick ahead with the engine to
check that swing to port as the ship comes alongside, the ship can be
stopped in position without needing a tug aft.
There will be some modifications to the basic angle of approach for
a starboard or port side to docking, depending on:

1. Wind strength and relative direction.

2. Set and drift of the current.
3. Ship's draft and freeboard.
4. Ship's power and steering characteristics.
5. Whether the pier has an open or solid face.
6. Physical configuration of the berth.
7. Availability of adequate tug assistance.
8. Presence of other vessels in the berth or slip.

122
 — BOW-IN APPROACH TO A PIER —

Bridge Bridge
location location
1
0
.c
0 :0
al En
O ,t2
1 0-
0- o
1 _o
O ro
o

\ <
a a

Fig. 4-3. Bow-in approach to a pier.

These factors all affect the docking of a ship. Modifications will be

discussed briefly in subsequent sections, but keep in mind it is impractical
to attempt to cover each step of a particular docking in a cookbook-like
fashion. By understanding the basics of shiphandling and approaching
the pier in a proper manner the mariner can use good seamanship to
adjust to a given situation.
Ships generally approach either a pier constructed at an angle to
the channel or a wharf that parallels the channel. The ship may dock
either bow or stern in at the pier, or heading upstream or downstream
at the wharf.

BOW-IN APPROACH TO A PIER

A ship docking bow in should turn and line up at the greatest possible
distance from the pier. This simplifies the docking and minimizes any
lateral motion as the ship approaches the berth. The angle of approach
described for starboard or port side dockings is increased or decreased
to allow for set and leeway toward or away from the pier due to current
and wind. If these forces are too strong to permit a safe docking the
ship can land on a camel or a cluster of pilings at the outboard corner
of the pier and then either come ahead on a bight led as a spring line
or have a tug push on the bow to bring the ship into the slip. As ships

123
 — APPROACHING THE BERTH —

Optional spring line

I
I

Current

Fig. 4-4. Docking in a slip with a strong crosscurrent.

become larger it is increasingly impractical to come ahead against a

spring in the classic manner to warp a ship into a slip or berth. Tugs
are generally required in these cases (fig. 4-4).

STERN-IN APPROACH TO A PIER

When docking stern in, use the location of the ship's pivot point as a
reference when estimating the distance that you should pass off the end
of the pier and the point at which you should turn away from the pier
and begin backing (fig. 4-5). The angle of approach is less important when
backing into a slip, since the tugs are used to steer. Because the stern
tends to walk to port when the engine is backed, it is desirable to have a
small angle toward the berth when docking starboard side to. If the tugs
have a problem holding the ship at the desired angle the engine and
rudder can be used to assist, coming ahead for sufficient time to move
the stern in the desired direction, but not so long that the ship gains
headway. While figure 4-5 shows the tugs made up on the bow and quarter,
the after tug can also be used at the stern on a hawser when berthing
the ship stern in. This has many advantages. The ship's engine can be
used with ahead revolutions together with the rudder to steer the ship,
while the tug continues to keep her moving astern by pulling in opposition
to the ship's engine. Consider using a tug on a hawser in this situation.

124
 — STERN- I N APPROACH TO A PIER —

Position pivot point

so stern swings clear
and ship lines up
with slip.

Tug may be used on

hawser astern instead
of on ship's quarter.
I I I

Fig. 4-5. Docking stern in at a slip.

Always avoid pushing with the tugs so long that excessive lateral
motion is developed toward the berth, causing the ship to land heavily
against the stringpiece. It is the lateral motion that the less experienced
shiphandler has the most difficulty detecting and controlling, and a
mariner will never become a shiphandler without being able to appreciate
sideward motion.
The importance of having the stern tug stand off until actually
needed was discussed in the previous chapter. This is especially
important when planning a stern in docking. The stern tug must not
make fast until the ship has turned to bring her stern toward the slip
and is dead in the water. Until then the tug aft is of little help, and
may fall around under the counter and have an effect opposite to that
desired. Preferably, the aft tug does not come alongside until the ship
is entering the slip, since once fast, the after tug—by her weight and
underwater profile alone—sets the stern toward the pier as the ship
comes astern. This effect is amplified when docking port side to, since
the stern tends to move to port anyway when the engine is going astern.

125
 - APPROACHING THE BERTH -

The bow tug is best made up with only a backing line, so she simply
follows the ship into the slip, trailing on the line in a position bow to
bow with the ship. She comes ahead on either bow to steer the ship into
the slip as required, without having the effect of setting the ship toward
the berth that would result from being made up on one bow.

STEMMING THE CURRENT AT A WHARF

Berthing starboard or port side to a wharf while stemming the current
is a straightforward job that should be approached as described earlier,
with some adjustment for the prevailing wind and current. There is
usually some set off the wharf as the ship comes alongside in a direction
contrary to the current in the stream, which is running nearly parallel
to the ship's heading. This set off the pier is caused by a combination
of the eddy current that forms along the shore or shoal area—which
exists in almost all cases under the wharf—and the hydraulic cushion
that is created between the hull and the shallow area under the wharf.
This cushion is quite significant when the face of the wharf is solid, or
nearly so, as is often the case when a wharf is constructed using a
bulkhead to contain the bank behind the stringpiece. This set off the
wharf should be planned for so the ship can be brought alongside and
held there until made fast. Tools available to the shiphandler to
accomplish this include tugs, steaming against an anchor, or good breast
lines. Do not expect to simply bring the ship alongside and have her lie
there without some assistance until the lines are run ashore.
APPROACHING A WHARF—CURRENT ASTERN
Docking at a wharf with the current running from astern requires
greater planning and skill. The ship comes up to the berth with the
intent of backing into position, since she will be making sternway
through the water when stopped in position relative to the wharf. I f
the shiphandler thinks of the job in this way, that the ship is coming
stern first into the current to the berth, the maneuver becomes much
more straightforward.
Come abeam of the assigned berth with two tugs made fast and
take all headway off the ship. Continue backing the engine while keeping
the stern angled slightly toward the wharf, and as the ship gains
sternway through the water (while stopped or nearly stopped relative
to the bottom), the current on the ship's offshore side moves her laterally
toward the wharf (fig. 4-6). Use only enough speed to hold the ship in
position and use the tugs as required to control the ship as she is set
alongside by the current.
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 — APPROACHING A WHARF—CURRENT ASTERN —

Ship stopped relative to the bottom.

Ship making sternway through the water.

Fig. 4-6. Approaching a wharf with the current from astern.

Once alongside, the tugs hold the ship against the eddy current
that exists at the wharf. The mate on the stern must keep the propeller
clear while running stern lines, since the engine is used continuously
to hold the ship in position against the current. The tugs can also help
to hold the ship in position by keeping an angle into the current, rather
than being at right angles to the ship's hull. Their thrust holds the ship
alongside and up to the current (fig. 4-7).
Berthing with the current from astern is not a problem as long as
it is kept in mind that the ship is effectively backing stern first into
position. By adjusting the angle that the ship makes to the current—
stern toward the dock to move in that direction, stern parallel to the
dock to check the lateral motion toward the pier or move away from
it—the ship can be efficiently and safely berthed. Problems that arise
when docking with the current from astern usually result from trying
to push the ship alongside with the tugs, rather than letting the current
set the ship on to the berth. The vessel gets away from the shiphandler
because the current takes charge. Use the tugs only to assist to keep
the needed angle as the ship is set alongside.

Fig. 4-7. Tugs work at an angle to hold a ship alongside and into the current.

127
 Chapter 5

DOCKING
Captain Ball, on the bridge, heaved a sigh. "Ring off the engines,"
he directed; and somewhere down below, the telegraph jingled.
Suddenly, disturbingly, the decks ceased to throb and the stanchions
to tremble. After eighteen pulsing days the ship seemed no longer
to be alive. Silence, torrents of silence poured in from all sides.
"Hell's bells!" remarked Captain Ball, unbuttoning his overcoat
and taking a cigar from his nightshirt pocket, "What a trip that
was!"
—Guy Gilpatric, Mary, Queen of Scots

"It's been a pleasure to watch your crew work, Cap, a real pleasure.
They know what is needed and go to it without a lot of talk on the damn
radio." The expression on the old man's face made it obvious that he
agreed with the docking master's observations and was proud of his
ship and crew.
"It's true, Pilot. They do work well—probably because most of them
are permanent aboard and know what is expected of them," replied the
captain.
"They rotate as a team—mates and engineers, and most of the
unlicensed crew—so they know the ship and each other. Makes for a
safer and more efficient operation, that's for sure."
"How come more ships aren't manned this way, Cap?"
It is a subject the captain felt strongly about, and he went into a
lengthy explanation, interrupted only by an occasional engine or rudder
order as the deep-laden bulk carrier slowly approached the berth.
"Too few owners appreciate the importance of a trained and organized
crew, and of keeping a crew aboard ship as a unit. The same shoreside
manager who cries like hell if he has three personnel changes in his
office in one year thinks that the staff aboard ship can be shuffled from
vessel to vessel at random and still be well-trained, know their ship,
and work efficiently." 'Well, it's obvious from the way that everyone
aboard your ship works like a team that it makes a difference," replied
the docking master. 'We're getting close—better move out on the wing."
They moved to the port wing and continued the discussion.

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 - USING WIND AND CURRENT TO ADVANTAGE -

"Another benefit of having everyone in the crew stay together is that

they take a lot more pride in their work and the operation of their ship.
Guess that's the key—since they keep coming back to a permanently
assigned ship, they feel an interest in her and it shows in their work."
"I see a lot of this on the better run ships such as yours, Captain.
They have bridge teams that are trained together, and permanent unit
crews, shipboard management schemes, and a lot of other good ideas."
The subject was dropped as the first heaving line snaked ashore; the
docking operation now required their full attention. After the engine
was rung off the captain invited the pilot to his cabin for a heave ahead
before going to his next job.
"Yep, this unit crew business should be started on more ships, Cap'.
I sure see a difference when I move ships set up that way. Things go
much smoother, and it makes shiphandling and docking a lot easier
and safer.""Hopefully, more companies will begin to appreciate that it's
the key to efficient and safe operation of ships, Pilot. This crew even
trained as a unit in navigation, bridge procedures, and shiphandling,
and there would be no point in all that training if they were split up
after their first vacation." As they parted with a handshake the captain
added, "I've been going to sea for over twenty years, and I know that
having permanent, well-trained crews makes a difference in the standard
of ship operation."
USING WIND AND CURRENT TO ADVANTAGE
Too often the seaman brings a shoreside mentality aboard ship and
thus looks upon wind and current as hindrances to be overcome, rather
than as aids to be used with the rudder, engine, tugs, and anchor to
put the ship alongside a berth in a safe and seaman-like manner. A
powerful tug can combat a moderate wind and current, although at
best the docking will be sloppy, but even the finest tugs do not make it
possible to fight a strong wind or current. Nor is it necessary for them
to be asked to.
Before starting the docking, get out on the ridge wing and feel the
wind and weather on your face. Look up at the stack and down at the
water. Look out to the horizon and check what the future weather
conditions might be. Constant awareness of wind, weather, and current
is essential to effective shiphandling.
How do the effects of wind and current compare? Air is about nine
hundred times less dense than water, so for a given velocity wind has
much less effect on the ship than current. An increase in the velocity

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 — DOCKING —

of either wind or current will increase its effect on the ship, both varying
as the square of the velocity. The relationship of density and velocity
to pressure is expressed:

P = pV2
2g

where

P = resultant pressure
p = density of the fluid (air or water)
V = velocity of the fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sect)

A 30-knot wind exerts the same force on an equal area as a 1-knot

current. This ratio is altered by variables such as the surface area of
the superstructure, the ratio of the ship's draft to her freeboard, and
the vessel's trim. While the shiphandler should not apply this formula
to every docking situation, the ratio 30:1 can be used as a base to help
understand the relative effect of wind and current.
As a ship's speed is reduced, the momentum of the ship and the
effectiveness of her rudder and engine decrease while the wind and
current remain the same. When the ship is dead in the water only the
wind and current act upon her, although at some prior point these
outside forces have become dominant. If the docking has been properly
planned, the ship is so positioned that as the wind and current "take
charge" they assist the shiphandler in docking the vessel. Until that
time, the ship's angle of approach and speed are adjusted to compensate
for wind and current, and anchors and tugs are used as necessary.
Let's look at some of the ways in which the wind and current may
assist the ship:

1. A wind blowing off the berth can be used to overcome a ship's

lateral motion toward that berth, instead of using the tugs and
engine.
2. A wind blowing on the berth can ease a ship alongside if the
shiphandler stops her a few feet off the berth.

' R. S. Crenshaw Jr., Naval Shiphandling, p 15.

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 — USING WIND AND CURRENT TO ADVANTAGE —

3. A current that runs across the end of the berth acting on the
ship's quarter can assist the ship in turning into a slip. She is
landed and pivoted on a cluster of pilings or a camel, rather than
being steamed into the slip while fighting the current. (See figure
4-4.)

Do not fight a wind blowing off the berth. Position your ship at a
greater angle to the berth and deliberately give the ship more lateral
motion as she comes alongside. The engine is kicked ahead with the
rudder hard over to move the stern toward the berth and the ship is
then held alongside by tugs. The larger angle of approach compensates
for the wind's effects while the ship has headway. As she slows the
lateral motion overcomes the wind (fig. 5-1). In stronger winds put an
anchor down as described in chapter 8 to check up the bow and amplify
the lateral motion as the ship comes alongside into the wind.
The tugs and rudder move the ship toward the berth, the anchor
holds her up to the wind, and the wind checks the lateral motion that
develops.

Kick stern toward dock

to create lateral motion
into the wind before
backing.

Wind

Approach at a greater
angle to compensate
for leeway.

Fig. 5-1. Do not fight external forces—work with them.

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 — DOCKING —

A strong wind on the berth causes the ship to land with too much
lateral motion, so it may be necessary in such a situation to back the
tugs or ease alongside with an anchor as described in chapter 8. Plan
so tugs are in position to perform this work, or have the anchor on the
bottom and ready to use.
When the wind is quite strong on to the berth, put the ship alongside
earlier in docking. Do not fight a strong wind; let the ship go alongside
and slide up the stringpiece into position. The ship can't be blown heavily
against the dock after stopping in position if she is already alongside.
These are but a few examples of ways in which mariners use wind and
current as tools, rather than allowing them to become problems.

MEASURING SLOW RATES OF SPEED

The minimal speeds used while docking can be accurately measured
without instrumentation or complication using this rule of thumb:

"A ship moves 100 feet per minute at 1 knot."

If in doubt of a ship's speed, note the time on your watch and the
ship's position relative to a bollard on the pier. After any convenient
interval of time (say thirty seconds), again note the relative positions
and you will immediately know the ship's speed.
You do not know the distance between bollards or other convenient
reference points? I t can be estimated with sufficient accuracy by
comparing the distance between points with the ship's beam.
Having moved in one minute between two bollards placed 150 feet
apart, you know the ship is making 1.5 knots.
When determining ship's speed do not ignore the obvious. Engine
revolutions equate to speed through the water. This is so obvious that
it is often forgotten during the approach to a pier or when proceeding
in pilot waters, yet engine revolutions are nearly as good an indication
of speed when maneuvering at low RPM as when at sea.
Learn your ship's RPM/speed ratio. If 10 revolutions equals 2 knots,
then 60 revolutions equals 12 knots—it is not necessary to continuously
consult a detailed table to determine ship's speed through the water.
DETECTING LATERAL MOTION
It quickly becomes second nature for an experienced mariner, who lives
and works more closely with the elements than perhaps any other

132
 - SETTING UP TO BACK -

professional, to make allowances for wind and current. It is equally

important that the shiphandler also develop an appreciation for the
less obvious lateral motion that results from:

1. Turning as the ship is approaching the berth.

2. Extended use of tugs.
3. Checking or holding the lines before the ship is alongside.

These actions cause sideward motion independent of any motion

caused by the wind and current, even when the ship is making no
headway. If not checked, the ship moves laterally toward or away from
the berth, or comes alongside with excessive force. Lateral motion may
be desirable at times and is not so much an effect to be avoided as a
factor to be watched for and used to advantage.
Lateral motion is easier to detect when working from the centerline
of the ship because you have a better view of the vessel and her heading.
Watch objects ashore located ahead or astern. Use their change in
alignment as a range to detect lateral motion and note when the distance
from the pier increases or decreases independent of heading, wind, and
current.
The ability to detect this sideward slide through the water and
make use of it is a mark of an accomplished shiphandler, because it is
one of the effects that is least appreciated by an inexperienced pilot or
master.

SETTING UP TO BACK
Prior to going astern—especially when docking without a tug aft—a
single-screw ship should be set up so her inherent twisting effects are
an aid rather than a hindrance. Since the approach is planned to allow
for this effect only one additional maneuver is required.
When going starboard side to the berth, put the rudder to port and
kick the engine ahead until the stern develops a slight swing to starboard.
Note it is necessary to consider the rudder's effect on each end of the
ship, rather than simply on the ship as a whole. Near the berth the
rudder is often used to move the stern, rather than to change the ship's
heading. After this slight swing of the stern to starboard has begun, go
astern to slow or stop the ship. While backing, the stern checks up and
probably moves to port as the propeller and quickwater take over, but
any movement of the stern to port is minimized since you shaped up
to back prior to putting the engine astern. The maneuver is repeated

133
 — DOCKING —

1. "Kick" the engine ahead, rudder hard left,

swinging the stern toward the dock and
countering the twisting effect as (see no. 2)
2. The engine is put astern. The swing is
checked by the propeller's torque and
the quickwater as the ship stops
parallel to the dock.

Fig. 5-2. Docking starboard side to—setting up to back.

as required so the ship is stopped in position and parallel to the pier or

wharf (fig. 5-2).
When berthing port side to, the ship is set up to allow for the same
swing of the stern to port. Since the ship's angle of approach decreases
each time the engine goes astern, the initial angle of approach is greater
for a port side to docking. The rudder and engine are used to check the
motion to port as necessary so the ship does not come parallel to the
berth until she is in position. The quickwater partially checks the swing
so the ship lands easily.
Knowing that the ship swings in this manner, it is logical to use
astern bells to change her heading to starboard, rather than only the
rudder. This provides an opportunity to simultaneously slow the ship
and change her heading (fig. 5-3).
Do not overuse the rudder when docking. The rudder can often
remain hard left during the final stages of a docking maneuver whether
docking port or starboard side to, since it has so little effect at these
slow speeds. The hard-over rudder is in the position in which it will
most likely be needed, and having it in this position saves time required
for the steering engine to move the rudder should it be needed to check
the ship's swing. Do the same when backing the engine in an anchorage,
or during other maneuvers when the ship has little or no headway—the
rudder need not be shifted when backing the engine unless the ship
develops significant sternway.

QUICKWATER
Quickwater develops when the flow from the engine going astern starts
moving up the ship's side. This occurs first on the starboard side at
about 2 knots, and by the time the ship has little headway there will

134
 — BRIDGE MARKERS —

Use the twisting effect

when backing to
simultaneously turn
and stop the ship.

•..÷:...,
C

Fig. 5-3. Coming alongside—port side to the dock.

be considerable flow up both sides of the ship. The quickwater strikes

first on the quarter, so the stern moves away and the bow heads toward
the berth, and its effect is more pronounced when docking starboard
side to. The quickwater eventually moves up the full length of the ship
so she is affected equally fore and aft, the cushion being used by the
shiphandler to reduce the ship's lateral motion or move the ship away
from the dock.
Like other forces that affect a ship, quickwater is planned for and
used as an aid by the competent shiphandler. Quickwater affects a
docking or undocking ship, but is strongest when there is shoaling or
a bulkhead under the berth. This contains the flow and increases the
pressure acting upon the hull. If the ship approaches with excessive
speed it is necessary to back more strongly for a greater length of time,
and the resulting excessive flow of quickwater becomes a problem in
spite of the best planning. This is one more reason for approaching at
the minimum possible speed.

BRIDGE MARKERS
Common sense dictates that a marker or light be placed on the stringpiece
to show the location of the bridge when the ship is in position.
Unfortunately, this is rarely done. Too often the ship is alongside with

135
 — DOCKING —

the first lines run before someone ashore decides that she should shift
50 feet ahead or 30 feet astern. Aside from being annoying and
unprofessional, this practice costs the ship and the terminal a great
deal of time and money. The stevedore (terminal operator) knows where
the working hatch or manifold should be spotted, and every shipmaster
knows the distance from the bridge to the bow or manifold, so the bridge
location can easily be marked on the dock prior to bringing the ship
alongside. Shipmasters and pilots must work to make the use of bridge
markers and lights more common.

USE FINESSE, NOT FORCE

Keep in mind when going alongside that you are bringing a moving
object of considerable mass alongside an unforgiving and immovable
pier or wharf—an evolution that requires some degree of finesse. Beware
the shipmaster or pilot who tells in most graphic terms how the ship
was "forced" into a berth against wind and current, having been "belted"
full ahead and full astern until she was "driven" alongside the berth
within feet of certain calamity. This is no professional speaking!
Shiphandling, like lovemaking, is a subtle art: the ship is not driven

Fig. 5-4. ". . .and just think, first, that pilot docked with 'finesse."'

136
 — ALL SECURE —

by the shiphandler: she is caressed, and this must be foremost in your

mind as you give those last commands to ease the ship alongside.

GOING ALONGSIDE
It is extremely important that the ship is flat to the stringpiece as she
comes alongside. This is true for several reasons:

1. The frames through the entire midbody of the ship can absorb
the impact of landing, rather than having the impact concentrated
within a small area of the hull.
2. A parallel landing traps the maximum quantity of water between
the hull and the pier or wharf, thus developing the maximum
cushioning effect.
3. The eddy current acts equally along the entire length of the ship,
slowing her lateral motion and easing the landing.
4. If the ship is docking with any current, having the ship's upstream
end hard alongside keeps the current from getting inside the
ship and forcing her back off the berth.
5. The maximum cushioning effect is gained from the ship's
quickwater when the ship is parallel to the berth.

When the impact of landing is spread over the entire length of the
flat parallel midbody, and several hundred feet of nearly incompressible
water cushions that landing, the ship can go alongside with surprising
force without damage. The reverse is true when the ship lands at any
angle to the berth. It is common to see water trapped between the hull
and a solid-faced pier or wharf go several feet into the air as the ship
comes alongside, indicative of the energy that this hydraulic cushion
is absorbing. If the hull has any angle the water rushes toward the end
that is farthest off the pier and the cushion is lost.

ALL SECURE
The ship is alongside and the lines are being run ashore one after the
other to make her fast. The number and placement of these lines varies
with the location and construction of the pier, the type and size of the
ship, and the weather and current conditions that are expected.
Ships usually run sufficient head, spring, and stern lines that keep
the ship from moving forward and aft. Unfortunately, these lines are
often a hindrance, rather than an aid in keeping the ship alongside in
a strong current—especially after the ship has been allowed to get off

137
 - DOCKING -

the pier at one end. The tidal current gets on the inshore side of the
hull at the bow or quarter; an eddy current develops, further increasing
the strain on the lines; and the ship moves ahead or astern into the
current. The ship rides outward and ahead on the lines, pivoting on
them much like a water-skier at the end of a towline, while the lines
at the opposite end of the ship pull her in so she begins surging up and
down the pier. This surging occurs because there is a greater strain on
the upstream lines than on those leading downstream, causing shock
loading that parts lines.
Breast lines—the lines that are most effective in keeping the ship
alongside—are too often overlooked, although they should be doubled
up like any others. If there are sufficient breast lines to keep the ship
alongside, the strain on the lines leading forward and aft remains equal
and the ship does not begin surging.
The surging is aggravated by passing ships, whose hydrodynamic
forces move the berthed vessel first away from and then toward the
moving vessel, while also pulling the docked ship off the wharf. A
pressure wave moves ahead of the approaching ship, and there is a
decrease in pressure between the two ships due to the flow of water as
they pass. It is especially important that the ship be kept hard alongside,
with sufficient breast lines run and all lines up tight, at berths exposed
to passing ship traffic.
Remember too, Mate, to call the ship that is approaching at excessive
speed on the VHF radio and tell her to slow down. No longer is it
necessary to stand by and watch a catastrophe develop because you
cannot communicate. Look over the side and make sure the ship is
alongside, then go to the VHF radio and tell the passing ship to pass
at minimum speed with the engine stopped to ensure that your vessel
is not pulled off the pier.

138
 Chapter 6

UNDOCKING
Many are the boys, in every seaport, who are drawn away, as by an
almost irresistible attraction, from their work and schools, and
hang about the docks and yards of vessels with a fondness which,
it is plain, will have its way. No sooner, however, has the young
sailor begun his new life in earnest, than all this fine drapery falls
off, and he learns that it is work after all.
—Richard Henry Dana, Two Years Before the Mast

Cargo operations complete, the ship lies quiet for the first time in many
hours. The shore staff are gone, leaving you with a desk heaped full of
memos, magazines, and unopened mail. The short stay in port was
hectic, but you enjoyed it, because it marked the end of one voyage and
the beginning of another. Perhaps it is just because your work has these
beginnings and endings, rather than going on interminably as jobs
ashore seem to do, that you stay at sea.
The telephone interrupts your reverie.
"The pilot is on the bridge, Captain."
Another voyage has begun.

PLANNING THE UNDOCKING

Take the same care when briefing the undocking pilot as was taken
with the pilot who docked the ship; exchange the same information
and data card. Be sure to inform the pilot of the status of the anchor
in addition to all the other items outlined in previous chapters,
especially if they are backed out of the hawsepipe, or if one was left
on the bottom after docking. It is surprising how often the docking
pilot finds out that there are two shots of chain in the water after
letting go the last line.
As you did before docking, get out on the wing and feel the wind,
check its direction by looking up at the stack gases, and look over the
side to check the current. No matter how many instruments you might
have to supply such information, it is still important that you use your
own senses and get a feel for existing conditions before planning this
or any other maneuver. Too often the less experienced shiphandler

139
 —UNDOCKING —

looks upon undocking as a relatively simple operation and does not

properly plan the evolution.
The ship is often undocking stern first from a berth, so she steers
poorly, if at all. Since she is starting from alongside, the shiphandler
has fewer options available that make use of the wind and current as
the ship begins backing from the berth. During a docking, wind and
current are felt when the stern is in clear water and the angle of approach
can be adjusted to make use of these forces. This is not the case when
undocking.
Even the most careful plans may have to be altered after the lines
are let go, since it is difficult to determine which of several conflicting
forces will most affect the ship leaving the berth. Often the shiphandler
lets go expecting to be set off the pier by wind, only to remain hard
alongside due to subsurface current. If this occurs, take time to replan
the undocking before touching the telegraph. The ship is not going
anywhere—more accidents occur because of inappropriate action than
delayed action.

DRAFT AND TRIM IN BALLAST

The directional stability and handling characteristics of a loaded ship
were discussed in previous chapters, so it is assumed the ship is now
in ballast and light. Ideally, she is ballasted to at least a moderate draft
to submerge the propeller, rudder, and bow thruster, and to reduce
windage. Give her a few feet of drag. The amount of trim by the stern
depends on the handling characteristics of the ship, but it is better to
have a bit too much drag than not enough. Try to at least get the stern
well down if stress or loading conditions limit ballasting since:

1. The ship has excellent directional stability with good drag.

2. The propeller and rudder are then most effective. With a deeper
draft aft the ship steers better, requires less distance to stop,
twists less when the engine is put astern, and requires less rudder
to counter the torque of the propeller when going astern.
3. It is preferable that the bow also be ballasted to at least a
moderate draft to reduce windage and submerge the bow thruster
so it is effective.

If a choice must be made between getting the bow down or a proper

draft aft, choose the latter. It can be a challenge to hold a light bow into
the wind until headway develops, but it can be done using a tug or the

140
 - USING QUICKWATER WHEN UNDOCKING -

anchor. In most situations the advantages of having the stern down

outweigh this disadvantage.

SINGLING UP
After undocking ships for many years, pilots and seafarers alike tend
to become complacent about singling up mooring lines. Too often it
becomes a habit to single up at a particular berth in the same manner
with every ship.
"Two and one forward and a stern line aft, Mate," and without
further thought the docking master heads for the coffee maker.
Singling up is usually a routine operation until the night when from
a warm, quiet wheelhouse you underestimate the force of the wind or
current. It took several lines to hold the ship alongside. Yet, when
singling up, the ship is left hanging off a few parts stretched fiddlestring
tight. Walk out on the wing, feel and see the conditions, and really
think about how many and which lines should be taken in.
Ideally the lines are taken in systematically while the ship is held in
position without overloading the remaining parts. Which lines should be
left until last? This depends on the existing conditions, hence no rule of
thumb can suffice. Basically, it is preferable to leave short lines until last;
that is, a short headline and spring forward, a short stern line and breast
line aft. Run a bight or two in place of a single line if the wind and/or
current are strong. It requires only one winch to heave that bight aboard
when taking in the last lines, but the bight provides twice as many parts
to hang on while waiting to let go. Use tug assistance to hold the ship
alongside and reduce the strain on remaining lines while singling up.
Short lines hold the ship alongside more effectively and still keep
her from moving forward or aft, and they can also be brought aboard
quickly— especially important aft, since the propeller should be cleared
as soon as possible so the engine can be used.
As ships get larger, winches are geared down to handle the higher
loads and thus are slower. It is therefore important that the crew be
informed if the last lines must come aboard particularly fast. The mate
can leave the shortest line until last and lead it to the winch before
letting go to get the propeller cleared quickly.
USING QUICKWATER WHEN UNDOCKING
The ship's quickwater can be an effective tool during the undocking,
especially when backing from a wharf or pier, since the ship is passing
through the quickwater as she moves astern.

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Leaving a starboard side berth, the quickwater forces the stern

away from the dock or wharf, then moves the ship laterally, and when
there is a good flow striking the hull forward of the pivot point, checks
up the swing of the bow toward the pier. The more restricted the flow
of quickwater along the inboard side of the ship—whether due to shoaling
under the berth or to the pier or wharf having a solid face—the more
effect it has on the ship.
Quickwater has less effect when leaving from a port side berth,
since it is inherently less strong on the port side of the ship and is acting
in more open water due to the ship's angle to the pier as she starts to
back. Quickwater has a minimal effect, but does reduce that angle to
the berth as it strikes the forepart of the hull.
With some planning, the quickwater can be used to neatly move a
ship with the minimum of bells and rudder orders. For example, a ship
can be started astern until the stern begins to lift off the pier. The
engine is then stopped, and the ship drifts astern while the quickwater
moves forward to strike the hull ahead of the pivot point. The swing of
the bow toward the pier is checked and the ship backs straight astern,
clearing the berth in a neat and seamanlike manner. Quickwater is
discussed further in chapter 5.
UNDOCKING FROM A WHARF
Take advantage of any current from ahead when undocking from a
wharf. Deliberately get the current inside the ship and create the
situation you have been avoiding while the ship was berthed. The
current moves the bow off the wharf as you use the engine and rudder
to lift the stern without developing any head or sternway over the
ground (fig. 6-1). The ship moves laterally off the berth.
A certain feel is needed when adjusting engine revolutions so the
ship makes no headway, but sets away from the berth in the current.
Use sufficient engine revolutions to keep the ship abeam of a selected
point on the wharf while walking her laterally away from the berth.
When wind and space limitations make tug assistance necessary, the
tug is backed as required to maintain the ship's angle to the wharf
while the current takes her off the berth.
Greater lateral force and control are needed when ships are berthed
close ahead and astern, or a wind blowing on the wharf overcomes the
current. Either use a second tug, or back the bow tug while the ship's
engine turns ahead with more power and hard-over rudder (fig. 6-2).
In the latter case, the tug and engine work against each other to prevent

142
 — UNDOCKING FROM A WHARF —

1. Current lifts bow (and ship bodily)

away from the wharf. Rudder and
engine move the stem.

Current

•••• a m .
*.* . . . . . d i e

4,.
O )

2. RPMs adjusted so the ship makes no headway

over the bottom while moving laterally.

Fig. 6-1. Undocking—current from ahead.

headreaching while moving the ship off the dock laterally. The ship
maintains an angle to the wharf so the current can assist the tug and
engine in moving the ship off the dock. A more detailed discussion of
this technique is found later in this chapter.
When the current is from astern, the ship is undocked in much the
same manner as she was docked under the same conditions. Work the
bow toward the wharf using the tug, engine, and mooring lines, and
then back into the stream. If a vessel is berthed astern, use the engines
as necessary to match the current as the ship works laterally off the
wharf. Again, maintain a speed through the water that matches the
drift of the current so the ship moves laterally over the ground.
A steam-turbine-powered ship can easily maintain the required
speed. Communicate with the engine room by telephone rather than
telegraph to obtain specific revolutions instead of using standard
maneuvering speeds.
A motor ship requires more attention, since a high-speed diesel has
a dead slow that often exceeds the required speed. The engine must be
stopped intermittently to make good the needed speed; a maneuver
that requires some practice. A variable-pitch-propelled motor ship has

143
 — UNDOCKING —

Tug's power opposes the ship's engine.

Ship moves away from the berth but makes
no headway.

Fig. 6-2. Moving the ship laterally off a berth (one tug).

an advantage in this situation, since the pitch can be reduced to exactly

match the drift of the current.
To take a ship off a clear wharf at slack water, put her bow at a
small angle to the berth and steam ahead. Use the rudder with care,
lifting the stern while maintaining the ship's angle to the wharf. If the
wharf is not clear ahead, the ship is either worked off using the engine
in opposition to a tug, or the bow is pushed in toward the pier and the
ship backs off as described later for a port side undocking from a pier.

BACKING FROM A SLIP

This common undocking situation has as many variations as there are
piers. All have some basic similarities, and the shiphandler uses a
knowledge of seamanship to adjust methods to suit the local conditions.
A ship berthed starboard side to needs no angle when backing from
a pier, since the torque of the propeller and the quickwater move her
stern to port, clear of the dock. It may be necessary to use the bow
thruster or tug to check up the resultant starboard swing of the bow
so it clears the stringpiece, or to intermittently come ahead with hard-
over rudder to steady up the ship before continuing to back. If the ship
is to back to starboard after clearing the slip, go astern until the pivot
point is well clear of the pier and then come ahead with hard-port rudder
to walk the stern to starboard as the bow swings clear (fig. 6-3). If the
turn is begun before the pivot point clears the pier, that part of the ship
aft of the pivot point will close on the pier as the stern moves to starboard.
This is so whether the ship is turned with the engine alone or with tug

144
 — BACKING FROM A SLIP —

1. Ship backing from a berth.

2. Come ahead, rudder hard left, to
pivot ship. Don't kill sternway.

Pivot point - -

Fig. 6-3. Think "pivot point" when turning.

assistance, as a tug does not lift the ship bodily—it pivots the hull about
the pivot point—a point that shifts aft to about midships as the tug
pushes or pulls on the bow.
Before backing from a port side docking, work the bow in and get the
ship at a good angle, with the stern well off the pier. This can be done by:

1. Pushing with the bow tug.

2. Heaving on the headline while holding the forward spring.
3. Backing a stern tug, if used.
4. Coming ahead dead slow against the spring line with the rudder
hard over toward the deck.

It is becoming less practical to work against mooring lines as ships

increase in size and power. Diesel-propelled ships often have a dead
slow speed of 6 to 8 knots and are especially difficult to undock by
working against ship's lines.
The torque of a propeller going astern walks the stern to port, so
the ship comes back parallel to the berth as stern way develops. She
then comes easily out of the berth and is turned as required once the
pivot point clears the pier (fig. 6-4).

145
 — UNDOCKING —

1. Work the bow in until

ship is at a good angle.
2. Propeller's torque
twists ship back
parallel to the
berth as ship backs.

----- Tug ahead pushes

easy to keep some
angle to the pier. II

Fig. 6-4. Undocking—berthed port side to.

Whether backing from a port or starboard side berth, the bow tug
either backs along with the ship, using a stern line as required, or falls
around and follows the ship while hanging on a single line. When there
is sufficient room between the hull and berth, a tug line trailing stem
to stem can work against either side of the ship to lift the bow and steer
the ship as she backs from the slip (fig. 6-5).
It would seem quite simple to back from a slip when a strong wind
is blowing off the pier, but this is not always the case. When the ship
is dead in the water, the wind tends to move her bodily off the pier;
this effect is modified by a large stack or forward or after house, which
causes the bow or stern to come away more quickly. As the ship develops
sternway, she often backs into the wind, so the stern usually moves
toward the berth, overcoming the torque of the propeller during starboard
side undocking or accentuating the twisting effect in a port side
undocking.
A wind blowing on the pier holds the ship alongside. While more
esoteric maneuvers can be used—the ship can be pulled off the dock with
an anchor deployed during docking, or a lashed-up tug can be used—more
common options available for undocking in this situation include:

146
 — BACKING FROM A SLIP —

1. Sliding along the stringpiece until the stern clears the outboard
corner of the pier and the ship is turned fair in the channel. This
is the safest maneuver when there is no tug assistance, since
the ship is alongside at all times until clear and thus cannot be
blown against the pier and damaged. She may lose some paint
while sliding along, but this is inconsequential, since "paint
comes in buckets while steel comes in shipyards."
2. Putting the ship at a good angle to the berth by working against
the spring line and then backing clear. However, the entire ship
body, or more likely the ship's bow, may be blown back down on
the pier and damaged when undocking in this manner.
3. Breasting the ship off with one or two tugs.

The ship's behavior once she develops sternway is primarily a factor

of her superstructure and freeboard. She may set back on the pier
bodily, or the bow may only set down toward the pier as the ship backs
into the wind. The shiphandler must be prepared for either situation
unless the ship is being slid along the stringpiece.

or

Fig. 6-5 Tug working at the bow — backing from a berth.

147
 - UNDOCKING -

Another situation develops when the shed doors on the pier are
closed. An eddy often forms as the wind reflects off the closed doors and
the ship is set off the dock rather than on it.
This simplifies the undocking. Since the ship will lie some distance
off the stringpiece rather than hard against it in this situation, the
shiphandler is aware of the condition and can plan accordingly. In any
case, the mariner again uses the wind, rather than reacts to it. Anticipate
wind effects and adjust the ship's angle to the berth so the wind helps
her maintain a desired heading. A shiphandler who waits until these
effects occur and then responds to them soon feels like a cat chasing
its tail.
COMING AHEAD FROM A SLIP
This straightforward and simple maneuver can generally be performed
with minimum assistance. In a clear slip it is often possible to depart
without tug assistance unless there is a strong wind or current holding
the ship on the berth. Even under these conditions a ship can sail
without a tug if there is good maneuvering room off the end of the
pier.
Undocking when the wind is off the dock is a simple maneuver, the
ship steaming clear until the stern has room to swing and then turning
fair in the channel. A tug may be required if the channel off the pier is
not wide enough to permit turning unassisted. The anchor or spring
line can also be used to work the ship around the end of the pier as
described in previous chapters.
A wind blowing on the berth presents some problems to a ship
docked stern in. Usually a tug is used to lift the bow while the rudder
and engine move the stern away from the stringpiece. The ship may
depart without a tug though, even in a moderate wind, if the job is
planned to make use of existing conditions. Let go all lines and steam
the ship at slow speed up the stringpiece, keeping the rudder about 10
degrees toward the pier to hold the ship lightly alongside. If the ship
were to come off the pier and then blow back down again she could be
damaged. As the pivot point clears the end of the pier, increase the
revolutions and rudder angle, turning the ship across the end of the
pier and lifting the stern clear. The ship must have enough speed to
overcome leeway when she clears the end of the stringpiece-2 to 3
knots usually being sufficient. The stern lifts neatly away from the
stringpiece as the ship clears the berth and turns to head fair in the
channel (fig. 6-6).

148
 — COMING OFF PARALLEL TO A BERTH —

Come ahead, rudder hard over, when

the pivot point reaches the end of the pier.

Fig. 6-6. Undocking bow out from a slip.

The only safe maneuver when the ship is stern in and has to turn
away from the pier with limited maneuvering room is to wait for a tug.
There are maneuvers that can be used, but they depend on so many
things going well that the risk of accident is excessive.

COMING OFF PARALLEL TO A BERTH

Often a ship must come off a berth while remaining parallel to the
stringpiece, such as when she is berthed in a narrow slip, or docked
starboard side to with a ship astern, or berthed at a wharf with ships
close ahead and astern. There are several ways to accomplish this:

1. Use a second tug made fast aft to lift and control the stern during
the undocking.
2. Lash up the bow tug facing aft and use that tug against the
ship's engines as discussed in chapter 3.
3. Make the bow tug fast in the usual manner and back that tug
to lift the bow while the ship's engine is coming ahead with the
rudder hard over toward the dock to lift the stern. Sufficient
engine revolutions must be used to counter the tug's power as
they work against each other so the ship maintains her position
over the bottom—that is, relative to the berth—but moves laterally
away from the stringpiece. (See figure 6-2.)

149
 — UNDOCKING —

These techniques can be used alone or in combination with other

previously discussed methods for undocking to turn a ship around in
a limited space, or to accomplish work with one tug that might ordinarily
require two. Such options augment the more common backing and
pushing work with tugs.

BACKING A SHIP TOWARD A HAZARD

Given a choice, a shiphandler never presents the stern of a ship to
danger—never backs toward a shoal or another ship if there is any
option. I t is preferable to back into clear water even if this means
turning the long way around to go to sea.
A ship can go bow first into a bank or shallows without damage,
but put her rudder into the bank and she will probably be spending
time in a shipyard. Back toward another ship and have an engine failure
(an event sufficiently common with motor ships that it should be planned
for), and certain embarrassment will result. Back toward open water,
though, and have an engine failure, and you just back a little further
than planned before getting an anchor down and the ship stopped.
Make it a rule—when handling a ship, back toward open water.

Fig. 6-7. "Rule number one, gentlemen. Always back away from danger."

150
 —TURNING TO SEA —

LEFT-HAND AND VARIABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS

Keep in mind that the maneuvers described herein are for a ship fitted
with a right-hand (clockwise) turning propeller. The rare ship having
a left-hand turning fixed propeller is handled in a manner opposite to
that described; that is, a starboard side undocking (or docking) of a ship
fitted with a left-hand turning propeller is done in the manner previously
described for a port-side undocking (or docking).Variable-pitch ships
often have right-hand turning propellers. These propellers turn in the
same direction whether the ship is going ahead or astern, and only the
pitch is reversed to back down. The propeller is therefore turning
clockwise when going astern, just like a conventional fixed pitch left-
hand propeller, so such ships are handled like vessels with left-hand
turning propellers when docking and undocking. Variable-pitch-propelled
ships should be standardized, all being fitted with left-hand turning
propellers so they back like other ships that the shiphandler is accustomed
to handling. There is no standard at present, so the shiphandler must
check the direction of rotation of every variable-pitch-fitted ship before
planning the docking or undocking.
TURNING TO SEA
Turning in relatively open water is a straightforward job, as long as
the shiphandler minimizes the ship's speed. The basic behavior of ships
when going astern, and during the backing and filling maneuver, are
discussed in chapter 1. There are additional points to consider if the
ship is to be turned in a restricted area.
It is possible to turn a ship around and control her position in a
channel or turning basin while she has sternway. While moving astern:

1. The ship can be steered using the engine ahead, shifting the
rudder to direct the propeller's flow in the needed direction much
like a thruster. The flow acting on the ship's stern is the result
of the astern and athwartship vectors of this flow. While moving
astern remember:
2. To reduce or kill sternway, put the rudder amidships, and direct
this flow aft.
3. To continue moving astern while going to starboard or port, put
the rudder to the side opposite that to which you wish the stern
to move; that is, to move the stern to starboard, put the rudder
to port and the engine ahead.

151
 —UNDOCKING —

To change the magnitude of this turning and stopping force, increase

or decrease the engine revolutions.
Think of these changes as one maneuver, much as you increase,
decrease, or stop a bow thruster, rather than as several separate and
distinct maneuvers (fig. 6-8) The shiphandler who finds the ship carrying
her sternway longer than desired often increases engine revolutions
but leaves the rudder hard over. The rudder should be put amidships
to direct the increased flow from the propeller directly astern. After
the speed has decreased sufficiently, the rudder is shifted back to the
right or left to renew the stern's swing.
Face in the direction of ship movement—if going astern, face aft, it
is where the action is. This simple change of position does much to
improve the mariner's shiphandling technique; seagoing professionals,
mates, and masters spend so much time looking ahead at sea that they
tend, out of habit, to handle ships in confined water while watching
only the bow.
If the ship is to be turned in a basin:

1. Turn in the direction that keeps the stern in the best water.
2. Take nearly all sternway off the ship before starting to swing
her.

Put engine ahead

to reduce or kill
Increase revolutions
sternway.
to increase turning
To move stern
and stopping forces.
to the side,
shift the rudder.

i
Fig. 6-8. Turning a ship with sternway.

152
 — TURNING TO SEA —

3. All factors being equal, turn the ship to the right to take advantage
of the ship's better turning characteristics backing and filling in
that direction.
4. Position the ship's pivot point so the stern swings clear.
5. Fix the diameter of the basin in your mind before starting to
turn.
6. When possible, put the end of the ship to be swung in the area
of maximum favorable current.
7. Put the ship at the end of the basin from which the current is
flowing when starting the maneuver.

Discuss the depth and profile of the basin with the pilot, as the
location of any shoaling depends on local conditions. Lacking better
information, you can estimate the location of shoaling based upon the
basin's proximity to turns in the channel (fig. 6-9). The deepest water
in a basin at location "A" will usually be in the bend away from the
point, and the stern should be swung in that direction. Above or below

16 . . . . . , . . . ,

,, W Y . . 1 I I S .. 4

W p b , \ \ . ,
/ I . . . . .

\ • o d .
• \ x . s e

•
i \ : \ ,
•
•••

I • •

\ \ A
' >'
'. • - \ / \ . 4 '
r % . -•
• \ . . \ 43
.
\ ,, , -.4.!,..,..,
la :
' / .. —I . _
\

___1,
.. se A
\ _ _ T. - ___._
1
\ 1
I
...
7espy
Fee. &ifs+
11321
Fig. 6-9. Common bottom configuration in bends and reaches.

153
 — UNDOCKING —

the turn, at location "B," the deepest water lies on the side nearest the
path of the ebb tide as it flows from one bend to the next. Midway
between the turns the deepest water would generally be in midchannel,
so the ship can probably turn in the most convenient direction. Do not
present the stern to potential dangers.
It may be impressive to watch a ship performing several maneuvers
simultaneously in the basin as she is both stopped and swung, but if
the ship is not nearly stopped before being turned, there is little margin
for errors in judgment or for any unknown current. Reduce the ship's
sternway, then turn her.
The stem can be put in the mud and the ship pivoted around on
the bow if the current strikes the quarter in a favorable direction. The
anchor can be used in the same manner, either alone or in conjunction
with the bank, to swing the ship (fig. 6-10).
Watch natural ranges ashore, both ahead and astern, to determine
if the ship is being set along the axis of the channel, and abeam to check
that the ship does not develop unwanted headway or sternway over
the bottom as the tugs and engine are used. Do not be in a hurry to
come ahead with the engine after the midpoint of the turn is passed—
wait until the turn is nearly completed before starting to come ahead
over the bottom.

'-........,

I'
---..

....I
Current
1. Ship dead in the water,
let go anchor (approx.
2 x depth).
2 and 3. Steam around anchor,
making no headway.
4. Drop back to current—
heave up.
•••••••••

Fig. 6-10 Turning short on an anchor.

154
 - DISMISSING THE TUGS -

While swinging, the banks ahead and astern appear closer from
the bridge than they actually are, so it is important that you fix in your
mind the basin's dimensions before starting the maneuver. When the
banks start to appear close remind yourself of the clearance that you
know is available and you will avoid the apprehension that causes
unnecessary maneuvering.

DISMISSING THE TUGS

Dismiss the stern tug as soon as her work is done. Do not carry the
stern tug along after clearing the slip since, as previously discussed,
she is only a hindrance.
Keep the forward tug as long as it might possibly be of assistance.
Even if the ship has a bow thruster, a tug that has been used coming
into the slip should be kept fast until the ship is headed fair, clear of
all obstructions and any traffic that might be a problem. You have paid
for the tug's services, so make her earn her money. The bow thruster
may quit or refuse to stop when used, or a problem may arise that
requires more effective power than the bow thruster can develop as
the ship's speed increases.
When dismissing the tug, lower her lines with a messenger. Do not
drop them from the ship's deck, since a line in the water may foul the
tug's screw or your own. Dropping the line also makes unnecessary
work for the tug's crew, since the line could have been lowered on deck,
rather than having to be dragged wet from the water. Listen for the
tug's signal—often a long blast on her whistle followed by two short
blasts—so she can be let go promptly as the ship starts to come ahead.
Keep at least two crew members and a mate standing by a tug at all
times, even if she is to be held for some period after clearing the berth.
The ship now turned and headed fair, the docking master wishes
all a good voyage and climbs down the ladder to the waiting tug below.

155
 Chapter 7

DEPARTURE
Captain N. B. Palmer was a rough old sailor. He was determined
to see me get along, and helped me more than any other man to
know my duty as an officer and to fit me for a Master.
—Captain Charles Porter Low, Recollections

Downbound and light, she made good time despite the flood tide.
The old man, tired from the short, hectic stay in port, left his chair only
to glance occasionally at the chart on the wheelhouse log desk. He had
little inclination to make conversation with the pilot, now ten minutes
into a monologue to which only the third mate was really listening.
Fresh coffee in hand, the mate returned to the log desk. She noted
the time on the chart as the ship swung on to the next range, comparing
the course that the pilot had given to the helmsman with the previously
inked and labeled courses on the chart.
"Right to one, five, four."
Checking the swing, the A.B. on the wheel repeated the new course,
"One, five, four, Sir."
"Very well, steady so."
"Trouble is, Mate, they always have to be looking for problems, and
if there aren't any they create some. It's part of life today, but it sure is
hurting the marine industry."
The mate had heard all this before, and always some mysterious
"they" were causing the problems.
"Who are 'they,' Pilot?" she queried.
"Industry groups, government agencies, the Coast Guard—and why
do we have a military service regulating and policing professionals in
a commercial industry anyway? The Air Force doesn't regulate the
airlines!"
The captain sat back in his chair and took all this in. He had heard
many such discussions recently, and while the Coast Guard was often
the target of the seafarer's frustrations, the problem obviously went
beyond that agency. What the mariner basically objected to was the
preponderance of often irrevelant regulations that interfered with his
work, and the exclusion of the active marine professional from the process

156
 - DEPARTURE SPEED -

that developed those regulations. Some representation from the active

seagoing community, at the national and international levels, was long
overdue. The captain appreciated and shared these concerns.
"There is a lot of expertise on the water today, Mate, and the standards
in the industry suffer when active professionals are excluded from
discussions of matters affecting the marine industry."
Picking up the phone to instruct the standby to rig the pilot ladder,
the third mate nodded her agreement.
"You're right, Pilot, we're letting the tail wag the dog in our industry."
"It's a good way of life, Mate, and we can't let others use politics to
downgrade it. We have to become more involved in matters affecting our
profession." (Note: This was written in 1983. The situation has not
improved.)

DROPPING THE PILOT

Before arriving at the pilot station, the master and the mate on watch
discuss inbound and outbound traffic with the pilot. All ships are
identified by name and their intentions clarified so there is a smooth
transition of the conn from pilot to master. It is easy for the pilot to
discuss any potential problem situations with the other ships before
he leaves, since he has radio contact with the other pilots and the pilot
station. They know the destinations, drafts, nationalities, and intentions
of the ships moving in the area, and are able to assist the master in
making safe meeting arrangements before the pilot disembarks.
Until the master is fully confident that there will be no problems
as the ship departs from the port area, he should not release the pilot.
Being a responsible professional, the pilot has no objection to performing
this last service before leaving and the master must not hesitate to
require it.
DEPARTURE SPEED
A lee is made and the pilot boards his boat to go ashore. The ship returns
to her heading and proceeds to the departure point at a speed that
matches the flow of outbound traffic. Moving at that speed obviously
reduces by half the amount of traffic that must be dealt with, since now
only crossing and meeting ships present any potential problems. Time
saved does not justify excessive speed, and any fool can engage in false
heroics with a ship that belongs to someone else.
Speed is also limited by depth of water. Trying to push a ship at a
speed faster than proper for the depth of water causes excessive squat

157
 — DEPARTURE —

Fig. 7-1. "Cap', could you slow her down a bit while I board the pilot boat?"

and suction, and since the flow of water to the rudder is restricted by
the underkeel clearance, the ship becomes hard to steer. Increased
difficulty steering and the pronounced vibration that can be felt
throughout the ship are certain indications of excessive speed.
This remains true until the ship leaves shallow water conditions,
not just while the ship is in a harbor or channel. As the ship reaches
deeper water her speed should be increased incrementally, rather than
being brought to sea speed upon departure. This is increasingly important
as ships get larger, not only because of the inherently greater drafts of
VLCCs, but because of the higher horsepower and tendency of the larger
hulls to develop harmonic vibrations under shallow water conditions.
As ship size increases the master must adjust shiphandling habits.
Make every effort to move with the flow of traffic, whether there is
a formal traffic separation scheme or not. If a problem develops do not
hesitate to stop the ship and let the situation clear itself up. Since the
master and mates have developed their shiphandling skills, maneuvering
while maintaining heading and position should present no problem.
Too often the less experienced shiphandler tends to increase speed to
"get away from a potentially dangerous situation"—the experienced
master or pilot uses the opposite tactic and slows or stops the ship. The
other ships are moving ahead to create the potentially dangerous close
quarters situation. I f you stop, you avoid reaching the problem area

158
 - MANEUVERING WITH OTHER SHIPS -

until the situation is resolved. Stopping, not rushing on, is the action
of the professional.

MANEUVERING WITH OTHER SHIPS

Make your actions known to other ships by whistle signals and by use
of the VHF radio. Make any changes in course or speed large and
obvious. By making larger than required changes in your heading,
especially at night, you are effectively talking to that other ship with
your lights—showing her your sidelight—and there can be no doubt
about your intentions. Refer to the section in chapter 1 concerning the
proper use of VHF radio, and especially keep in mind that ships of other
nationalities do not arrange passing situations, but primarily discuss
alterations in heading. If no one on either meeting ship speaks English
fluently, there is a chance of misunderstanding when you discuss a port
to port passing, since this may be interpreted by the other vessel as a
request for an alteration of course to port.
To effectively maneuver a ship and continually assess traffic, the
conning master or mate must be relieved of other navigational and
administrative tasks. The pilot develops an intimate knowledge of local
waters and is able to navigate mainly by eye, so full attention can be
given to traffic and shiphandling. The shipmaster visits many ports
and cannot possibly develop the pilot's working knowledge of any
particular port; another person is therefore needed to do the navigating
so the master can give sufficient attention to maneuvering the ship.
It is true that the master alone can do other work when traffic is
light and conditions are good, but as soon as any one task requires more
than passing attention, it is necessary to compromise the major duties
of assessment and shiphandling unless additional help is available on
the bridge. It is not suggested that the merchant ship resort to having
a horde of people on the bridge performing nonessential and redundant
tasks, as is too often found on naval vessels (and perhaps the latter will
find they can operate more effectively if their number is significantly
reduced), but there should be one additional person to compensate for
the local knowledge that disappeared when the pilot went down the
ladder.
The mate on watch continues to carry out the tasks that were being
done while the pilot was aboard while the additional mate plots traffic
as necessary and navigates. The information obtained is passed to the
master, who needs only to check the work often enough to be sure that
it is being done correctly. The additional officer should be the chief mate

159
 — DEPARTURE —

when possible, since he is generally the most experienced, as well as

being the one who will most benefit from the opportunity to be involved
as the ship enters and leaves port. Too often the mariner spends several
years as chief mate, shuffling papers in the ship's office during arrivals
and departures, only to be promoted to master and thrust back into
the world of navigation and shiphandling. By assisting the master, the
chief mate is gaining the knowledge required for that most responsible
of positions and acquiring the skills required to be an effective shipmaster
and shiphandler.
The plethora of bridge equipment has not relieved the master of
any traditional tasks, and in fact often creates distractions for the other
officers, so that essential tasks required by good seamanship are
overlooked. Any impression that this equipment makes it possible to
conn a ship with a bridge team that is one-third smaller than the
master-pilot-mate team is illusory—bring an additional officer to the
bridge until the ship is at sea, clear of navigational hazards and traffic,
so the master can in fact be the shiphandler, rather than the navigator.

Fig. 7-2. "Ya see, Mister Mate, if you come up to sea speed too soon she may
vibrate a little."

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 — COURSE CARD AND PASSAGE PLANNING —

Fig. 7-3. The pilot departs off Cape Henry. From an oil painting by Maryland
Pilot Capt. Brian Hope.

COURSE CARD AND PASSAGE PLANNING

The passage outbound should be as carefully planned as the passage
in, with a chart in the wheelhouse available for consultation, courses
inked in with pertinent information labeled, and a course card made
up by the master.
The course card minimizes distractions and allows the master to
remain at the centerline window to conn the ship. The pilot is able to
draw the chart of the port from memory, yet carries a course card; how
can the master effectively conn the ship without one? The card should
contain the reaches or ranges in order, with the course, length of the
reach, and turning point at the end of each reach noted. This information
can be put on a three-by-five card and kept in the shirt pocket, eliminating
the need for repeated trips to the chartroom to pick off each course.
The shiphandler can then spend that time watching the tug and tow
that may be crossing the bow while being more certain as the ship is
brought to each new heading that there will be no errors in course.
The course card should be made up for the entire run from the dock
to sea, not just for the portion of the passage after the pilot has
disembarked. This effort will be especially appreciated should a rain
squall or fog set in midway to sea, since the master will need only to
glance at the course card to check the heading as the ship feels her
way.
Too often the term "passage planning" conjures up the vision of
mates laying out pages of detailed courses, distance, navigation aids,

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and estimated runs at various speeds. This is fine for voyage planning,
but a form-based passage plan alone is not suitable for navigating in
restricted pilot waters. Indeed, a shiphandler working from pages of
detailed information alone, without marked up charts and a proper
course card, is much like an actor reading from a script during a
performance. This is distracting. It tends to put mental limits on the
mariner when situations arise that are not provided for in the original
plan. Put complete information directly on the chart and course card
prior to arrival or departure to eliminate the chance of error inherent
in transferring information from the plan, to the chart, to the
quartermaster while actually conning the ship in traffic and restricted
waters. A passage inked in advance on the chart with turning bearings,
courses, and distances noted, together with the pocket course card, are
very much a part of any proper passage plan.
With a proper plan, properly marked chart, a course card, and
effective bridge resource management, the mariner can give maximum
attention to handling the ship. A more complete discussion of the course
card and passage plan can be found in chapter 12, and excellent texts
on passage planning and bridge resource management are included in
the bibliography.

ABILITY TO MANEUVER
Do not be too quick to change to heavy oil when handling a motor ship
that can maneuver only on light diesel fuel, or to bring asteam turbine
ship to sea speed when this means that you cannot then reduce speed
without delay. The pilot station is the wrong place to increase to sea
speed, or to be unable to stop or go astern on short notice, since at that
point ships are converging from all directions, rather than moving in
a predictable manner within a fairway or traffic scheme. The inbound
ships are eager to get into port, are preparing to take the pilot, and are
probably in the highest risk location of the entire passage. Perhaps the
haste to increase speed is understandable, since those aboard want to
get the ship to sea, where the routine will settle down and life will
return to normal, but wait a little longer until traffic is astern.
Yes, contrary to the landsman's opinion, the seaman does consider
life at sea normal!

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 Chapter 8

ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING

WITH ANCHORS
I had no means of knowing that what had happened to me was a
manifestation of the sixth sense possessed by every born seaman.
You can train a man in navigation, seamanship, celestial observation
and the computing of tide, current, speed, wind, and drift, and yet
he will never be a sailor unless, at the moment of truth when he is
forced into a corner from which there is no way out except by instant
intuitive action, he unerringly makes the right move.
—Jan de Hartog, The Captain

Too often a mate is promoted to a position for which, through no fault

of his own, he is not ready. The principal cause of this is inadequate
onboard experience, especially "hands on" experience for junior officers
under the supervision of more experienced officers. This lack of experience
is especially significant in the area of shiphandling, including the conning
of a ship in restricted waters and the use of anchors, although it is
important that such experience be gained in all the shipboard skills. In
an industry that operates in an environment alien to the novice, it is
imperative that knowledge be passed from one generation of seamen to
the next if professional standards are to be maintained. The fine training
schools and maritime academies that serve the seafaring community
offer an excellent theoretical beginning, but it is only that—a beginning.
There is much that can be passed to a new officer only by example or
instruction.
Pride in profession, appreciation of the relative importance of various
tasks, and acquisition of that intangible that separates the exceptional
seafarer from the average—sea sense—can only be gleaned by observation
of others experienced in working at sea. The planning and effort required
to give junior officers onboard experience is as important as any other
shipboard task, and deserves the same attention from the seasoned
master, mate, or chief. Hands-on training ensures better operating ships
and a continuation of seafaring traditions and skills. Let the chief mate
conn the ship and pick up the pilot; have the second mate plan a cargo

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loading under the supervision of the mate; and give the third mate a
chance to handle the ship during Williamson turns and other maneuvers
at sea. Insist that these and other tasks be carried out properly. To ensure
that high standards of seagoing life are maintained, it is necessary that
the master be a stern taskmaster and demand that those working for
him perform to the highest standards.
In no area is hands-on experience more important than in
shiphandling. It is possible to watch a shiphandler work for years and
still not acquire a feeling for that art. Arrive at the pilot station a bit
early and give the mates an opportunity to perform the maneuvers
described in chapter I. Let those officers put the ship to anchor. While
maneuvering, explain why you choose a particular heading to allow for
wind and current. When one of these mates later has to alter course on
the mid-watch for a fishing boat not seen until close at hand and is able
to maneuver without hesitation or mistake, the effort put into training
will suddenly be worthwhile.
As a young mate, didn't you appreciate the master or chief mate who
took time to pass along a hint or to recount a sea story with a lesson at
coffee time? You have the skills now, and a pride in what you do—it is
your turn to pass them along!

ANCHORS FOR ANCHORING

The master's most common shiphandling task may be simply putting
a ship to anchor. The skills involved are so basic, so essential, that no
mariner is qualified for command until he can put a ship to anchor
safely, expediently, and with confidence under all conditions.
On almost every voyage a master anchors for some reason. Done
well, the task is completed without fuss or confusion. Done poorly, it
becomes an unnecessarily complicated and dangerous evolution as the
ship works against nature and the anchor, rust and mud flying, the
chain straining and jumping across the wildcat. The skills of the master
or officer at the conn make the difference, and fortunately, anchoring
skills are easily mastered with practice and planning.
At first glance there seem to be many different, unrelated ways to
anchor, but that really is not the case. True, a ship might use one anchor
or two, placed in line or spread, from bow or stern, with equal or unequal
amounts of chain stretched out or underfoot, but in every case the task
is basically the same. A ship approaches an anchorage, maneuvers as
closely as possible to the desired final heading, slows or stops, and drops
the anchor or anchors to the bottom.

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 - KNOW YOUR SHIP -

On the other hand, there is no one anchoring technique "for all

seasons" because there are an infinite number of combinations of
weather, ship types, anchorage locations, and other factors to consider;
so it is impossible and unnecessary to try to discuss every conceivable
anchoring method as a distinct and different evolution. Instead, this
text discusses only the most common anchoring situations and basic
anchoring techniques that any reasonably skilled shiphandler can then
adapt to most anchoring situations.

KNOW YOUR SHIP

It is impossible to plan an approach properly without some knowledge
of your ship's maneuvering characteristics. Perform as much of the
master's trials recommended in chapter 1 as possible now, if you have
not already done so. The hands-on experience of maneuvering the ship
during these trials gives the shiphandler a feel for the ship's response
to rudder and engine, and confidence in his skill and his ship's ability
to complete the maneuvers safely within the confines of a particular
anchorage. Ships are too valuable to maneuver by a wing and a prayer,
and it is essential to have this knowledge and experience before having
to anchor in a difficult situation.
Knowing the ship's maneuvering characteristics means understanding
what a ship can do and what it cannot do. Knowing when not to anchor
is probably more important than how to anchor. When the anchorage
is crowded or the weather adverse so the ship cannot be safely anchored,
consider all alternatives, including ordering a tug to assist, and if the
job can't be done safely, lay off and wait for conditions to improve.
Remember too that maneuvering characteristics are not static, and
a particular loading condition such as a very light draft, or greater than
normal drag, or reduced underkeel clearance, may significantly alter
a ship's normal behavior. Some ship types are more affected by these
changes than others: a high-sided ship or a heavily loaded ship may
handle much differently in strong winds than in light airs, and a loaded
tanker is a considerably different ship from a tanker in ballast. Ships
change, conditions change, and the weather changes, so do not fall into
the trap of trying to do the job the same way every time. Each anchoring
is a new task: plan accordingly.
A bow thruster significantly changes a ship's handling characteristics
during maneuvers at slow speed in an anchorage. Maneuvering is
simplified if the thruster is used to turn a ship to her final heading, set
up to back, position and hold the bow, and perform other shiphandling

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tasks as the ship goes to anchor. Most ships do not have bow thrusters,
though, and thrusters are not really effective unless ships are moving
at speeds of 2 knots or less, so the assumption is made in this chapter
that no thruster is available.

AGAIN, PLAN AHEAD, THINK AHEAD

Here again, the same basic principles for successful shiphandling and
maneuvering apply. Plan the overall maneuver prior to arrival using
information from the charts, pilots, and your local knowledge about the
port based on past experience. Apply your understanding of basic
shiphandling principles and your appreciation for your ship's maneuvering
characteristics learned during the master's trials. Reduce speed early.
Adjust the initial plan to use existing conditions and forces to advantage
to assist the ship's rudder and engine in maneuvering, then think ahead
of the ship, adjusting the original plan as events develop, planning
several steps ahead of the ship's maneuvers. Plan the anchoring as a
series of simple steps and always think ahead, think ahead, think
ahead.
Consider anchoring in two phases, because anchoring is an exercise
in basic seamanship and shiphandling. Decide how the ship will be
anchored, and then how she must be handled to accomplish that task.
Any good seamanship book discusses the first phase fully, so there is
no point in repeating that discussion. The assumption is made here
that the reader is a knowledgeable mariner who is aware of the
seamanship aspects of anchoring and has already correctly planned
that part of the evolution, so this chapter will stress primarily the
second, shiphandling phase of anchoring.

ANCHOR IN STEPS
Keep the shiphandling phase of anchoring simple. Look at anchoring
as a series of four steps: approach, placement, laying out, and fetching
up. Plan each step separately as a series of small, basic tasks, rather
than trying to plan the entire anchoring as one long, complex evolution,
and think ahead of the ship so each step leads more smoothly to the
next.
A ship might need to enter an anchorage, reduce speed, back and
fill around to the final heading, maneuver to the selected anchoring
location, stop, and then move slowly astern, all as part of what might
appear at first to be a complex approach and anchoring evolution. In
fact, reducing speed is one separate, basic task, as is backing and filling,

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 —PLANNING —

and stopping while controlling the ship's head; most of these individual
tasks have already been discussed in some context in this book. Consider
each task separately as you proceed step-by-step to anchor, and even
relatively complex, challenging anchoring jobs become simply a series
of small jobs that most mariners have mastered.

PLANNING
Every mariner studies the charts, sailing directions, predicted weather
conditions, and as the ship gets closer to the anchorage, the radar
presentation of the anchorage, looking for several types of information,
including:

1. Direction and strength of wind and current.

2. Depth of water.
3. Type of bottom.
4. Location of lee shore, shoals, or other hazards.
5. Maneuvering room for approach.
6. Number and location of ships already at anchor.
7. Conditions affecting visibility, weather, and currents.
8. Local customs and practices of the port.
9. Swinging room after anchoring.

Unfortunately, mariners too often weigh these factors only to decide

on the best location for anchoring, the amount of chain, and the number
and placement of anchors. They forget that shiphandling is an inherent
part of anchoring and that this same information must also be used to
plan the shiphandling phase of the anchoring evolution. Look at the
situation again and plan each step of the task using existing conditions
to advantage, to help rather than hinder the work as much as possible.
It is as important to have an alternative "bail out" plan in mind as
it is to have a primary plan of action before entering the anchorage, in
case things do not work out as expected. Generally, such a plan consists
of leaving the anchorage until conditions improve, or if it is too late or
impossible to leave, putting down an anchor and riding to a short stay
while you sort things out. Remember, having those two anchors hanging
at the bow is like having two tugs standing by forward, ready to hold
your ship and prevent accidents. Bailout plans vary widely depending
on conditions and alternatives are discussed in appropriate sections of
this chapter.

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 - ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS -

Keep in mind too that any plan must be flexible, since all too often
another ship will be anchored in your selected spot or in the way of
your approach. The plan is only a starting point: Use your shiphandling
skills to adjust to existing conditions as they develop.
Let us look at some of the factors to be considered when a ship is
going to anchor.

WIND AND CURRENT EFFECTS

Wind and current determine the preferred direction for approaching
the anchorage, the final heading after anchoring, and to some extent
the ship's behavior while maneuvering in the anchorage.
Set and leeway increase and the ship's turning circle becomes
elliptical because of the wind and current, the longer axis of the ellipse
lying in the direction of the wind and current. The effects of wind and
current on navigation and shiphandling increase dramatically as a
ship's speed decreases. The mariner, accustomed to navigating at full
sea speed where set and leeway are much less significant, has to plan
more carefully and make greater allowances for wind and current effects
while moving through an anchorage at reduced speeds.
Do not fight the wind and current. Review previous discussions on
their effects as a ship slows, stops, and then moves astern, and plan
the maneuver to use these external forces, not just compensate for
them. Current can be a problem while setting a vessel toward other
ships and shoals, but it can also move a ship away from hazards. Wind
causes leeway, but it can also assist the shiphandler, helping to turn
a ship around short, for example, as a ship with sternway backs into
the wind. Think ahead and use these external forces to advantage.
Plan to pass downstream and to leeward of ships, buoys, and hazards
to navigation, or if that is not practical, allow plenty of searoom and
several degrees for set and leeway to be sure to pass well clear. The two
or three degrees allowed for set and leeway at sea just is not enough in
an anchorage; think in fives and tens when maneuvering at slow speeds.
Do not, under any circumstances, pass close upstream or to windward
of buoys, obstacles, or ships at anchor. It is a most helpless feeling to
be passing close across the bow of a ship at anchor as the current sets
you swiftly toward her stem. There is little that can be done in that
situation except come full ahead, put the rudder hard over to try to
move your ship's stern away from the other vessel, and pray you pass
clear—and that maneuver is not very effective if you are in real danger
of colliding.

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 — WIND AND CURRENT EFFECTS —

And how far is far enough to pass clear? That depends on current
and wind strength, and the speed at which the ship is moving. In any
case, particularly at the very low speeds at which a ship is usually
moving in an anchorage, it is probably farther than you might expect.
The 100-foot rule discussed in chapter 5 applies in this situation just
as elsewhere when calculating the effect of wind and current, and
estimating the distance a ship will move in a specific period of time. By
using that rule, and the length of your ship as the basic unit of distance,
you can easily estimate a safe passing distance. For example:

A ship moving at 3 knots is moving ahead at approximately 300

feet per minute. A 600-foot-long ship will take two minutes to move
ahead one ship length and pass clear of a fixed point. A 2-knot
current on the beam will set that same ship 400 feet, or two-thirds
of a ship length, during that time.

The distance of one ship length that looked quite sufficient when
approaching an anchorage is not a safe clearance for a 600-foot-long
ship to pass clear of another ship at anchor at that speed in this situation,
when there is a strong current or wind on the beam. If you are the
master standing on the bridge, maneuvering under these circumstances,
the approximately 200-foot clearance after passing in this example will
be too close for comfort.
The term "sail area" gains new meaning when maneuvering high
freeboard and light draft ships in a strong wind in an anchorage.
Passenger ships, Containerships, car and gas carriers, and other similar
ship types present a significantly larger profile to the wind relative to
their draft and make much more leeway than average ships as they
move slowly through an anchorage. It is even more important that
these types of ships do not attempt to pass close ahead, to windward
or upstream, of other ships and obstacles.
Ships with large sail areas and common ship types at light drafts,
moving at slow speeds in an anchorage, may be difficult to turn to
windward when strong winds retard the bow's upwind movement. It
is often better to back and fill the "long way around" to a new course,
backing the ship's stern into the wind, if the bow will not come through
a strong wind directly to the desired heading. Too often the master
stubbornly fights the wind, repeatedly working the engine full ahead
and full astern to bring the bow through the wind, forgetting that the

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 — ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS —

I
D
C_

Fig. 8-1. Turn the long way around in strong winds.

longest way around is sometimes the quickest and safest when

maneuvering in adverse conditions (fig. 8-1).
There will be times when winds and currents are so strong that
even an expert shiphandler cannot maneuver to the final heading
before letting go, yet it is under these very same conditions that a
master most wants to be on that heading to minimize the strain on
ground tackle and ship's gear. Put down one anchor and a shot or two
of chain and turn on the anchor under these conditions—as described
further on in this chapter—or call for a tug, or stand off until conditions
moderate. Consider these alternatives well before arrival at the
anchorage, not when the situation arises, so contingencies can be
arranged in advance.
DEPTH OF WATER
Shallow water affects the ship's maneuverability. As the depth decreases,
the ship's tactical diameter increases and she becomes more directionally
stable. The ship may need as much as twice the room for large course
changes in shallow water as she would in deep water, so it becomes
increasingly important to approach a shallow water anchorage at slow
speed, in a position to back and fill to assist in turning the ship as
required. Remember also that the ship will twist somewhat more in
shallow water while going astern during a maneuver. Mentally review
the section on shallow water effects while going astern during that
maneuver. Review the section on shallow water effects in chapter 1
and figure 1-7 for a more detailed discussion of these changes.

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 - MANEUVERING ROOM -

Deep water also affects anchoring, because the anchor has to be

put down differently in an unusually deep anchorage. In depths greater
than about 100 feet the brake may not be able to stop the chain if the
anchor is let go from the hawse, because the chain's weight and the
momentum developed as the anchor and chain free-fall that distance
exceed the capacity of the brake. The anchor should be walked out in
such deep anchorages by engaging the wildcat and backing the chain
out of the locker using the windlass, lowering the anchor nearly to the
bottom before disengaging the wildcat, and letting the anchor fall free
the last few fathoms to the bottom. During these operations the
shiphandler must hold the ship in position for an extended period of
time, even in strong winds and currents—a task made easier if the ship
can first be brought to her final heading.

MANEUVERING ROOM
The number and location of ships at anchor, nearby shoals, a lee shore,
and other hazards to navigation limit maneuvering room and make it
more difficult for a ship to enter, maneuver in, and depart from an
anchorage. The shiphandler has to make plans that match the ship's
maneuvering characteristics to the available space in an anchorage,
adjusting his game plan to the size of the playing field.
Consider all options before entering so your ship and crew are
prepared for whatever is required; once again, do not hesitate to maneuver
on the anchor i f there is not enough space to turn or back and fill
unassisted. A tug can be ordered to assist your ship when maneuvering
room is limited, but a shiphandler who is reasonably skilled in anchor
work can usually turn and position the ship without a tug.
On occasion, there just is not enough searoom in a crowded or small
anchorage to turn to the final heading before letting go, and there will
be no option but to let go, heading with or across the wind and current
as discussed later in this chapter. Adjust anchoring plans to the real
world when you arrive and find the anchorage smaller or more crowded
than expected; use your shiphandling skills to adapt the ship's
maneuvering characteristics to the maneuvering room in the anchorage
or—if there just is not enough room—do not go. Even the handiest ship
may, under some circumstances, have to anchor elsewhere or stand off
and wait for conditions to change.
Maneuvering room is as much a consideration when leaving an
anchorage as it is when arriving. There may not be enough maneuvering
room to turn and depart from an anchorage, even though there was

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sufficient room when your ship arrived. Other ships may anchor after
yours, or your ship may swing to a new heading, so there is no longer
sufficient room to turn and depart. The same techniques that are used
to maneuver at arrival—including backing and filling, using wind and
current to advantage, heaving short and steaming around on the anchor,
or turning with a tug—can be used to turn a ship departing a small
anchorage.

BRIEFING OFFICERS
Discuss the anchoring plan, including the intended approach and the
location for letting go, with the mate on the bow, the mate on the bridge,
and if uncommon maneuvering is involved, the engineer on watch to
be sure they all know their responsibilities as the ship is put to anchor.
Be sure the mate knows:

1. Which anchor or anchors to use.

2. Whether the ship will turn to the final heading before letting
go.
3. How much chain will be put out initially.
4. Direction, ahead or astern, and approximate speed of the ship
over the bottom when the anchor is let go.
5. Whether the ship will be turned on the anchor.
6. Whether the anchor should be held at short stay for maneuvering.
7. If more than one anchor is used, how those anchors will be laid
out.
8. Final amount of chain to be used.

This briefing is important, because neither you, the mate, nor the
engineer needs any surprises. A neat, seamanlike maneuver will be
spoiled if the mate slacks out too much chain when you intend to
maneuver on the anchor or turn short in a crowded anchorage, or holds
the chain too soon so the anchor drags and the ship is set beyond the
planned anchoring spot. Planning completed, it is time to go to anchor,
so let's look at the most common method for anchoring a ship.

NAVIGATE BY EYE
Study the charts and publications carefully, well before arrival, and
commit important information to memory. Select some prominent
landmarks, aids, and ranges to lead the ship to her selected anchorage
and prepare a pocket course card showing these leading marks, as well

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as the approximate courses to the anchorage. Depending on the situation,

the pocket card might have the courses and aids listed on one side—as
described in chapter 12—and a sketch of the anchorage showing the
intended track and prominent aids and hazards on the other.
Navigate by eye as the ship approaches the anchorage, conning the
ship to anchor using landmarks and aids that form natural ranges and
leading marks. The mate will navigate as usual, as a backup to keep
the master or conning officer informed of the ship's progress, using
charts on which the intended courses are laid down in advance.
Visual navigation is preferable when going to anchor because the
ship will usually be following a circuitous route, rather than a straight
track line, backing and filling and turning as needed to round up into
the wind and current. If visible marks and aids are not used, you have
to continuously interrupt your shiphandling work to refer to the ship's
charts.
Accurate navigation is fine and important, but at times it can be
overdone. Pilots routinely anchor while navigating by eye and calmly
and quietly place the anchor at least as precisely as a team of navigators
shouting bearings and distances to go and distracting the shiphandler

Fig. 8-2. "Aren't you overdoing this 'navigate by eye' business, Jerry?"

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from the important work of maneuvering the ship to anchor. In most

cases, a few well-chosen leading marks and an abeam reference visible
to the shiphandler, together with a minimum of fixes and some
shiphandling skills, are more than sufficient to position the ship as
accurately as the often redundant distance circles and continuous cross
bearings that are too often relied upon while going to anchor. Quite
simply, it is a matter of professionalism.

FINAL HEADING
The term "final heading" has been used several times in discussing
anchoring plans, but just what does the term mean and why is it
important? The final heading is the direction in which a ship will lie
when at anchor heading into the resultant of all external forces—
primarily the wind and current acting on her superstructure and
underwater hull—after the anchor has fetched up and the ship has
swung around to bring all those forces into equilibrium.
There are several reasons why it is better to let go when the ship
is on her final heading, and the advantages of doing so more than
compensate for any additional time spent maneuvering to that heading.
When the anchor is let go on the final heading:

1. The chain will lead clear of the hull as it is slacked out.

2. Wear and strain on the chain, stem, windlass, and the mate's
paint budget are minimized.
3. The chain is laid out along the bottom neatly and quickly.
4. The ship can be positioned among other ships and obstructions
without concern about swinging clear after the anchor fetches
up since your vessel is already on the same heading as those
ships.

The more restricted or crowded the anchorage, or the stronger the

wind or current, the more important it is to anchor on this heading.
In some instances it is essential to anchor on the preferred heading.
Large bulbous bows can be damaged by a chain leading under and around
the bulb with a heavy strain, and even more importantly, the chain itself
may be damaged in such circumstances. Naval vessels often have sensitive
sonar domes and other equipment protruding from the bow that can be
easily damaged by the chain. Heavy winds, swell, and strong currents
exacerbate the problem, as the chain works and surges more heavily
against the wildcat, and the stem, bulb, and any protruding ship's gear.

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Obviously, it is not always possible to maneuver to this final heading

before letting go, especially when the anchorage is small or crowded,
or the wind or current is quite strong or from the wrong direction, or
visibility is restricted. It is not always necessary to do so either, since
a ship may anchor on any heading in light airs or slack water—in a
calm, every ship in the anchorage probably lies at a different heading
anyway. A real professional, though, tries to bring the ship to her final
heading before letting go in even a light breeze or weak current, and
in practice, a reasonably skilled shiphandler is usually successful in
doing so. There are methods for anchoring to minimize the strain and
problems when it is impossible to let go to the final heading, and they
are discussed later in this chapter. How is the final heading determined?
Look at other ships and boats anchored in the area that are already
lying to the wind and current, or estimate the heading if there are no
ships in an anchorage. Sea sense and some experience with a particular
ship are invaluable in the latter case, since the final heading is affected
by the ship's draft, her freeboard, the strength of the wind and current,
and the location of the ship's superstructure and deck load, if any. In
practice this presents little problem, since the ship only needs to be on
the approximate heading before letting go; having the wind and current
a few degrees on one bow or the other, rather than dead ahead, will not
significantly affect the ship or strain her gear.
A master could also compute the final heading by vector analysis,
but the calculation would be complicated and impractical in day-to-day
work, and there would be no point in doing so when such exact information
is not needed anyway. A practiced seaman's eye, current tables, the
knowledge that a I-knot current has approximately the same effect as
a 30-knot wind over a given surface area, and some seafaring experience
are really all that are needed to determine this heading with reasonable
accuracy.
ANCHORING OFF THE FINAL HEADING
Under some circumstances, it may be necessary to anchor heading
across or away from the resultant of wind and current. In a light breeze
or weak current this presents no problem, since the ship can turn to
her final heading after the anchor fetches up. In stronger winds or
currents, though, it is usually best to let go an anchor and one-to-two
shots of chain only—an amount equal to about twice the depth of
water—while the ship moves slowly ahead. The chain is held while the
ship makes a controlled turn on her anchor to the final heading, in the

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least possible space, as the anchor alternately digs in and breaks free
with little strain on the vessel and her gear.
When letting go on or near the reciprocal of the final heading, start
the ship turning to starboard and let go the starboard anchor to take
advantage of the twisting effect if the engine is needed astern to assist
in turning the ship.
When letting go with the final heading on the port or starboard side,
turn up into the wind or current toward the final heading and use the
upstream or windward anchor so the bow comes up into those forces
and the chain leads clear of the hull. In both cases turning in this
fashion minimizes strain on the gear and ship while the wind and
current assist the ship in turning (fig. 8-3).
Come ahead with the rudder hard over in the direction in which
the ship is to turn, backing and filling if required, as the ship swings
around on this slowly dragging anchor to the final heading. Stop the
engine when the ship is on or near her final heading. Ease the anchor's
brake and slack the chain to bring the ship to anchor as the wind and
current check the ship's headway and then move her astern. Do not
just open the brake wide as the ship falls back before the wind and
current; ease it so the chain is laid out slowly, or the wind and current
will take charge and bring the ship up hard against the chain and gear,
possibly damaging the ground tackle or pulling the anchor free.
This technique for anchoring off the final heading is especially
useful when turning in a strong current, such as is found on the
Mississippi River and other estuaries, or in a strong wind or heavy
swell that would put heavy strain on the ground tackle.
BASIC ANCHORING
Anchoring is almost always a "plain vanilla" routine. The ship enters
the anchorage, turns as nearly as possible to the final heading, and
backs down until she starts moving slowly astern over the bottom. One
anchor is let go and the chain is slacked until the desired amount is in
the water. The engine is then kicked ahead, if necessary, until the ship
loses nearly all sternway, the brake is tightened, and the anchor fetches
up. Port after port, voyage after voyage, the ship will usually anchor
in this simple manner, so for the sake of clarity, we will discuss this
routine in some detail and then briefly mention some of the less common
alternative methods for anchoring.

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 — THE APPROACH —

Wind/current astern
1. Put down starboard anchor.
2. Turn to starboard on the
anchor to final heading and
3. Ease out additional chain
to anchor.

Resultant of
wind and current

i Wind/current to side
1. Let go anchor on side
toward final heading.
1 2. Maneuver on the anchor into
the wind/current and
3. Ease out chain to anchor ship.

Fig. 8-3. Anchoring off the final heading.

THE APPROACH
The master or conning officer approaches along the planned track,
navigating by eye using leading ranges and selected aids as previously
discussed and progressively reducing speed. Less speed means more
time—time to plan, time to respond, and time to stop the ship if a
problem arises—and when speed is reduced, the engine can be used
ahead and astern as needed to maneuver without concern about being
over speed when the final anchoring location is reached.
Detect your ship's movement over the bottom using the apparent
motion between other ships or objects in the anchorage and more distant
references afloat and ashore. Closer ships appear to move across—in
front of—background references because of differences in perspective
between closer and more distant objects. The apparent movement of
references ahead and astern of your ship indicates lateral motion, while
references abeam or nearly abeam show headway or sternway. Your
ship's movement can be detected by eye with surprising accuracy using

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this method long before any change in position is shown by traditional

methods of navigation. Use this technique by day and by night, during
each step of the anchoring evolution, especially when moving at very
slow speeds and when backing down and laying out the chain.
When should a ship start to turn in the anchorage? The master or
officer conning knows the ship's tactical diameter at slow speeds from
the master's trials, and allowing for any possible set and leeway,
estimates by eye, and in some cases by fixes, the point to start the turn
or turns. It is best to simplify maneuvering by making any large changes
in heading well before reaching the location where you plan to anchor,
since you then only need to stop the vessel prior to letting go. This is
not essential, and in a restricted or crowded anchorage it is not always
possible, but it sure makes the task easier.
As a rule of thumb, a ship turning at a constant engine speed in
deep water—that is, water more than one and a half times the ship's
draft—will be about three to three and a half ship lengths ahead of her
starting point and about one and a half ship lengths to port or starboard
after turning 90 degrees, and about one ship length ahead of her starting
point and three and a half ship lengths to port or starboard after turning
180 degrees. These distances are significantly reduced in an accelerating
turn using increased revolutions. In shallower water the turning circle
will increase until, when the water depth is nearly the same as the
ship's draft, the distances required to turn are approximately doubled.
These distances are not exact, but they are close enough for day-to-day

Conditions: Rudder hard over, engine

speed constant, water depth over 1.5
times ship's draft.
Results: (1) 90° from track, 31/2 ship
lengths ahead, and 11/2 ship lengths to
port or starboard of start point;
(2) 180° from track, 1 ship length ahead,
and 31/2 ship lengths to port or
starboard of start point.
As water depth decreases, distances
increase. When depth almost equals
draft, the distances are doubled.

Fig. 8-4. Approximate turning circles in deep water.

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 — THE APPROACH —

work, especially i f you make any needed small adjustments to the

estimates to allow for maneuvering characteristics of a particular ship
and for the wind and current that make the ship's turning circle more
elliptical as previously discussed (fig. 8-4).
The following hints should prove useful in maneuvering into, around,
and out of an anchorage:

1. Searoom permitting, a large course change as the ship swings

around to her final heading, as described in chapter 1, will
significantly reduce headway as the ship approaches an anchorage.
2. Turns to starboard are preferable to turns to port, to take
advantage of the twisting effect as the engine is backed to reduce
headway and stop the ship.
3. A kick ahead will accelerate the rate of turn, reducing the turning
circle without a significant increase in speed. Be careful, though,
that speed is not significantly increased by successive kicks ahead,
as it might be impossible to stop the ship at the selected anchoring
location.
4. Backing and filling near the anchoring area, as described in
chapter 1, is usually preferable to successive kicks ahead when
about to anchor, as the ship can be turned and simultaneously
slowed and stopped.

From the trial maneuvers the master knows approximately how

many ship lengths the vessel will advance after the engine is put astern,
and thus at what point the ship must go astern to be dead in the water
at the selected anchorage. For safety's sake, back down at least once
before reaching that point to check the ship's speed, using the location
of the ship's quickwater as described in chapter 4. (See figure 4-2.) Too
often a master reduces to what, after several days at sea speed, seems
like a slow speed in an anchorage, only to find that the ship is actually
moving much faster than anticipated when he backs down to let go.
Put the engine astern well before reaching the selected anchoring
location when anchoring at night, o r i n a crowded or restricted
anchorage—when speed is more difficult to estimate and more critical—
and back until the ship is dead in the water. There is then no doubt
about the ship's speed: it is zero. Come ahead again, slowly move the
last few ship lengths, and let go.

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PLACING THE ANCHOR

The ship slowly moves the last few hundred feet to the selected
anchorage—on the final heading if possible—using the leading marks
and ranges to navigate by eye while the mate checks the ship's position.
Convert distance to the selected anchoring location from yards or
fractions of a mile to ship lengths or feet; units of measure the shiphandler
navigating by eye can use most effectively to estimate stopping and
turning distances during the last few ship lengths of the approach.
The anchor drops from the bow, not the bridge. I t is the bow's
location that matters when letting go. Too often shiphandlers overlook
this simple fact and estimate distances from the bridge to the shore
and other ships. This can cause significant errors when anchoring
VLCCs or other large, bridge aft ships in restricted or crowded anchorages
where the stern may be as much as a quarter mile from the anchor, or
when anchoring car carriers or other bridge forward ships when the
shiphandler is nearer the anchor but 700 to 800 feet from the stern.
Put the bow, not the bridge, where you want the anchor to lie before
letting go.
Do not routinely anchor in the middle of an open anchorage, so far
from other ships and obstructions that you swing clear by several ship
lengths no matter how the wind and current might turn your ship. It
is unseamanlike to waste space in the anchorage; it causes problems
for other ships anchoring after yours, and it also causes problems for
you, since other vessels are forced to anchor closer to your ship than
might be safe because they have to use whatever space you leave. It is
also unnecessary, because most ships swing to new headings at the
same time, staying clear of each other, unless their draft, freeboard, or
size are so different that some swing before the others. So there is no
need to at all times be able to swing clear over an arc of 360 degrees.
Anchor only as far from other ships and obstructions as necessary
for your own ship's safety and put the anchor closer to ships ahead than
astern. Your ship lies back from the anchor and the ship ahead, and
as the ships turn to current or wind, the ship ahead swings away from
you. In print that may sound like common sense, but it is amazing how
often experienced masters and pilots put the anchor in the center of an
open area and find they are anchored too close to ships astern when
the chain stretches out. This can be an even greater problem when the
tide or wind changes and the ship astern becomes the ship ahead. Place
the anchor closer to the ship ahead, not in the center of an open area,
when letting go (fig. 8-5).

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 — PLACING THE ANCHOR —

Flood
--C----1

C D -- Ebb

Incorrect: Anchor let go

midway between ships

Flood

C> - - C i - - C I D --- Ebb

Correct: Anchor let go

closer to ship ahead
Fig. 8-5. Anchor closer to ships ahead than astern.

Think ahead of the ship as you place the anchor. Set up to back and
maintain control at all times when the engine is going astern. When
anchoring a ship fitted with a right-hand turning fixed propeller, under
most conditions on or near the final heading kick the engine ahead with
the rudder hard left to start the bow swinging to port and then put the
engine astern. Back until the quickwater reaches amidships and then
continue backing until the ship starts moving astern. Ideally, when
anchoring close to the final heading, the bow should steady up as the
engine goes astern if the starboard anchor is to be dropped, or begin
swinging slowly to starboard if the port anchor is to be used. When
anchoring at some large angle away from the final heading, the bow
should be swinging away from the anchor as the chain pays out, as
previously described in the section "Final Heading" in this chapter.
Masters too often stop the engine when the quickwater reaches
amidships because the flow of water moving up the ship's sides creates
the illusion that the ship is moving astern when actually she is then
just dead in the water. The chain will only pile up on the bottom and
stop running out if the anchor is let go without some sternway. Continue

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backing until the quickwater is forward of amidships so the ship is

moving astern, open the brake, and let go.
LAYING OUT THE CHAIN
The brake is tightened and eased as necessary to control the chain as
the ship moves slowly astern, laying the chain evenly over the bottom
rather than in a pile that could foul the anchor or damage the gear as
the ship falls back, until the chain is brought up tight against the anchor
with a heavy strain.
The mate on the bow must keep the bridge informed of the lead and
weight on the chain at this point. The mate is the master's eyes as he
maneuvers to move the ship slowly astern at the best speed and heading,
keeping a light strain on the chain at all times so it is laid along the
bottom clear of the stem and bulbous bow. The mate notifies the bridge
as soon as the ordered length of chain is out so the engine can be put
ahead to reduce sternway, if necessary, before the anchor fetches up
hard. Everyone gets back to bed much sooner if the mate keeps the
bridge well informed without having to be repeatedly asked how the
chain is leading.
Tighten the brake enough to check the chain and control it, but do
not set the brake so tight that the chain is held and the anchor flukes
dig in prematurely. When the flukes dig in too soon, before the shank
is nearly parallel to the bottom, the anchor may break free again—so
balled with mud that it can't dig in when the full scope of chain is out.
This is less of a problem when the anchor is intentionally dragged,
because it is less likely to have dug in so fully that it comes free with
mud and rock jammed between the flukes and shank.
Keep in mind, it is movement over the bottom that is important
when letting go, not speed through the water. When drifting with a
strong current from ahead, the ship will have sufficient sternway over
the bottom to lay out the chain when the quickwater reaches amidships,
since she would then be moving over the bottom at the speed of the
current. Obviously, if there is a 1-knot current from ahead and you
back until the water is midships, you will be making 1-knot astern over
the bottom and the chain will lay out nicely.
The aforementioned apparent motion of ships at anchor relative to
background references afloat and ashore is the best indication of ship's
movement once the ship starts moving astern. The quickwater forward
of midships only tells you the ship has sternway, while the Doppler log
often becomes useless once the quickwater moves up under the hull.

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 - SWINGING ROOM AT ANCHOR -

Watch the movement of vessels and objects against the background

shoreline and move the ship slowly astern over the bottom.

DIGGING IN
Tighten the brake when the required amount of chain is out, and if the
ship still has significant sternway, put the engine ahead one last time
so the chain is not parted due to excessive sternway as the anchor
fetches up. You might use hard-over rudder while kicking the engine
ahead at this point, i f required, to bring the ship closer to her final
heading and to keep the anchor chain clear of the stem, bulb, and any
underwater gear. Remember that the rudder directs propeller thrust
and the stopping effect as the engine turns ahead is much greater if
the rudder is amidships.
The engine is used ahead only long enough to reduce sternway. Do
not stop the ship completely. Hold the chain and let the ship move
slowly back against the anchor as the catenary caused by the chain's
weight absorbs most of the force of the remaining sternway. The ship
must have a bit of sternway to work against the anchor and dig the
flukes well in to the bottom. Back the engine again i f the ship
inadvertently stops too quickly so the anchor is well dug in before the
engines are rung off.

SWINGING ROOM AT ANCHOR

Obviously, masters prefer to anchor far enough from other ships and
obstacles—space permitting—to swing clear on the present heading
and all other possible headings on which the ship might later lie at a
safe distance from other ships.
But how far are you from ships ahead and astern? In a crowded
anchorage, especially after days in the open ocean, other ships always
look closer than they actually are due to your height of eye and to the
lack of visual references with which the distance between ships can be
compared. Even experienced pilots are often surprised when, after
anchoring a ship in what appeared to be close quarters, they get into
a launch to go ashore and from a more distant vantage point close to
the water look back to find that the ships actually are quite far apart.
Unfortunately, the master and deck officers are rarely able to view
their vessel from a launch, but they can walk down to the main deck,
where the true distance between ships becomes immediately apparent.
Try this the next time you are concerned about the distance between
anchored ships.

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It is sometimes difficult to actually measure the distance to other

vessels anchored close to your ship. Radar, while excellent in open
anchorages, is often less effective for measuring absolute distance
between closely anchored ships because it measures distance from your
radar mast to some not always definable point on the other ship to an
accuracy of fractions of a mile, not yards or meters. Stacks and ship's
gear also obstruct the radar, and ships anchored in those blind areas
are not visible to the radar at all. Radar is usually more helpful to
detect changes in distance—such as when one ship or the other drags
closer or farther away—than it is to measure absolute distance between
anchored ships.
Estimate distance from other ships by eye using your ship's length
as a reference and measure the distance from other ships ahead and
astern to your bow or stern, not to your location on the bridge.

Fig. 8-6. "He says things look better that way."

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 - MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS -

Some pilots swear they can estimate distance more accurately by

bending over and looking between their legs. Pilots and seamen often
joke about this technique, but quite frankly, it seems to work. It is
probably better to try it without an audience, though, as shipmates
may think you are a bit strange, standing bent over looking between
your legs at ships forward and aft, but it helps—so bend over and look.
It may be necessary for a ship lying at anchor in a crowded anchorage
to maneuver on the anchor using the engine, rudder, or bow thruster
if available to swing clear of other ships as she turns to a new tide or
a shift in the wind. Calculate tide and current changes and watch the
weather and other ships closely. Have the engine and thruster ready
well before the calculated change, and in a particularly restricted
anchorage, have a tug ordered and standing by to assist in turning. Do
not wait until the other ships start swinging to make these preparations.
The master may also decide to put down two anchors in a small
anchorage to limit the ship's swing. Mooring to two anchors may be the
best action under some circumstances and common methods for doing
so are discussed later in this chapter.
It may not always be possible to moor to two anchors in a crowded
anchorage if other ships close by are riding to one anchor. They will
move in a wider circle and your ship, restricted by the second anchor,
may not swing clear. Either use one anchor, or be ready to maneuver
or to heave up the second anchor if other ships start swinging toward
you in such circumstances. Local practice is important, since all ships
will generally follow the custom of the port when anchoring or mooring
so that all ships swing together.
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
Any number of seamanship books present the reasons for mooring and
anchoring to two anchors, so this text will briefly discuss only the
shiphandling aspects of these evolutions.
The running moor is a maneuver for putting down two anchors in
line while the ship has headway. The ship is brought to her final heading,
stemming the current and wind, and the first anchor is let go. That
chain is slacked as the ship continues moving slowly ahead to drop a
second anchor. The first chain is then heaved in as the second chain is
slacked so the ship drops back to ride between both anchors. The two
anchors can be laid along the axis of a channel or in line with a current
so the ship rides between and swings within nearly her own length to
each turn of the tide.

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Fig. 8-7. "I thought shiphandlers never did a flying anything."

The running moor is sometimes called the flying moor. The name
is colorful, traditional, and unfortunately misleading, since it conveys
an image of an action-packed, high-speed anchoring maneuver under
something less than perfect control. No competent shiphandler does a
flying anything and the term should be avoided. Walking moor might
be a better name!
The ship can also anchor to two anchors laid out ahead in a maneuver
similar to a running moor—as described in the section on five- and
seven-point moorings in chapter 9—perpendicular to the wind and
current using the same or different lengths of chain to minimize yawing,
increase holding power, or hold a ship's head to a swell to reduce rolling
while working cargo. A similar method for anchoring to two anchors
for ships f i t t e d w i t h bow t h r u s t e r s is described i n t h e section
"Mediterranean Moor" in chapter 9.

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 — MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS —

A standing moor (ordinary moor) is similar to the running moor,

except the ship comes to her final heading, backs until she has sternway,
drops her first anchor, and slacks the chain as she maneuvers astern
to let go the second anchor. The first chain is then heaved in while the
second is slacked until the ship rides between the two anchors. The
standing moor is more commonly used to lay anchors in line with a
current, since the shiphandler has less control of a ship when going
astern, while the running moor with steerage and headway is more
often used to lay anchors perpendicular to wind and current.
Seamen are often reluctant to use two anchors for mooring or
anchoring because of problems clearing round turns in the chain, so
you may go to sea for years without mooring in this manner. Round
turns are caused by the ship repeatedly swinging to the current and
wind in the same direction—clockwise or counterclockwise—wrapping
the chains around each other so it becomes impossible to heave the
anchors home. With a modicum of seamanship and shiphandling skills
these turns can be prevented by turning the ship in the opposite direction
at each turn of the tide or change in the wind (fig. 8-8).
Turn the ship by putting the rudder hard over and kicking the
engine ahead as needed, or have a tug push on the quarter or tow the
stem around on a hawser. Start the ship swinging in the preferred
direction, putting the current or wind on the proper side so it too pushes
the ship around alternately clockwise and then counterclockwise on

Swing ships moored to two

anchors in the opposite
direction to consecutive tides.

•••
• • • • .

. . . . . . . .

( 2 )

Flood E b b

Fig. 8-8. Prevent round turns when moored.

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 - ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS -

successive tides. Seamanship texts also discuss canting the ship using
hard-over rudder, but the ship's engine or a tug is usually more reliable
and effective in turning today's larger, more diverse ship types, which
may not respond to the rudder alone.
Mooring to two anchors may be the best way to anchor under some
circumstances, in spite of potential problems with round turns in the
chain, and every seaman should know how to prevent round turns and
how to clear them if they do occur.
STERN ANCHORS
by Capt. Warren G. Leback, Master Mariner
Stern anchors are most commonly found aboard the great number of
naval landing and assault vessels built during and since World War
II. These anchors give an added measure of vessel control, prevent
broaching due to wind, swell, tide, and current, and are used to kedge
off a beach.
Stern anchors probably came into use shortly after man put to sea.
Kedge (stern) anchors were used to hold a ship of the line in position to
provide a steady platform when bombarding shore batteries or opposing
fleets in numerous naval battles during the sixteenth through the
eighteenth centuries. One of the more memorable naval engagements
in which stern anchors were used was the Battle of the Nile, where
Adm. Nelson's Mediterranean fleet caught the French fleet at anchor
in Aboukir Bay. Nelson divided his fleet into two columns, ran down
both sides of the French fleet, and using kedge anchors, positioned his
vessels so they could pour deadly broadsides into the opposing fleet. The
outcome changed Napoleon's plans to advance into the Middle East.
Unfortunately, few merchant vessels other than those designed for
specific trade routes are presently fitted with stern anchors, so only a
limited number of masters and deck officers have had an opportunity
to use them. As with any gear that receives only limited use, there are
numerous theories about the use of stern anchors—some correct and
many incorrect.
A few steamship companies, including Grace Line, Inc. and El Paso
LNG Company, fitted their vessels with stern anchors. Grace Line
fitted their four Santa Lucia class vessels, their post-World War II
C-2s, and their C-2 combination passenger/cargo vessels with stern
anchors. The anchors were used to keep the ships in position while
lying at anchor in a number of open roadsteads along the west coast of
South America.

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 — STERN ANCHORS —

El Paso LNG Company fitted their nine liquefied natural gas vessels
with stern anchors. These anchors were to be used in the event of either
a rudder or engine failure to slow the ship, give directional control, and
to make it possible to anchor these large ships in the Chesapeake Bay
and the narrow channels of the Savannah River. They are of sufficient
weight, and are equipped with the amount of chain needed to hold the
950-foot ships in the strong flood and ebb tides found in these areas.
When using a stern anchor:

1. The master must have confidence in his shiphandling ability

and understand the stern anchor's uses and limitations.
2. The mooring maneuver must be carefully planned in advance
and put on the chart with three predetermined reference bearings
laid down.
3. The maneuver must be reviewed with the other officers so they
are thoroughly familiar with the plan and its alternatives.
4. The steering gear and engine must be used judiciously, especially
once the stern anchor is let go.
5. Throughout the maneuver the master must think ahead of the
vessel and adjust for changes in wind and current.

"B" "C" . "D"

/
/

, /
/

/
/

Fig. 8-9. Mooring with a stern anchor.

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 — ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS —

There is a significant risk of damaging the rudder and propeller

with the stern anchor and its chain because of the stern anchor's
location. Be certain all sternway is off the ship before letting the stern
anchor go. Limit sternway when heaving up so the chain leads aft with
a light strain at all times—the ship must not overrun the stern anchor—
and wait until the anchor is in sight and clear before putting any
headway on the ship.
In an open roadstead both bow anchors and the stern anchor are
laid out in a "Y" pattern to form a three-point moor. The maneuver is
straightforward. After all planning and preparations for mooring have
been completed:

1. The ship begins her approach at the minimum speed required

for steerageway.
2. The moor is made, searoom permitting, with the bow to seaward.
Approach from sea to the left of the intended moor to take
advantage of the ship's ability to back and fill to the right. Make
the approach as wide as searoom allows.
3. Come up to point "A" as shown in figure 8-9 so the three
predetermined bearings intersect.

Fig. 8-10. "I got ten shots out, Cap', and she seems to be taking a strain."

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 — THE ANCHOR AS A SHIPHANDLING TOOL —

4. Proceed down the reciprocal of bearing line "B" with the port
anchor backed out and ready to let go. Back down as the ship
nears the drop point, take all headway off the ship, and let go
the port anchor.
5. Back the ship slowly along the reciprocal of bearing line "B" and
turn her to bearing line "D."
6. Come ahead and proceed slowly down the reciprocal of bearing
line "D" while keeping the port chain slack until the drop point
for the starboard anchor is reached. Take off all headway and
let go the starboard anchor.
7. Back the ship to point "A" while controlling the ship with both
anchors, then continue backing along bearing line "C" to the drop
point for the stern anchor.
8. Make sure all sternway is off the vessel so the ship cannot override
the anchor and chain, and let go the stern anchor.
9. Heave the bow anchors while slacking the chain aft until the
ship is riding to all three anchors and the three-point moor is
complete.

To unmoor, slack the bow chains and heave the vessel astern using
the stern anchor. Bear in mind that you must pay out the bow chains
slowly to control the vessel. (Remember, you must not overrun the stern
anchor.)
Wait until the stern anchor clears the water and is in sight before
moving the ship ahead. Heave both bow chains simultaneously until
point "A" is reached and disengage the starboard chain. Continue to
heave on the port chain until the ship reaches a position approximately
halfway between point "A" and the port anchor drop point. Lock in the
starboard anchor again. Resume heaving; by the time the port anchor
is aweigh you will have a slight strain on the starboard chain so the
vessel will not sag down on the beach.
The same sequence of maneuvers, performed while the ship is
stemming the current, is used to anchor a ship fitted with a stern anchor
in a river or restricted anchorage. One bow anchor may be sufficient in
some cases, but the maneuver is still performed in basically the same
manner.

THE ANCHOR AS A SHIPHANDLING TOOL

The anchor is rarely used when handling a ship, and now usually seems
to be thought of as a tool of last resort to be used only in emergency

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 — ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS —

situations. This is unfortunate, since a ship can be maneuvered using

an anchor in ways not possible with only the engine, rudder, and tugs.
The anchor is called the "poor man's tugboat" for good reason—it is
often more effective than a tug.
When handling a ship with an anchor, it is essential that the mate
assigned to let go the anchor be well versed in the use of anchors and
be thoroughly trained in handling ground tackle, letting go the anchor
properly, and putting out the correct amount of chain. The importance
of having a man on the bow who can handle the anchor and be relied
upon to put out the correct amount of chain cannot be overstressed.
Perhaps the most fundamental misunderstanding about shiphandling
with an anchor is the belief that a ship sheers in the direction of the anchor
that is put down. This is not so. Sheering is not a significant consideration
when selecting the anchor to be used. The bow of a ship with headway is
steadied by the anchor regardless of which anchor is used, and is not
pulled in any particular direction. The hawsepipe, and hence the lead of
the chain, is so close to the centerline of the ship as the anchor drags that
only a minimal pivoting moment develops (fig. 8-11).
The pivoting effect can become significant, however, if a large turn
is deliberately initiated using the engine and rudder after the anchor
begins to drag. The pivoting moment increases as the direction of the
anchor's retarding force and the ship's forward momentum shift in
opposite directions away from the vessel's centerline and each other,
as shown in position 2 of figure 8-11.

1. Initial turning moment G' —A' is insignificant

as anchor drags on short scope of chain.
2. If vessel deliberately swung, the turning
moment G' — B' increases and ship pivots
against the anchor.

Fig. 8-11. Pivoting effect of a dragging anchor.

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 — THE ANCHOR AS A SHIPHANDLING TOOL —

Possible damage

Fig. 8-12. Lead of an inshore anchor versus an offshore anchor.

This delayed pivoting effect occurs only after the ship develops a
significant swing, and requires deliberate action by the shiphandler,
who must start the ship swinging. The resultant reduction in the
diameter of the ship's turning circle is one of the desirable effects of
anchor use when maneuvering. The sheering (pivoting) to one side is
neither an immediate nor an inevitable result of dropping a particular
anchor. It does not occur without deliberate action, and for practical
purposes, the magnitude of this pivoting force is equal for a turn to port
or starboard regardless of which anchor is put down.
There is some disagreement among mariners over which anchor to
drop (fig. 8-12). Some shiphandlers contend that the lee anchor—or
inboard anchor when docking—should be used because it leads under
and against the hull, and therefore will hold better in a beam wind.
They also claim that using this anchor puts less stress on the windlass
brake due to the friction between the chain and the hull. Others feel
the windward anchor—or offshore anchor when docking—should be
used, since that anchor leads clear of the hull and requires more chain
before it digs in and holds.
The latter choice is recommended because:

1. The anchor should not hold.

2. The chance of damaging the hull with the anchor is minimized
if the windward (or offshore when docking) anchor is used, since
the chain tends away from and clear of the hull.

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 — ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS —

3. It is easier to work the ship up to the dock when using the offshore
anchor, since it does not tend to fetch up as it would when the
ship works across and over an inboard anchor.
4. The outboard anchor can be left in the water, ready to heave the
ship back off the berth, and can be heaved up without damaging
the chain, hull, or antifouling coating.
5. Heaving the chain hard against the hull may damage the chain
and the ship's hull.

By using the outboard (windward) anchor there is less chance that

the anchor will hold even if a little too much chain is inadvertently put
in the water. It is always possible to slack more chain, but a good docking
will come to a halt if the anchor fetches up and the ship has to stop to
heave the chain back in.
When the chain is heaved against the hull, each link bears against
and is bent around the relatively small radius of the hull in the area
of the bow, whether it leads across the stem, under the foot, or around
a bulbous bow, and the chain is therefore subject to damage. The
presence of a bulb is reason enough to avoid using the inboard (lee)
anchor.
The ease with which the offshore anchor can be heaved up is an
important consideration if the anchor must be heaved home after
docking. The offshore anchor comes up easier because of the more direct
lead from hawsepipe to anchor, and without causing any of the
aforementioned damage.
Some mariners are concerned that it might be difficult to stop the
chain after letting go because of the ship's motion over the bottom. This
concern is especially prevalent when handling larger ships. This is not
a problem. Static friction is three times greater than dynamic friction
for a brake band bearing on the windlass's drum. The brake has three
times as much holding power when the wildcat is stopped as when it
is turning. The chain only runs out after the anchor strikes bottom
until it goes slack. The brake is then set up. The anchor digs in as the
chain again comes tight and is then pulled free from the bottom before
static friction is overcome, dragging along as the flukes ball up with
mud. Additional chain can then be slacked to achieve the desired effect.

SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS—HOW MUCH CHAIN?

Have the anchors manned and ready to let go when maneuvering in
restricted waters. Should the anchor be required during a maneuver,

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 — SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS—HOW MUCH CHAIN? —

Fig. 8-13. "I think we should have used the offshore anchor."

let go only enough chain to allow the anchor to first grab and then break
loose and drag. The anchor must not dig in and hold.
For the anchor to be most effective, an amount of chain equal to
about twice the depth should be put well in the water and the brake
screwed up tight. If necessary, the second anchor can also be let go with
a like amount of chain. The ship slows and stops as one or both anchors
drags along the bottom.
There is a common misconception, especially in an emergency, that
a large amount of chain should run out so the anchor digs in and stops
the ship. To stop a vessel in this manner would require the relatively
small brake on the windlass to overcome the inertia of the entire moving
mass of your ship. It will never happen! The brake will probably burn
out and all the chain will run out while the ship continues moving
ahead. If the brake does hold, the chain often parts as it comes tight.
It is most unlikely that a chain would be able to withstand the shock
load and almost instantaneously stop a moving ship as it would be
required to do if the anchor is allowed to dig in hard. Instead, we want
the anchor to break out and relieve the strain on the chain before its
breaking point is reached.

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 — ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS —

What a helpless feeling one has as the ship heads toward a bank
with no engine to slow her headway while the mate on the bow lets the
chain run out to the bitter end in a cloud of dirt and rust! A deeply
laden chemical tanker was transiting the Panama Canal years ago
when the ship's wheel was put the wrong way by the helmsman. The
ship dove for the bank and anchors were ordered let go, only to have
the chain continue to run as shot after shot passed over the wildcat.
The chain did finally stop running and the ship came to a stop—but
only when she was hard against the bank at Contractor's Hill. A ship's
windlass just does not have a large enough brake to stop a loaded ship.
The proper use of anchors is in danger of becoming a lost art. Be
sure all deck officers understand what they are to do with the anchors,
and especially how much chain to slack out, before they go forward to
stand by. Too few mates do!
DOCKING WITH AN ANCHOR
Most dockings can be done using an anchor rather than a tug, although
the tug is generally more convenient.

4
Fig. 8-14. Docking with an anchor.

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 —DOCKING WITH AN ANCHOR —

When using an anchor as an aid in docking, sufficient chain is put

out to eliminate headway when the engine is at dead slow or slow
speeds. How much chain is required? That can only be determined by
increasing the length of the chain a few links at a time until the desired
effect is obtained, since there are several factors affecting the ship and
anchor and their net effect cannot be predicted. When the ship is held
in position laterally and fore and aft, with the engines coming ahead
slowly, you have put out the proper amount of chain.
Drop the anchor well before arriving at the berth and drag it into
position. Done properly, the anchor takes nearly all headway off the
ship, since an amount of chain has been slacked that is sufficient to
slow the ship when the engine is stopped. The ship will make no headway
until the engine revolutions are increased to at least slow ahead. Spend
sufficient time adjusting the length of the chain, putting out a few links
at a time until you feel you have total control over the ship. It is obvious
to the shiphandler when the proper amount of chain is out—the ship
makes no headway at lower engine revolutions as you work her around
the anchor with the rudder and slowly develops headway when revolutions
are increased.
Since the ship slows and stops with her engine stopped as the anchor
drags along the bottom, no twisting occurs and the ship remains shaped
up for the berth.
There is no reason that the engine cannot be put astern if needed,
although this is not usually necessary.
When docking with an anchor down (fig. 8-14):

1. The ship is eased straight ahead toward her berth—adjusting

engine revolutions to maintain the desired speed and using the
rudder to maintain heading.
2. Reduce engine revolutions so the ship loses headway and
3. Use the rudder to change her angle of approach by moving the
stern towards or away from the berth.
4. After her heading is altered, increase engine revolutions to move
the ship ahead, bringing the bow nearer the berth.
5. Reduce revolutions again so the ship loses headway and the bow
moves no farther ahead. Let the engine work slowly ahead and
use the rudder to bring the stern laterally toward the pier or
wharf.

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 - ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS -

In effect, the bow and stern are moved separately as the ship is
docked while excellent control is maintained over forward and lateral
motion. Revolutions are adjusted so the anchor either holds or drags,
and the ship is moved nearly sideways or directly ahead as desired
with a surprising degree of control. The key to docking with the anchor
is slacking sufficient chain so the ship remains in position at low
revolutions but moves ahead as revolutions are increased.
HOLDING A VESSEL WITH THE ANCHOR
Often a ship must proceed at a slow speed with a strong wind on the
beam or maintain her position in a channel because of restricted visibility
or the late arrival of a tug. The anchor greatly simplifies this work, no
matter how large the ship. The technique varies a bit with larger ships
because of the increase in mass, but ships a thousand feet long are
worked against an anchor without difficulty.
A heavy rain squall, with strong winds and blinding rain, strikes
the vessel proceeding up a narrow channel. The rain reduces visibility
and the radar's effectiveness, so the master and pilot are unable to
distinguish the aids or the bank on either side, and the ship is unable
to proceed. This can be a moment of great stress—or the anchor can
be put down until conditions improve.
An anchor is let go and a shot of chain put well in the water. The
brake is set up while the engine is used ahead only to maintain the
vessel's heading, the ship slowly losing headway due to the dragging
anchor. When the ship is dead in the water her engine is put slow or
half ahead and she works against the anchor, additional chain being
slacked as required until the ship just holds her position while the
quartermaster steers by compass to maintain the heading, since no
landmarks are visible. Those on the bridge can now relax, adjusting
the engine revolutions occasionally to allow for changes in the wind
while the ship, which had been setting sideways out of the channel and
not answering her helm, steadies up nicely with the anchor down.
If a single anchor is not sufficient, a second anchor can be put down
in a similar manner. It is best to put that anchor down while the ship
still has some headway, so the chain is laid out properly and the anchor's
flukes fall flat, ensuring that the flukes do not set against the hull. The
amount of chain needed for one or two anchors depends on the profile
of the hull and superstructure; that is, the ship's "sail area," the type
of bottom, and the strength of the wind. Initially a shot is put in the
water and additional chain is slacked until the anchor takes charge of

198
 — ANCHORS TO ASSIST STEERING —

the bow, although the steadying effect of the anchor is felt immediately
after the anchor begins to drag.
Use only a minimum amount of chain until the ship has lost nearly
all her way, since the holding effect of the anchor increases as speed
is lost. You do not want so much chain out that the anchor fetches up
as the ship loses headway.

ANCHORS TO ASSIST STEERING

When meeting another ship in a channel so narrow that there is danger
of sheering as the quarter feels the bank, or when negotiating a turn
smaller than the ship's tactical diameters, or when proceeding at slow
speeds in a strong wind so it is difficult to steer the ship—use your
anchor. The anchor steadies the bow laterally and retards the ship's
headway despite higher engine revolutions—or conversely, higher
revolutions can be used to increase the rudder's effectiveness without
increasing headway.
Less chain is used so the ship maintains some headway as the
anchor drags along the bottom. Let go well before the critical point in
the maneuver so the anchor has time to ball up with mud and you have
time to adjust the amount of chain and achieve the desired effect. The
length of chain is increased a few links at a time until this balance is
found. The amount of chain is not critical so long as so much chain is
not put out that the anchor fetches up.

1. Suction on the quarter causes sheer.

2. Anchor is put down and bow steadies up.
3. Rudder becomes more effective so stern
lifts from the bank.
4. Sheer is broken and ship proceeds safely.

--------------

Fig. 8-15. Anchor used to break a sheer,

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 - ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS -

Once the anchor becomes effective the ship turns in a much smaller
diameter and is easily controlled. The pivot point shifts forward so that
the ship pivots around a point nearer her bow. Advance is reduced,
becoming a factor of the scope of chain and revolutions used during the
turn—that is, the degree to which the anchor is allowed to drag.
Since the pivot point is farther forward, the stern initially swings
in a wider area than it would without the anchor, but the overall turning
diameter is greatly reduced. Steering becomes more precise and the
ship more controllable due to the restricted movement of the bow and
the greater flow over the rudder for a given speed made good over the
bottom.

ANCHORS TO BREAK A SHEER

Should the ship take a sheer, the anchor can be used to regain control
and prevent collision or grounding. It is important, though, that the
anchor not dig in when used at such a time, so minimize the amount
of chain slacked. If the anchor were to fetch up, the already present
sheer would be accentuated because the pivot point then shifts ahead
to the hawsepipe, and the suction of the quarter, in combination with
the rotational momentum already developed, takes charge.
When the anchor is dragging properly, the bow immediately steadies
up and the rudder becomes more effective, the stern lifts away from
the bank, and the sheer is broken. The anchor has checked the swing
of the bow and retarded the ahead movement of the ship while the
engine continues to come ahead, forcing a maximum flow over the
rudder to quickly increase its effectiveness. Needless to say, the
shiphandler has also increased the engine speed to full ahead to break
the sheer (fig. 8-15).
This same effect is used to assist a ship in negotiating a bend with
a radius that is less than the ship's normal turning radius.

EMERGENCY USE OF THE ANCHOR

Today, the anchor is most often used for emergencies, and it is an
extremely effective tool for preventing groundings and accidents when
the engine or steering is lost. Because the ship continues along her
track, slowly losing headway after the anchor is down, she can normally
be brought to a controlled stop if there is sufficient searoom ahead.
Two anchors can be used to increase the stopping force in an
emergency, but neither anchor should be allowed to fetch up for the
reasons explained earlier. If a stern anchor is available, it is manned

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 —EMERGENCY USE OF THE ANCHOR —

in narrow channels and used in the same manner as, and in conjunction
with, the bow anchors. The stern anchor is especially effective for
stopping a ship in a short distance while maintaining her heading and
holding the ship laterally after headway is lost. Obviously, though, if
it is necessary to work the ship around a bend or change her heading
while stopping the stern anchor would not be an appropriate tool. For
further discussion on the use of stern anchors see the section in this
chapter entitled "Stern Anchors."
Some steering control can be maintained despite a loss of rudder
power by making use of the ship's natural behavior in conjunction with
the anchor:

1. The ship can be turned to the right by backing the engine and
taking advantage of the tendency to twist in that direction.
2. The ship can be turned to the left by using bank suction on the
starboard quarter.
3. A conventional ship will turn into the wind when she has headway,
or lie at some large angle to the wind when dead in the water.
4. If a ship develops sternway she tends to back into the wind,
after which the anchor can be put down so the ship backs nearly
straight.

Even with a complete loss of the rudder, a vessel could be backed

away from a lee shore by using the vessel's tendency to back into the
wind once sternway is developed.
If dragging anchors cannot stop the ship before grounding, and if
the bottom is soft, so there is no chance of damaging the hull when the
ship goes aground, slack more chain when one to two ship lengths from
the shoal so the anchor or anchors are laid out and ready to pull the
ship back off. This decision has to be made only by the master at the
moment of crisis, but it is an option that is available. The shiphandler's
responses to such situations are more effective if possible emergencies
are considered before they arise and action is preplanned. When things
go wrong they go wrong in a hurry, and reaction time is brief; by
planning for such contingencies the response can be instinctive and
immediate.
Putting the engine full astern is often the worst response if steering
is lost. The properly used anchor will stop a ship in a reasonable distance,
and backing should be minimized in such situations because of the
ship's tendency to twist and behave with less predictability.

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 — ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS —

Current

Fig. 846. Lying alongside a bank.

Anchors are also the mariner's most effective tool when the engine
is lost. The rudder can be used so a ship can be steered and drifted until
she is nearly dead in the water. Do not be too quick to get the anchors
down in this case, since once the anchor takes charge much of the
rudder's effectiveness is lost due to the stabilizing effect of the dragging
anchor. When possible, wait until the ship loses steerageway or until
a straight reach lies ahead before letting the anchor go to stop the ship.
Due to the stress of the moment, and despite the shiphandler's
acquired ability to function under pressure and make immediate
decisions for which he alone holds total responsibility, the master may
hesitate to use the anchors in an emergency situation. This hesitation
is born of lack of confidence. From time to time get to the pilot station
early and put an anchor underfoot so that you can perform the maneuvers
that have been discussed. Let the other mates try them as well. Confidence
comes with practice.

LYING ALONGSIDE A BANK

At times it is necessary to anchor a ship in a narrow channel and be
confident that she will not swing with the tide or lie across the channel
and impede the movement of other vessels. I f the bank has a steep
gradient and is of a soft material, such as mud or clay, the ship can be

Fig. 8-17. Moving a ship astern with an anchor.

202
 - GOING ASTERN WITH AN ANCHOR -

put alongside and held with the anchor regardless of the direction of
the wind and current.
I f the current is from astern the ship is brought to the starboard
side of the channel and speed is reduced to bare steerageway. Drop the
outboard or port anchor and slack the chain until the same control is
gained as in previous maneuvers. Do not put out so much chain that
the ship stops before she is alongside the bank. If the anchor fetches
up too soon the current from astern takes charge and causes the ship
to get crosswise in the channel. Ease the ship ahead against the anchor,
and as the ship nears the bank, put the rudder to port. Reduce RPM
or stop the engine and lay the ship easily alongside at a slight angle to
the bank. The stern lies against the bank and the anchor holds the bow
off as the current from aft strikes the hull on the port side (fig. 8-16).
Should the current change direction, come ahead with a few
revolutions and put the rudder hard to starboard to lift the stern. Let
the ship fall back with the current, kicking the engine ahead as necessary
to keep the stern off the bank until the ship is riding to her anchor. The
eddy current between the bank and the hull then usually holds the ship
a short distance off the bank so she lies nicely until the next change in
the current. The ship is later put alongside as the tide turns and floods
again, the procedure being repeated as necessary for as long as the ship
needs to remain at anchor.
GOING ASTERN WITH AN ANCHOR
A ship being maneuvered astern for any distance can use an anchor
underfoot to steady the bow and make the ship back almost directly
astern. The anchor replaces a bow tug, and the engine is used to move
the ship astern, either unassisted or with a tug on a hawser astern to
tow the ship.
Skill is required when using the engine alone in this manner, since
the ship pivots to some degree when the engine turns astern, even
though the anchor is steadying the bow. As the ship backs with the
anchor down the resultant motion is almost directly astern, the stern
walking to port at a much lesser rate than it would when backing
without the anchor underfoot (fig. 8-17). When the stern does begin
moving to port, the engine is stopped and kicked ahead with hard-over
rudder to bring the ship back to the desired heading and then the
backing maneuver is resumed.

203
 - ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS -

Should the anchor be allowed to fetch up so all astern motion is

lost, the ship walks only to port. It is therefore important that only the
minimum chain required to steady the bow is used.
When using an anchor in this manner in a strong wind a tug must
also be used aft on a hawser. The anchor holds the bow up to the wind
while the tug pulls the ship astern and holds the stern up to the wind.
In this case, slack the chain until the bow no longer falls off as the tug
pulls astern and to windward. Due to the heavy strain on the anchor
the ship's engine is needed to assist the tug during the maneuver. It
will probably be necessary to increase the amount of chain used once
the ship begins moving astern under these conditions, since the anchor
balls up with mud and loses some holding power. When the bow starts
to feel the wind slack chain—if the anchor fetches up increase revolutions
astern to work it free. The tug continues to pull throughout the maneuver,
since it is primarily holding the stern to windward while assisting the
engine to move the ship aft.

204
 Chapter 9

SPECIAL MANEUVERS
Captain Ironsides was as cool as a cucumber. He moved his ship
about with geometric precision . . . the ship seemed to perform a
slow, formal dance to the accompaniment of whistles and kettledrums;
every move followed a rigid pattern.
—Jan de Hartog, The Distant Shore

The morning is wet and still. A light mist born of chill night air still
lingering within the jungle's ferns and coconut palms rises vapor-like
up the sides of the cone-shaped hills. Even the hard case seaman lingers
on deck to enjoy this morning as his containership eases slowly toward
Gatun Locks and begins her crossing from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
The Panama Canal severs the Isthmus of Panama, forever changing
the patterns of world commerce, but altering not one bit of the tropic
splendor of this land.
Thousands of ships each year parade up, over, and then down the
far side of the spine of Central America, yet so professionally do the
pilots and others involved with this enterprise work that the innately
impressive operation seems routine, almost mundane, to casual observers.
To seamen, though, whether old hands or first trippers, the Panama
Canal is fascinating. Ships anchor, berth, meet in narrow channels,
lock up and down, and maneuver in wind, tropic rain squall, fog, and
spill current with and without tugs; the canal is a microcosm of the
shiphandler's world.
The pilot watches from the starboard wing, radio in hand, preparing
to put this ship smoothly into the lock with but 2 feet of clearance on
each side. His skills and confidence are a product of hundreds, even
thousands, of transits.
"South four, this is Gatun east side. We have your ship scheduled
for twelve wires, and will be back for her in. about ten minutes."
"Roger."
A laconic reply, but all that is needed.
Time is paramount if the canal is to operate safely and efficiently,
so the ship continues to ease steadily toward the lock, moving at the pace
of a slow walk to arrive at the center wall simultaneously with the

205
 - SPECIAL MANEUVERS -

locomotives returning down the mile-long track from the ship ahead.
Few words are spoken. The silent lockage is a characteristic of the
Panama Canal transit, of which the pilots are justly proud.
Heaving lines drop from the ship to the small skiff lying off the now
horizontal arrow at the north end of the center wall—the Pacific lies just
eight hours away.

CANALS AND LOCKS

Mariners routinely handle ships in canals and locks throughout their
careers at sea, be they the locks at the entrance to the tidal basin in
Bombay or Buenos Aires, or those at the Panama or Welland Canal.
Each passage is unique, since specific approach and lockage techniques
vary to suit the conditions of a particular port or waterway. By
understanding the problems and methods common to most of these
facilities the mariner can develop an appreciation of their operation.
Most seafarers transit the Panama Canal at some point, so this
waterway will serve as a basis for discussing shiphandling at all such
installations. This canal presents a composite of conditions found in
most lock-type canals—fresh- and saltwater sections, single and multiple
locks carrying ships up and down, and a restricted channel with all its
inherent shiphandling problems.
A passage through locks can be divided into four segments: the
approach, entrance, fill, and departure. During the lockage a ship is
affected by the same laws of hydrodynamics and the same effects of
wind and current as a docking vessel, and also the combined effects of
the spill and turbidity currents found to some degree at all locks. It is
a common misconception that there are no currents in the Panama
Canal, or at other lock-type canals. In fact, there are strong currents
that can reach a velocity of 3 to 4 knots at the lock's entrance (jaws).
A huge amount of water flows from a lock chamber as its level is
lowered, forming a spill current that follows a predictable pattern for
which the pilot must compensate during the approach (fig. 9-1). The
spill current is primarily a surface current, and its effect varies with
the ship's draft.
Many locks connect two bodies of water of different density. For
example, the last or sea-end lock at the Panama Canal moves the ship
from the canal's fresh water lake and locks to the Atlantic or Pacific
Ocean's salt water. A complex density current forms when those lock
gates are opened and the heavier water on one side of the gates mixes
with and displaces the less dense water on the other side. While the

206
 — CANALS AND LOCKS —

7 , - _ . + 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . " - . - - - . - . . . . . . - . , , , . . . , . . , . y -,......
...„......,••• . . - -- -- - .. .. ..._`,.....
. . . . . , . . -. "
_*.• . . „ . . ---..,,
,,,---•'' - - - a . ' , . , . . ` , , , , , , .......,...

_ _ _ _ - ----- -

_ ____ --- _ _ _ _ - - • • • 1.• ' ' ' . . . .

--- , ____-•- - - - . . , --------a - * . s''',,,

-... - - . . . . . . , . 1 / 4

Center wall

Fig. 9-1. General surface current diagram.

surface pattern of the turbidity current is similar to that of the spill

current, below the surface the heavier water forms a current flowing
in the opposite direction, toward and under the lighter fresh water,
affecting the ship in varying degrees and directions depending on her
draft and the period of time that the masses of the water have been
mixing. In the Panama Canal specifically, the more dense salt water
outside the entrance to the first lock (the "sea entrance") begins to
displace the lighter fresh water in the chamber as soon as the gates
are opened. As the fresh water is displaced it flows out of the chamber
in a strong surface current reaching down to a depth of 20 to 25 feet.
Because of these currents, the pilot may have the gates kept closed
until the ship is almost to the jaws (entrance) of the lock and until the
bow wires are aboard the ship and fast. At other times this current will
be allowed to dissipate before a large Panamax-class ship approaches
the locks.
At the Panama Canal, ships follow an "S" pattern as they approach
the locks to compensate for this complex current pattern (fig. 9-2).
Compare figure 9-1 with figure 9-2, and it is obvious why ships approach
in this manner. The current flows strongly for about thirty minutes
after the water stops spilling from the chamber, the gates are opened,
and the spill current and density current combine to affect the approaching
ship.

207
 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

The distance between the ship and the center approach wall varies
depending on ship size, the current strength, and the ship's draft.
Smaller ships approach the center wall in the area of the jaws, or
the entrance locks, and then bring the stern in toward the wall as the
bow enters the locks and the locomotives are made fast. Larger or more
deeply laden ships are kept closer to the center wall during the approach
as shown in figure 9-2, and in the case of Panamax ships, the bow or
the entire ship is brought hard up against the center wall prior to the
time the ship reaches the entrance to the lock chamber.
Speed of approach is very important, because the engine will have
to be kicked ahead to alter the ship's heading as the ship nears the jaws.
So long as speed is reduced to a minimum during the approach (usually
1 to 2 knots is satisfactory), the engine can be used as needed without
developing excessive speed at the entrance. Speed is critical at the
Panama Canal, since the locomotives move at a maximum towing speed
of 3 knots and thus cannot put wires aboard a ship that exceeds that
speed.
At the locks a ship must have only an officer and crewmembers
forward and aft to operate the line handling winches, and supply two
mooring lines at the bow and stern in case it is necessary to tie up at
some point. The canal seamen supply all other gear. Other canals, such

----------- ------
—
- - - - - _ „ ---- . . . . . . . . .

Center wall

4)

.............. -•
Knuckle

Fig. 9-2. Allowing for current during lock approach.

208
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as the Welland Canal and Saint Lawrence Seaway, require the ship to
supply all gear and to handle her own lines. Local rules must be carefully
read to determine the requirements of a particular waterway.
Communication is by walkie-talkie, with hand signals to back up
the radio in case of failure. The ship's whistle is also used to communicate
a danger signal to the lockmaster and locomotives should some problem
develop.
Anchors are kept ready for letting go but must be stowed in the
hawsepipe, rather than backed out, so the wires and messengers will
not be fouled on the flukes.
Tugs are used in the same manner as discussed in previous chapters
to assist larger ships during the approach. The bow—or the entire
midbody of large, deeply loaded ships—is held against the fendering
on the center wall by the tugs and locomotives during the latter stages
of the approach. This minimizes the risk that the current will force the
ship's bow into the knuckle, as pilots call the corner where the side
approach wall meets the side wall of the lock chamber. (See figure 9-2.)
The tugs are kept working, using the tug signals discussed earlier in
this text, to adjust the tug's power and push the hull against the center
wall until the bow is well into the chamber.
Interestingly, there are significant differences between the methods
used by very experienced pilots putting the same Panamax-class ships
into the locks.
Some pilots put the entire ship against the wall. They hold her flat
alongside, with the locomotives and tugs, until the forward sections of
the parallel midbody pass inside the locks. The theory is that by keeping
the ship alongside the wall, the hull is as far as possible from the knuckle.
More important, because the ship is tight alongside, there is no way for
the current to get between the ship and the wall to force the ship away
from the center wall.
Other pilots believe this is quite wrong. They hold the bow alongside,
but allow the stern to stay a few feet from the wall while they slide the
ship into the locks. This group believes the ship actually stays alongside
easier if it is angled toward the wall. If the bow does get off the wall, it
can be easily brought back alongside because water can flow freely
astern, rather than being trapped between the hull and the wall. This
seems to be borne out by the fact that only one tug is needed to keep
the ship alongside during the operations, and even that tug usually
comes ahead only at a slow speed, rather than being used full ahead as
is needed using the first method.

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The second method is used by a growing number of pilots who find

they have less problem keeping the bow clear of the side wall if the
stern is not hard alongside. The point, though, is that both methods
work well. Which is best? The method the pilot feels most comfortable
with, or as a pilot might say, "what works for you." There are obviously
wrong ways to do a job, but since thousands of Panamax ships have
been put safely into locks for the better part of a century using either
method, it is really only a matter of personal preference. Keep this in
mind the next time someone insists there is only one way to do a job.
T'ain't so, as the aforementioned variations in working by some of the
finest shiphandlers in the world clearly demonstrate. Again, it is only
important to understand shiphandling techniques and principles of
hydrodynamics, plan ahead, use external forces to advantage, and to
do the job in the manner with which you are most comfortable.
The lockage procedure is the same regardless of whether the pilot
puts only the ship's bow or the entire midbody alongside. Wires are
taken from the locomotives as the ship passes along the center wall,
the number of wires depending on the displacement and length of the
ship as determined using an empirical formula developed over nearly
a century of operation. Sidewall wires are taken aboard during the
entrance stage of the lockage, and when aboard, are used to center the
ship and assist her in moving into the chamber. The engine is used
throughout the approach to move the ship and to position the stern.
Larger ships must be driven into the lock, often at full ahead. Their
beam and draft fills the cross-sectional area of the chamber so that the
water cannot flow out as it is displaced by the entering ship and a piston
effect is created.
Using the wires from the locomotive's two constant tension winches,
and the braking and towing effect derived from the undercarriage drive
that meshes into the drive rack, up to 70,000 pounds of pull is exerted
on the ship by each locomotive. The rack is between the locomotive
tracks that parallel the chamber. The "mules" are positioned ahead of
the ship's chock to center and tow the ship, or abeam or abaft the chock
to center or brake the ship as necessary, depending on the instructions
received from the pilot over the walkie-talkie. A set of idler wheels
under the locomotive locks into the cambered sides of the drive rack to
ensure the locomotive is not pulled into the chamber.
All locomotives are shifted to a braking position abaft the chocks
as the ship nears the gate ahead and she is stopped in the chamber to
await flooding or filling. Due to the aforementioned piston effect large

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ships practically stop themselves after the engine and locomotives are
stopped. Often a ship's master is needlessly concerned that the ship is
going to strike the gates ahead, not realizing that the vessel actually
tends to stop on her own. In the Saint Lawrence Seaway and other
locks without locomotives, the vessel is stopped using the engine and
piston effect alone, an effect that increases rapidly as the blockage
factor approaches unity.
The entrance phase complete, all locomotives shorten up their wires
to get the best lead to hold the ship centered as the chamber fills. The
immense gate valves are opened, the water flowing down the length of
the center and side walls and through lateral culverts beneath the ship.
(The design and construction of this engineering masterpiece makes
interesting reading and several recommended titles can be found in
the bibliography.) The ship is usually held in the center of the chamber
in the Panama Canal while the water level is raised or lowered. In
other waterways that use ship's lines or wires rather than shore-based
locomotives, the ship is kept hard alongside the wall during the fill or
spill.
Up and down lockages differ greatly. The ship lies quietly during
a down lockage as the placid water drains out from under her. During
an up lockage, though, the ship surges heavily as the water comes into
the chamber at a high rate, either from the bottom or side, depending
on the design of the lock. Filling from the bottom is preferable because
the movement of the water is then primarily vertical and the ship is
less likely to be forced into the wall. The positioning of the vessel—
centered or alongside the wall—is peculiar to the lock system, but in
all cases the ship must be held in that position throughout the fill and
not allowed to develop any athwartship movement. A ship held alongside
by proper fendering will not be damaged, nor can there be any damage
to a ship held in the center of the chamber. When a ship starts to move
about in the chamber, the forces acting on her sides become unbalanced
and she begins to surge, developing momentum and probably being
damaged as she comes alongside one wall or the other.
The fill or spill is completed and the massive gates open as the ship
moves ahead using her engine and the towing locomotives. A large ship
is further assisted out to the locks by putting water into the chamber
behind her; she is "flushed out" of the chamber. The displaced water
does not then have to flow through the restricted area between the ship
and the lock walls and floor as the ship departs the chamber—instead
a head of water is created behind the ship to assist her in leaving.

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Center wall

Fig. 9-3. Keeping sufficient angle as the ship clears the jaws.

As the ship clears the jaws (fig. 9-3) she is put at an angle with the
bow away from the center wall. This angle helps to compensate for the
imbalance of pressures as the ship passes along the center wall after
clearing the chamber. The wall affects the ship in the same manner as
the close bank described in chapter 2. By keeping sufficient angle,
maintaining a balance between the turning couple created by the rudder
and the suction effects on her quarter as she moves along the wall, the
ship is slowly steamed from the locks. Alternatively, some pilots choose
to put the ship against the center wall fendering and slide along until
the ship is clear, especially when moving larger ships that will usually
be drawn on to the center wall anyway. The previously discussed currents
at the seaward ends of the locks assist a departing ship to clear the
center wall and the ship can basically be steamed straight from the last
(sea-end) chamber.
Since the ship obeys the same physical laws and is handled in the
same manner as for any other narrow channel during her passage
across Gatun Lake and through the narrow and rock-edged channel of
Gaillard Cut, any discussion of that phase of the transit would be
redundant. Suffice it to say that this transit offers an excellent opportunity
for the mariner to observe ship behavior when maneuvering and when
meeting other ships in confined waters.

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 — PANAMA CANAL EXPANSION PROJECT —

Courtesy Authoridad de Panama Canal

PANAMA CANAL EXPANSION PROJECT

The Panama Canal Expansion Project has had several major impacts
on worldwide shipping, and as ships begin to transit the newly-constructed
locks, it is worth discussing some of those impacts. The largest affect
of the new locks is their ability to handle larger vessels, which has led
to the construction of ships designed to the new lock parameters. The
original locks, that began operating in 1914, were 1,050 ft. (320.04 m)
in length, 110 ft. (33.53 m) in width, and 41.2 ft. (1,256 m) in depth.
Panamax vessels could not exceed the dimensional limit of 965 ft. in
length, 106 ft. i n beam, and 39.5 ft. i n draft. Neo-Panamax (New
Panamax) vessels have maximum dimensions of 1,200 ft. (366 m) in
length, 160.7 ft. (49 m) in beam, and may transit at a maximum proposed
depth of 49.9 ft. (15.2 m). As an example, Panamax containerships were
roughly 5,000 TEU and New Panamax ships are roughly 13,000 TEU.
These New Panamax vessels, especially the containerships, present a
new challenge to shiphandlers and port facilities. Ship officers and
pilots have been undergoing simulator training to prepare for these
vessels, and continue to gain valuable hands-on experience as new ships
are constructed. Port authorities have had to ensure that their ports
are capable of receiving these vessels to remain competitive with other
ports in their region. These impacts have been widely discussed in other
publications, but it is worth noting that those that will be handling
these vessels, together with the tug masters that will be assisting them,

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have spent considerable time honing their skills. Initially, most of this
training and preparation has been conducted using simulators, but as
these vessels have come into use, mariners have been putting theory
into practice. Skilled mariners are working with port authorities to
ensure that these vessels can be handled safely and efficiently. Technology
has played a large role. Simulators have been used to train shiphandlers
and tug crews, to test current port facilities' abilities to accommodate
these ships, and to design new port facilities and make modifications
to existing ports. Technology also plays a role in handling these ships.
Shiphandlers using DGPS-based piloting units and other electronic
aids together with traditional skills, are able to maneuver these vessels
more accurately, and navigate with greater precision.
The new locks in Panama are different from the original locks in
several significant ways in addition to being larger. There are two sets
of locks—Agua Clara on the Atlantic side and Cocoli on the Pacific
side—with Gatun Lake in the middle. Each set of locks employs three
chambers to raise the ship to the level of Gatun Lake and lower it again
to sea level. The locks each employ a series of water basins that are
designed to permit water to be recycled for lockages. Locomotives or
mules" will no longer be employed to assist ships during the lockage;
instead, their role will be filled by tugs. Additionally, there is no approach
wall on the Agua Clara locks when entering from the Gatun Lake side.
The lack of an approach wall and locomotives places greater reliance
on the skill of the pilot and on the use of tugs to ensure safe passage
through the locks. The Panama Canal expansion project has just entered
its final phase before full operation and it is too early to discuss the
particular methods employed by pilots guiding Neo-Panamax vessels
through the canal. However, it is a certainty that new techniques will
be gleaned from the experience of these skilled shiphandlers and from
all mariners involved with these massive ships.
SINGLE-POINT MOORINGS
Few ports in the world can accommodate deeply loaded VLCCs and
ULCCs, so offshore oil terminals, such as the LOOP terminal in the Gulf
of Mexico, are being constructed as a practical and efficient alternative.
The LOOP terminal is typical of offshore ports using single-point
moorings. The facilities at LOOP lie in water ranging from 100 to 125
feet in depth, approximately 19 miles off the Louisiana coast. The
designated port area is reached via a defined fairway under the guidance
of a pilot/mooring master.

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 — SINGLE-POINT MOORINGS —

After completion of a prearrival inspection to ensure that a visiting

VLCC or ULCC meets the statutory requirements for tank vessels, she
is brought into the terminal area, in which three single-point moorings
(SPMs) and the pumping platform are located. The ship is turned to
the heading at which she will lie after mooring is completed and brought
up to the buoy.
Unless the ship has been at anchor in the vicinity of the port area,
the best indication of the required approach heading is the direction
in which the floating cargo hoses trail from the buoy. Coming from the
anchorage, the ship approaches on the heading at which she was lying
while at anchor; the ship does not know whether she is swinging on
the buoy or the anchor and will lie at the same heading in either case.
If coming from sea, approach straight up the hoses, since they at least
lie to a resultant of the surface current and the prevailing wind. I t
would be advantageous to have a current meter at a mid-draft depth
of 40 feet on the buoy anchor chain to supply subsurface current
information, and such equipment should be installed on all SPMs in
the future.
Since tugs are not generally used, the ship must approach on a
heading that balances the forces of wind and current or she will be
set away from the buoy before the mooring lines and chafing chains
are brought aboard (fig. 9-4). The relative effects of wind and current

Pickup buoy
(chafing chain
suspended below)

Wind
\\

Hawser
Pickup line

Fig. 9-4. Approaching a single-point mooring.

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

depend not only on their absolute forces and direction relative to the
ship's heading, but also on the ship's draft. Refer again to the discussion
in chapter 5 on wind versus current forces. I t would seem that,
because of the VLCC's greater draft, the current would usually
overcome the wind, but this is not the case. VLCCs have a great deal
of sail area, and even a 15-knot wind significantly affects the approach
heading—that heading is a result of the wind and current in all but
the lightest breeze.
The heading is adjusted during the final stages of the approach when
effects of the outside forces increase geometrically as the ship's headway
decreases to the less than 1-knot speed that is necessary to safely complete
this evolution. Once the proper approach heading is found, the ship
maintains that heading without a large amount of rudder and will not
set laterally away from the buoy; the buoy remains at the same relative
bearing fine on the port bow. This feel that the ship is "in a groove" is one
of the best indications that the proper heading has been found.
Instrumentation, especially a Doppler log reading speed over the ground
laterally and fore and aft, is especially helpful at this point, since a heading
that eliminates all sideward motion over the ground can quickly be
determined, as well as speed over the ground toward the buoy.

Fig. 9-5. SPM pickup rope and chafing chain.

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 — SINGLE-POINT MOORINGS —

There is greater room for error in determining the approach heading

if tugs are available, but the technique for approaching and mooring
remains the same.
Speed of approach is important of course, and by using methods
discussed in previous chapters to slow the ship the approach can be
completed efficiently while ensuring that speed is reduced to minimum
steerageway for the last few ship lengths of the maneuver. Most
important is the significant reduction of headway during large changes
in course typical with ships of this size; if the ship has to change heading
during the approach she can proceed at a greater speed prior to the
course alteration. Plan one large change of heading during the last
stage of the approach rather than using a series of small alterations in
course as would normally be done when approaching a berth. The ship
can then approach at 3 to 4 knots until the course change, rather than
approaching at 1 to 2 knots on her final heading, and the last 2 miles
can be covered in about one hour, rather than the two or more hours
that would be required at 1 knot. Since the approach with a VLCC is
made over a distance measured in miles rather than feet, these
considerations are significant.
The ship is steadied on her final heading well before reaching the
buoy, since there are usually no tugs to check any residual swing after

Fig. 9-6. "The toughest part of putting a VLCC to a mooring is remembering that
the guys on the bow may be in a different time zone."

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

the ship loses headway/steerageway. Despite their 75- to 80-foot drafts,

VLCCs and ULCCs generally steer very well at minimal speeds with
the engine stopped, so this final approach can be made at very slow
speeds. During the final 600 feet of the approach, the crew heaves the
pickup line aboard under the direction of the assistant mooring master,
the ship proceeding with only minimum headway so she can be stopped
when 100 feet from the buoy. The pickup line brings the chafing chain
aboard to be made fast with either a chain stopper or Smit bracket (fig.
9-5). The chain stopper, which resembles the traditional riding pawl
assembly used for the ship's anchor, is preferable to the Smit bracket,
since there are no connecting links and shackles to handle and the
mooring can thus be completed faster and more safely.
The pickup hawsers are not to be used to heave the 350,000- to
600,000-ton ships to the SPM. The ship must be steamed to the buoy
while these lines are used only to bring the chafing chain aboard.
Two service craft are generally used to assist during the mooring:
one moving the hoses off to the ship's port hand and clear and the other
bringing the mooring lines to the ship to be brought aboard. The hoses
and buoy are kept on the ship's port bow so the ship can pass clear

Fig. 9-7. Chain stoppers for mooring a VLCC at a single-point mooring.

218
 — SINGLE-POINT MOORINGS —

without damaging the installation if there is any error in estimating

the stopping distance required. The port bow is chosen because the
ship's bow swings to starboard, away from the hose and buoy, if the
engine is put astern. Do not have the boat pull the hoses clear to port
until the ship has nearly reached them, since the hose string is used
to determine the approach heading.
A second pilot or assistant mooring master must be on the bow as
the ship approaches the SPM. When within a few hundred feet of the
bow, the buoy is no longer visible from the bridge and the assistant
mooring master then conns the ship, giving helm and engine orders
via the walkie-talkie to the mooring master. For this reason the man
on the bow should also be a pilot qualified to handle ships of this size.
Communication is by UHF walkie-talkie with VHF backup. The
ship supplies two 20-fathom messengers to bring the buoy pickup lines
aboard and any of the international standard mooring systems, such
as:

1. Bow chain stoppers (fig. 9-7) designed to accept the 76.1- m m

(3-inch) section of chafing chain. (This is the preferred mooring
system.)
2. Smit brackets built to Oil Companies International Marine
Forum (OCIMF) standard dimensions.
3. Mooring bitts suitably positioned and of adequate strength.

In all cases the ship must have two closed chocks leading fair to
the mooring equipment that are suitable for the 76.1-mm (3-inch)
chafing chain.
A mooring line must be ready aft to be used by the workboat as
required to hold the ship off the SPM during discharge. Constant
attention is required during the discharge operation to be sure the ship
does not ride up on the hoses and buoy. It is usually necessary to use
the ship's engine astern at 8 to 10 revolutions or a line boat pulling
astern to prevent this. Because the wind and current are usually at
some angle to each other, the ship sails up to and across the buoy, much
as she tacks back and forth across her anchor in an anchorage.
Despite her deep draft, a loaded VLCC is as much affected by the
wind as a smaller ship, since she presents a sail area of the same
proportion to the below water hull as any other vessel.
When the mooring is completed, the hoses are picked up from the
water and bolted up using ship's gear under the supervision of the

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

assistant mooring master. The equipment used for the actual oil transfer
operation is beyond the scope of this text.
Except in the worst of weather, it is possible for the ship to make
up and to stay at an SPM. The primary limiting factor is the sea state
during the makeup, as even moderate seas make it impossible for the
line boats to handle the hoses.
So long as speed is kept down to bare steerageway during the final
approach and the ship is put on a heading close to that at which she
will lie after mooring, the maneuver to make up at an SPM is a safe
and straightforward task (fig. 9-8).

SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING
by Capt. William Deaton, Lightering Master,
and Capt. Marshall Irwin, Lightering Master
A great deal of offshore ship-to-ship lightering is being done throughout
the world, especially off the coast of the United States, where the shallow
ports and the lack of offshore facilities make lightering necessary so
oil can be imported in very large crude carriers. Offshore lightering is
less efficient than transfer via conventional multiple- or single-point
mooring facilities, but it is a workable substitute with which the mariner
should be familiar. For clarity, the abbreviation VLCC as used throughout
this section includes the very large crude carrier and her still larger
relative, the ultra large crude carrier.
Certain preparations are necessary prior to putting a smaller
"offtaker" (a smaller ship that accepts the oil from the VLCC) alongside
a VLCC. Under supervision of the lightering or mooring master fenders
are rigged on the port side of the offtaker. These fenders are placed on
the offtaker, even though it would be more expedient to rig them on
the VLCC, which will be receiving a number of ships as her cargo is
discharged. By having the fenders on the smaller ship when she comes
alongside, the shiphandler is able to ensure that the offtaker lands on
the fenders. If the fenders were on the VLCC it would be possible for
the offtaker to land between fenders and damage one or both ships.
Two types of fenders are used while lightering. Four or more large
floating "Yokohama" type fenders, specially fitted for lightering, are
floated along the parallel midbody of the offtaker, and two smaller
"pillow" type fenders are hung off, one at the shoulder forward and
the other on the quarter. Typically, the floating fenders are made fast
by a wire leading from a forward bitt on the ship's deck down to the
first fender floating along the ship's side. A mooring line joins each

220
 — SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING —

Fig. 9-8. Completed mooring at an SPM. Courtesy LOOP, Incorporated

221
 - SPECIAL MANEUVERS -

fender and another line runs back up to a bitt on the ship's after deck
(fig. 9-9).
Have all the necessary equipment laid out and ready aboard both
ships before the operation begins. Walkie-talkies are used for
communication between the mooring masters on the bridges of the two
ships and between the bridge, bow, and stern of each vessel. Have
several long 3-inch messengers and sufficient heaving lines on hand
forward and aft to run the mooring lines.
Mooring lines with synthetic tails are laid out to be taken first from
the offtaker and later from the VLCC as the mooring operation is
completed. It is important that the wires have synthetic tails or pendants
so the ships can break apart quickly in an emergency. The weather can
deteriorate with surprising quickness, and it may not always be possible
to slack off mooring lines so they can be let go. A small crew can handle
synthetic tails more easily, and the synthetic tails absorb some of the
shock of loading if the ships do begin to work against each other after
mooring. The tails can be cut to break apart as a last resort in an
emergency.
The mooring master aboard the offtaker has overall command of
the mooring, while the second mooring master aboard the VLCC
maintains a steady course and speed as required by the offtaker. The
VLCC steams into the wind and sea at the minimum speed possible,
only kicking the engine ahead to maintain steerageway. This minimizes
the hydrodynamic effects between the two ships, especially the effect
of the accelerated flow between them that draws the ships together and
causes them to land with excessive force. These are full-bodied, relatively
low-powered merchant vessels, and the maneuver for putting these
ships together is much different from that described for underway
replenishment maneuvers with fine-lined, high-powered, highly
maneuverable naval vessels. A constant speed and heading are
maintained by the VLCC while the light offtaker comes alongside to
make fast. If a cross swell makes it impossible to head into both sea
and swell and keep the ships from rolling, abort the lightering operation
until the cross swell moderates.
The offtaker approaches the starboard side of the VLCC, remaining
wide until abeam of the flat parallel midbody of the larger vessel. It is
very important that the smaller ship stays clear of the VLCC's quarter,
since suction between the ships in that area will draw the offtaker
rapidly into the larger ship's quarter (fig. 9-10). When parallel to the
VLCC's midbody so both ships are heading into the wind, begin easing

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 — SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING —

Fig. 9-9. Rigging fenders for ship-to-ship lightering. Courtesy Gulf Oil and
Seward International

223
 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

0
Fig. 9-10. Keep the offtaker's bow clear of the VLCC's quarter while going
alongside.

the smaller ship alongside while using the wind as a tug—keep the
wind on the starboard bow to bring the offtaker alongside, or put the
wind on the port bow if she is closing too rapidly. The wind has a
significant effect on the offtaker at this point since she is light prior to
loading.
Continue to keep the smaller ship flat to the VLCC as she lands to
spread the force of landing over the entire midbody of the offtaker. Land
on all the floating fenders simultaneously to create the maximum
hydraulic cushion between the ships to check up the lateral motion.
The offtaker first passes a forward spring to the VLCC, followed by
two headlines to work against while the remaining lines are run. The
course is then changed to put the wind on the offtaker's starboard bow
to hold her alongside.
Although the pattern of lines can vary depending on the deck layout
of the two ships, the suggested lines are (fig. 9-11):

1. Offtaker runs 5 headlines, 2 forward springs, 2 after springs

leading from the main deck forward to the VLCC, and 3 sternlines.
2. VLCC runs 3 wire headlines, 2 forward spring wires, and 2 stern
wires. Be sure to get 2 good spring lines run from the VLCC's
main deck in the area of her manifold, leading aft to the offtaker
towing springs, to tow the smaller ship during the operation.

Always run all lines regardless of the weather conditions or prognosis

at the time, since the running of lines is a time consuming operation
that may not be possible later if the weather deteriorates.
If weather permits, anchor the VLCC prior to hooking up hoses.
Use minimum revolutions astern to stop the two ships, drifting headway
off the ships rather than backing, so that a combination of the momentum

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 — SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING —

First lines (from offtaker)

• Main deck spring
• Two headlines
• Two after springs
Fig. 9-11. General arrangement of lines for lightering.

of the offtaker plus the quickwater moving up between the ships as the
VLCC goes astern does not force the ships apart and part their lines.
Should weather and sea conditions later change, the VLCC heaves up
and resumes steaming slowly on a heading that minimizes rolling.
Steam at minimum speed throughout the operation if it is not possible
to anchor. The rate-of-turn indicator is used to steer at minimum speeds,
kicking the engine ahead only to check any swing that develops. By
maneuvering in this manner the heading is maintained into the wind
and sea while headway remains almost nil. Keep the wind and sea a
point on the VLCC's port bow during the transfer so the larger ship
can provide a lee for the offtaker.
The ships remain together for the transfer operation unless sea
conditions deteriorate and the ships begin rolling. There is then a danger
of parting the ship's lines and hoses. Do not wait until the weather
deteriorates so much that lines start to part, as it then becomes too
dangerous to let go, and a vessel finds herself in a position of being
unable to stay alongside and unable to let go safely. Watch the weather
reports and local conditions, and break up the operation before conditions
deteriorate (fig. 9-12).
Keep the lines tight and the deck well lighted throughout the
operation, as good seamanship dictates for any berthing situation.
Retain the ballast aboard the offtaker for as long as possible while oil
is being transferred. The sooner the offtaker develops a deeper draft,
the sooner the wind's effect on her decreases and the operation stabilizes.
Keep sufficient crew on deck. The lines require more attention and are
more difficult to handle than at a terminal, since the drafts of the two
ships simultaneously change in opposite directions.

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

It may be necessary to get underway on short notice to either steam

as a unit or break apart, so keep the engine ready to maneuver at all
times.
When the transfer has been completed, let go all the VLCC's lines
and single up the offtaker's lines to two headlines, a forward spring,
a breast line aft, and the after main deck spring that leads forward to
the main deck of the VLCC. This line keeps the offtaker from sliding
aft under the VLCC's quarter and is used to work against as the offtaker
is broken away from the larger ship; it will be the last line let go. Throw
off the headlines, then the lines aft as the bows begin to separate. If
there is no wind, heave on the after breast line to bring the bow off
and then work against the main deck spring line to develop a significant
angle to the VLCC. Steam slowly away from the larger ship, again
keeping the wind on the port or inner bow as the "poor man's tug" to
separate the ships.
If the ships are already underway at the completion of the transfer
the lines are taken in the same order, but the force of the water passing
between the two ships is used to separate them as you hold the last
spring line aft. When there is sufficient angle between the ships, let go
the last line and depart without increasing speed until the ships are
well separated. Avoid increasing the flow between the ships, as this
would create suction and draw them together again.
Done properly, the offshore lightering operation can be completed
safely, although care is required, and none of the described precautions
should be overlooked. I f there is any problem during a ship-to-ship
transfer, it is usually the result of complacency that develops after a
series of routine lighterings.

FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOORINGS

by Capt. Carl R. Dingier, Mooring Master
Five- and seven-point moorings are used primarily on the west coast
of the United States. Deep water is available close to shore, so moorings
can be located 0.5 to 1 mile from the shoreline, making this type of
facility attractive and practical. Five or seven mooring buoys are
positioned to hold the ship into the prevailing wind and sea, and over
the 10- to 16-inch submarine hoses. The vessel moors under the direction
of a mooring master, using two bow anchors and ship's lines to the
buoys lying abeam and astern. Generally, the five-point moorings are
used for ships to 35,000 tons, while the seven-point moorings accommodate

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Fig. 9-12. Offtanker Esso Zurich lightering Esso Atlantic. Courtesy Exxon
Corporation and Black Star Publishing

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 - SPECIAL MANEUVERS -

ships to 165,000 tons. Tugs may assist ships over 80,000 tons deadweight
when mooring.
Prior to arriving at the mooring the ship prepares the following:

1. Up to fourteen synthetic mooring lines (two lines for each buoy

to be used).
2. Both anchors backed out below the forefoot and ready to drop.
3. Boom or crane and other hose handling gear at the manifold.
4. Good stoppers for all lines, with extras for doubling up as needed.
5. Walkie-talkies on the bridge, forward, and aft.

The size of the lines depends on the deadweight of the ship, but
they must be a full coil in length so they can be run to the buoys without
having to marry more than one line together. Wires may be substituted
for mooring lines, although the practice of mixing lines and wires varies
from one terminal to another. If wires are used they must be at least
800 feet in length.
Both anchors must be backed out and ready to let go, and clearly
marked so they can be placed accurately without the mate on the bow
having to guess how much chain is out.
Gear required at the manifold for handling the hoses includes a
boom or crane with a safe working load of at least 7 tons to pick up the
hose; buoy, hose, and chain bight slip ropes as specified by the port and
mooring master; a handy billy; and a boat hook. The boom must be
rigged for its full safe working load to handle safely the loads involved
when picking up the hoses, since a 12-inch hose places a dynamic load
of 4.7 tons on the gear, while the load when handling a 16-inch hose is
7.2 tons. Wire runners must be rigged, and the gear and runner should
be in excellent condition. The ship must supply a wire pendant with a
hook if a running block is used so the launch crew does not have to
handle the weight of the block when picking up the hoses.
Quarters should be prepared for the mooring master and the launch
crew.
The lines and hoses are handled by the ship's crew under the
mooring master's direction. Before reaching the berth, the mooring
master briefs the ship's master and officers on the mooring procedure
and inspects the gear that is going to be used.
There are some significant differences between berthing a ship at
a mooring and docking her, and the master must keep this in mind as
the mooring master is bringing the ship into the mooring. The vessel

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 — FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOORINGS —

1. Let go the port anchor.

2. Let go the starboard anchor.
3. Hold port anchor as ship
backs and fills to berth.
4. Run lines to buoys.

Fig. 9-13. Berthing at a multiple-buoy mooring.

approaches on a heading approximately 90 degrees to the axis of the

berth along the line on which the anchors will be laid (fig. 9-13). Because
the mooring lies into the prevailing wind and the sea, the approach is
usually made with the wind and sea on the beam. This creates some
problems for the mooring master and means that higher speeds than
might otherwise be desirable may be required during the approach.
The mate stands by the offshore anchor that must be let go immediately
at the mooring master's command so it is precisely positioned relative
to the mooring. When the anchor is let go all the required seven to nine
shots of chain are allowed to immediately run out.
Do not check the chain, since this will cause the ship to pivot on the
anchor and may also possibly drag the anchor out of position. The ship's
handling characteristics change immediately as the anchor is put on
the bottom, since just the drag of the chain is sufficient to steady the
bow and shift the ship's pivot point forward, altering the ship's behavior
relative to the wind and her response to the engine and rudder. The
mooring master allows for this during the approach.
The ship carries her headway past the axis of the berth before
stopping and letting go the second anchor. The ship is not backed

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and filled into position for dropping the second anchor; she is swung
and maneuvered into position. The amount of swing put on the ship
prior to letting go the second anchor is critical, as the stern must be
positioned so the ship's tendency to back to port when going astern
into the berth is allowed for. Let go the second anchor and tighten
the brake on the first anchor so it fetches up and takes a strain. The
ship goes astern while the anchors are used to assist in steering the
ship into position.
The stern moves in a direction opposite to the side on which the
anchor is held. Hold the port anchor and the strain on the chain causes
the ship to back to starboard—hold the starboard anchor and the ship
backs to port. If the chain on both anchors is kept slack the ship usually
walks to port, although the wind will affect the ship to some extent as
always.
This same technique of laying out and then steering with two
anchors is useful when making a Mediterranean moor.
Slack both chains as required as the ship backs into the mooring
and run the ship's lines to the buoys using the line boat. It is essential
that everyone involved be safety conscious at this point so no one is
hurt while putting out mooring lines. There is a heavy strain on these
lines while working into the mooring. The mates must be instructed
to alert the bridge before stopping off lines so the ship can be maneuvered
to relieve the strain until the lines are on the bitts. This is especially
important aft, since the crew working on the stern cannot be seen from
the bridge. If there is a significant amount of strain double stoppers
must be used.
Do not allow the propeller to be turned while the lines are going
out except by direct order from the mooring master. Since the mooring
master is communicating with the line boat by radio, the boat can tell
him when the lines are clear of the screw. The first line is usually a
breast line from the main deck on the up current or windward side of
the ship, followed by the other lines as directed by the mooring master.
The order of the lines depends on the weather and current conditions.
When all lines are out a strain is taken on both anchors to position the
ship over the submerged hose. The anchors form an equilateral triangle
and hold the ship into the predominate weather. (See figure 9-13.)
During the transfer operation, the mooring master works with the
crew to keep the ship over the hose or hoses—now connected to the
manifold—adjusting for the change in draft, as well as for any change
in the weather or sea conditions.

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 — FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOORINGS —

Based on his past experience, the mooring master advises the ship's
officers concerning weather conditions and the advisability of remaining
at the mooring and transferring cargo if the conditions deteriorate—a
significant responsibility in view of the time required to break up the
mooring as opposed to the possible consequences if the ship remains
at the mooring too long. The direction of weather and sea is as important
as its state when making the decision—when the weather is from other
than ahead the strain on lines becomes heavy, while as long as those
forces are from ahead the strain is on the anchors and the ship can
remain longer at the mooring. The value of a mariner's experience in
situations such as this is not fully appreciated by the landsman, since
ashore responsibility is usually shared and the results of a decision are
rarely so immediate, be they right or wrong.
Keep the engine ready in case it is necessary to leave the mooring
and maintain a full watch on deck and below. Maintain a continuous
watch on the NOAA VHF frequencies, since conditions can deteriorate
rapidly and sufficient warning is necessary if the ship is to break up
the mooring before unsafe conditions develop.
When transfer is completed the hoses are lowered back to the bottom
and the lines singled up as the line boat trips the hooks on the mooring
buoys. The ship then departs the mooring, the exiting maneuver varying
depending on whether the ship is light or loaded.
A loaded ship brings the lines aboard in basically the reverse order
from that in which they were run (assuming that the conditions are
still the same) until all lines are gone and the propeller is clear. Heave
the anchors as the breast lines are let go, using the engine and rudder
as necessary to hold the stern in the center of the berth. Come ahead
as the anchors come clear and steam away from the buoys.
A light ship takes in the lines in the same manner, but uses the
anchors to compensate for her light draft while working clear of the
berth. Heave the starboard anchor short to two shots in the water and
then heave on the port anchor. Work against the starboard anchor
while heaving on the port to keep the ship's bow into the wind. The
ship must not fall off the wind or she will wind up on the buoys. As
soon as the port anchor breaks free the ship is driven out of the berth,
dragging both anchors until clear. Heave the port anchor home and
then heave up the last two shots of chain on the starboard anchor and
proceed to sea.

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

MEDITERRANEAN MOOR
by Capt. Earl R. McMillin, Master Mariner
Until the advent of roll-on vessels, the Mediterranean moor was used
only in less developed ports with limited facilities. Several RO/RO ships
fitted with stern ramps, which commonly dock stern to the berth with
anchors laid out ahead, are now in service, so more deck officers need
to be familiar with this maneuver.
The procedure for putting a tanker into a five- or seven-point mooring
is also the most efficient maneuver for completing the Mediterranean
moor. The maneuver is described completely in the previous section,
and it would be redundant to repeat the steps for making a proper
approach, laying out the anchors, and backing into the berth using the
anchors to assist in steering. Ideally, the anchors are spread at an angle
of 60 degrees so the bow is held in position regardless of wind direction.
This may not be possible when maneuvering room is limited. Plan the
mooring so the anchors are let go far enough from the berth to give a
good scope of chain and drop them far enough apart so the chain and
spread between the anchors form the legs of an equilateral triangle.
The ship should finally be moored with at least one shot more chain
than would be used to anchor in water of the same depth as is found
off the berth (fig. 9-14).
Unlike the five-point moorings, a cargo berth is rarely built with
any regard for prevailing wind and sea conditions, so these forces are
more commonly from some direction other than ahead. It is necessary
to allow for set and leeway to one side in these conditions, primarily by
adjusting the amount of swing that is put on the ship prior to putting
down the second anchor and by holding one anchor or the other as the
ship backs to the berth.
Plan the approach and mooring procedure with the mates who will
be stationed forward and aft. The mate forward must let go the anchor
immediately when ordered so the anchors are properly placed and then
control the chain precisely as the ship backs to the wharf. The mate aft
must keep the bridge informed of the bearing and distance from the
ship's stern to the berth as the ship backs to the pier (and more
importantly, the rate at which the bearing and distance are changing),
since RO/RO ships usually have the bridge well forward, where it is
difficult to see the stern.
A line boat should be available so the stern lines can be run to the
berth as soon as possible, after which the ship is backed as the mate
forward walks the anchor chain out under a light strain and the crew

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 — MEDITERRANEAN MOOR —

- " • • - • - . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . . . . . . _ .

1. Let go the starboard anchor and

keep the chain slack.
2. Let go the port anchor.
3. Hold the starboard anchor and
back to the berth.
4. Heave into position with stern lines,
then take a good strain on anchors.

Fig. 9-14. Mediterranean moor.

aft heaves on the stern lines. Keep the stern lines clear of the propeller,
since it must at all times be possible to use the engine to hold the ship
in position and then stop her as the stern nears the stringpiece. The
vessel is now under total control and can be brought up close to the
berth. Do not use the engine to back the last few feet—heave the ship
astern so there is no chance of an accident from a delay in engine
response.
Use sufficient lines or wires aft so a good strain can be taken on
both anchors after the ship is fast. Heave the chains partially out of
the water so the ship cannot move astern if there is any later change
in sea or wind. The stern is right up to the berth, so it must not be
possible for the ship to move any farther astern after the mooring is
complete.
Reliable bow thrusters are available, and all ships fitted with a
stern ramp—which will commonly berth stern first—should be fitted
with this equipment. A thruster greatly simplifies positioning the bow
prior to letting go each anchor and steering the ship as she backs to the
berth. When weather conditions and the layout of the berth require it,
the ship fitted with a bow thruster can lay out the anchors without
being perpendicular to the berth, moving the bow laterally with the
thruster to get into position for letting go the second anchor. Restricted

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

maneuvering room may require this. Heretofore, it was necessary at

times to wait for favorable conditions prior to berthing stern to a dock.
The bow thruster makes it possible to moor Mediterranean fashion in
all but the worst conditions, and no ship that works cargo over the stern
should be built without one.

Note \A

A. Shift helm when heading 35°-55°

from base course as determined by trials.
B. Reverse helm when 10° from
reciprocal of original course.

Fig. 9-15. "Three helm order" Williamson Turn.

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 - WILLIAMSON TURNS -

Departure from the Mediterranean moor varies with weather

conditions, but generally, the ship takes in lines aft and immediately
begins heaving on the windward anchor. Heave short to two shots and
then heave on the lee anchor while steaming against the weather anchor.
Maintain position and heading so the ship is not set back against the
berth as the anchors come clear of the bottom. Start moving the ship
ahead as soon as the lee anchor breaks free, heaving and dragging both
anchors until well clear of the berth. Heave the anchors home and
proceed to sea.

WILLIAMSON TURNS
The classic Williamson Turn is described in most textbooks on seamanship.
The turn works well, and is especially useful as ship size increases.
Ships with high block coefficients lose headway faster than smaller,
finer-lined vessels, and a VLCC will typically have lost most of her
headway by the time she has reached her reciprocal course at the
completion of a Williamson Turn. Little astern maneuvering is then
required to stop the ship and pick up a person or object on the water.
Because of this, and because of the predictability of the vessel's path,
the Williamson Turn is preferable to a round turn or other maneuver
for putting a ship on a reciprocal heading.
The path that a ship follows during a Williamson Turn becomes
even more predictable if the variables of the maneuver are eliminated.
For example, instead of stating that the ship should be steadied up
after she has reached a course that is 60 to 65 degrees from the ship's
original course, it is preferable to state that the helm should be shifted
at some predetermined point and left in that position while the ship
checks up and then swings to the reciprocal of her original course. If
the classic instructions are followed the turn is less predictable, because
the time to check the swing and the amount of rudder used are dependent
on the helmsman's or deck officer's experience and judgment. The
resulting track can vary greatly.
Further, the classic turn always uses a 60-degree change of heading
as a basis for shifting the helm. Ships have changed greatly, so neither
this nor any other fixed point will suffice for all ships. The Williamson
Turn must be performed routinely during an ocean passage as part of
crew emergency training, and the point at which the helm is to be shifted
should be determined by trial and error during those exercises. I f a
deeply loaded, large beam tanker that is directionally unstable were to
follow the classic instructions she would never return to her original

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

track. If the rudder is shifted when that vessel is 60 degrees from the
initial heading she swings well past the desired point, since it takes a
great deal of time to check the swing of such a ship. The directionally
unstable vessel then turns more rapidly toward the reciprocal heading
since her turning rate is so much greater.
A particular VLCC returned to her own wake when the rudder
was shifted when she was 35 degrees from her initial course.1 By
experimentation this point and the amount of rudder needed to steady
the ship were defined so all variables were eliminated from the
maneuver. In this case the rudder was shifted hard over to check the
swing when the ship's heading was 15 degrees from the reciprocal.
Similar tests should be done by the master for his particular ship
before the need to maneuver in an actual emergency arises.
A Williamson Turn is defined as follows:

Put the rudder hard over toward the side on which the person has
gone overboard and keep it there until the ship is 35 to 50 degrees
from the initial heading. (The precise point for a particular vessel
is to be predetermined by trial.) Shift the helm hard over in the
opposite direction. Keep the rudder in this position while the ship
swings all the way around toward the reciprocal of the ship's
heading at the time the Williamson Turn began. When the ship's
heading is 10 to 15 degrees from the reciprocal of her initial course,
at a point predetermined by trial, shift the helm hard over again
so the ship steadies up on the desired reciprocal heading (fig. 9-15).

Note that only three movements of the rudder are necessary, and
that these changes in helm are at defined points that are not dependent
on the watch officer's judgment.
The engine speed is not changed during the Williamson Turn,
although the engine is put on standby so the engineer on watch can
prepare for maneuvering. By maintaining revolutions the rate of turn
is predictable, the ship returns to the desired point in the minimum
time, and speed is still sufficiently reduced. The ship is then stopped
using maneuvers described in chapter 1.2

1Capt. Daniel H. MacElrevey, El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials.

2Master Pilot Capt. Brian Hope, El Paso Consolidated Maneuvering Trials.

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 — TWIN-SCREW SHIPS —

The man overboard routine for a particular ship and crew are beyond
the scope of this book. It is stressed, though, that regardless of the man
overboard maneuver used, the person or object in the water must be
watched at all times; this is even more important than the correct
execution of the Williamson Turn. I f sight is lost of a person in the
water it is extremely difficult to locate the person again in any but
perfect conditions. By throwing a life ring and other available objects
into the water as close to the person or object as possible, with a light,
dye marker, smoke flare, or other aid attached, the task of locating that
person is greatly simplified. It is important that a light be put into the
water at night. There is no substitute for repeated man overboard drills,
and during drills it becomes obvious just how difficult it is to see a
person or object in the water.
Using the described Williamson Turn, a VLCC returned to the
original location in eleven minutes and was making 4 knots when the
reciprocal course was reached, although the engine remained at full
revolutions throughout the maneuver, which began when the ship was
making 19 knots. The ship was easily brought dead in the water at the
desired point so that a boat could be launched.3
TWIN-SCREW SHIPS
There is a misconception that twin-screw ships inherently handle better
than single-screw ships. This is not necessarily so.
The type of propulsion and the number, configuration, and location
of the rudder or rudders affect the maneuverability of twin-screw ships,
and some twin-screw ships handle more poorly than single-screw ships
in routine operating situations. Older turbine-driven twin-screw ships
with single rudders usually handle like water-soaked logs. Most modern
diesel-propelled twin-screw vessels with either conventional propellers
or controllable pitch propellers, bow and stern thrusters, and in most
cases twin rudders are excellent handling ships.
Today, the twin-screw configuration is found primarily on passenger
vessels, where it is used to minimize vibration while operating with
higher horsepowers and greater speeds and to facilitate maneuvering
in the smaller harbors increasingly frequented by cruise ships looking
for new and less-spoiled ports.

3Capt. Daniel H. MacElrevey, El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials.

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

Diesel- and turbine-propelled twin-screw ships exhibit the same

engine response characteristics, for the same reasons, described for
single-screw diesel and turbine ships in earlier chapters of this book.
Diesel ships respond more quickly to engine orders, so the effect of
"kicking" a diesel-propelled twin-screw ship ahead for a short period of
time to move the stern laterally without gaining headway is significantly
greater. Because of this faster response diesel-propelled twin-screw
ships also react more quickly than turbine ships when a master or pilot
twists or turns the vessel within her own length using one engine ahead
and the other astern, or walks a ship sideways by using the rudder in
opposition to that twisting effect.
Twin-screw, twin-rudder ships are inherently more responsive at
slow speeds than ships with single rudders, regardless of engine type,
since twin rudders are aft of the twin propellers and the flow of water
from the propellers passes directly over the rudder's surface. Without
this flow the ship's rudder has little effect until the ship gains sufficient
headway to create a flow over the surface of the rudder independent of
the flow from the propeller.
It should be noted that shiphandlers find twin-screw, single-rudder
ships generally steer better at very low speeds when the engines are
stopped than when they are coming ahead. When the engines are
stopped, the minimal flow past the rudder that does exist is not disturbed
by the turning propellers and the inherent directional stability of the
spread propellers that counters the turning moment created by the
rudder no longer exists. Try stopping the engine if a twin-screw, single-
rudder ship with headway is behaving poorly at very slow speeds instead
of working one screw against the other to twist the ship to a new heading.

Direction
of thrust

Fig. 9-16. Turning a twin-screw ship to starboard.

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 — MANEUVERING TWIN-SCREW SHIPS —

MANEUVERING TWIN-SCREW SHIPS

If the propeller shafts are well separated, and especially if the ship is
diesel- rather than turbine-propelled, a twin-screw vessel can be turned
in a very small area by working one propeller ahead and the other
astern. By using the port engine ahead and the starboard engine astern
the ship is turned to starboard. By adjusting the revolutions of both
the ahead and astern turning engines, increasing and decreasing speeds
of either the ahead or astern turning engine as appropriate to cancel
any headway or sternway that might develop, the ship can be turned
literally within her own length. Because a propeller is more efficient
when turning ahead fewer revolutions are usually needed on the shaft
turning in the ahead direction to turn the ship while maintaining its
position (fig. 9-16).
The twin-screw ship can be moved laterally using the engines in
opposing directions ahead and astern to move the stern in the desired
direction while a tug or bow thruster is used to move the bow in the
same direction. For example, to move a ship sideways toward a berth,
the outboard propeller—the propeller away from the dock or other
structure toward which the ship is to be moved—turns astern, while
the inboard propeller turns ahead (fig. 9-17). The two propellers are
then rotating in the same direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) but
thrusting in opposite directions (ahead or astern), simultaneously
walking and twisting the stern toward the berth without developing
any headway or sternway. At the same time, the tug or thruster is
used to push the bow toward the berth so the ship moves laterally and
bodily toward the berth. Before landing on the pier the direction of
rotation of the propellers is reversed to check the lateral motion of the

Direction
of thrust

Fig. 9-17. Moving a twin-screw ship laterally.

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 - SPECIAL MANEUVERS -

When near a dock or wharf, especially if the berth has a solid face,
the inboard screw can be used to advantage to lift the quarter and keep
the ship from going alongside prematurely. Put the inboard engine
astern when the quarter sets toward the berth. The off-center propeller
twists the stern away from the berth and the quickwater moves up the
side and lifts the entire ship, just as it does when handling a single-
screw ship.
There are several other concerns when maneuvering a twin-
screw vessel near to and alongside a berth. As with a single-screw
vessel, you must be aware of the propeller's position relative to any
hazards, especially a bank or shoal area and the berth itself. However,
greater care is needed with twin-screw ships because the propellers
are placed off center, which leaves them more exposed. On some
modern twin-screw ships the propeller blades are very near to or
even outside the line of the hull. Be especially alert that the ship
does not develop any angle that will cause the propeller to touch
the berth or shoal. Take care that stern lines are not fouled in the
propellers when they are sent ashore or brought aboard. Instruct
the ship's crew, linehandlers, and tug crews not to throw lines in
the water when undocking. Consideration must also be given to the
placement of tugs. Any tug working aft must be made up clear of
the propellers, which may prevent them from working as near to
the stern as desired. It may be preferable to have the after tug work
on a hawser. Here, as always, the shiphandler must rely on his
experience and professional judgment.
An interesting variation that overcomes many of the disadvantages
of the twin-screw ship and still allows the use of high horsepower
propulsion systems is the triple-screw design used on some recent
Containerships. The center shaft is used at maneuvering speeds, allowing
the ship to be handled like any other single-screw ship, and the outboard
engines and propellers are used only at high speeds, when the ship will
be in open water, where the disadvantages of a twin-screw ship are not
important. The best of both worlds is achieved for the naval architect
and the mariner.
The twin-screw configurations with single and twin rudders were
once found primarily on passenger ships, where it was used to minimize
vibration while operating with higher horsepower and greater speed,
and to facilitate maneuvering in the smaller harbors frequented by
cruise ships. Twin rudder configurations have almost totally replaced
the single rudder for passenger ships.

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There has also been a trend to replace the twin screw, twin-rudder
configuration beginning in the late 1990s, when the cruise industry
began fitting many of the new, large cruise vessels with electric-podded
propulsion, or Azipods. At the same time other segments of the maritime
industry began building more twin-screwed vessels, and it is now
common to find the twin-screw configuration aboard virtually any type
of vessel when the advantages of that arrangement are great enough
to justify the higher cost.
VMax VLCCs4 are examples of vessels built to take full advantage
of the twin-screw configuration as a means for improving handling
characteristics. These ships are designed with an unusually wide beam
for their length to maximize carrying capacity. All other factors being
equal, increasing a vessel's beam-to-length ratio in this manner reduces
the ship's directional stability, with a significant adverse effect on the
ship's maneuvering characteristics. (See chapters 1 and 2 of this text.)
To counter the effects of this high beam-to-length ratio, the VMax
vessels are twin screws and twin rudders mounted on exaggerated twin
skegs placed as far outboard as practical.
LOW LENGTH-TO-BEAM RATIO SHIPS
by Capt. Daniel E. MacElrevey, Delaware Bay and River Pilot
A vessel's carrying capacity is one of the characteristics that determines
whether the ship will be profitable on the route it serves. Quite simply,
the larger the ship, the more cargo it can carry and the greater the
operator's profit. Historically, technological breakthroughs have been
necessary to permit the construction and safe operation of larger ships.
Today, port constraints are the main limiting factor to increasingly
large ships, and the most common constraint is channel depth.
Carrying capacity can be increased without increasing a ship's draft
either by increasing its length, breadth, or a combination of the two.
On many routes vessel length has been increased to the maximum
practical due to the physical constraints of the port itself. Unfortunately,
increasing the beam relative to the vessel's length reduces the length-
to-beam ratio (L/B ratio) and decreases its directional stability. I t
therefore requires more rudder to check the turning vessel and steady
on a new course. On the positive side, this effect also results in a smaller
turning circle than a vessel of the same length but smaller beam. Vessels

4These VMax ships are owned and operated by Concordia Maritime Stena Bulk.

243
 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

Fig. 9-18. A modern VMax twin-screw vessel with skewed propellers and
high-efficiency rudders with skegs to maximize steering controls. Courtesy
Concordia Maritime

designed with a low length-to-beam ratio usually require a great deal

of attention to be handled safely.
However, some recently built vessels demonstrate it is possible to
design vessels with a low L/B that handle superbly. An example of this
is the VMax VLCC.' It might have been more fitting to call these ships
DMax VLCCs, as one of the goals in designing these tankers was to
provide the maximum carrying capacity possible without exceeding the
channel restrictions of the Delaware Bay and River.
The VMax ships are the first of what may become a general ship
type, as owners with ships calling at relatively shallow US ports look
for ways to increase carrying capacity.
VMax ships are built with a much larger beam than vessels of
similar length. They are 1,100 feet long with a beam of 230 feet. Vessels

5Ibid.

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of similar length have a beam 30 to 50 feet less. The length-to-beam

ratio of the VMax ships is 4.8:1, versus an LJB of 5.5-6:1 for other VLCCs.
For comparison, an 850-foot Panamax ship has a length-to-beam ratio
of 8:1.
Again, all other factors being equal, a vessel with a low length-to-
beam ratio will respond poorly to its rudder. Masters and pilots report
that this is not the case with the VMax ships. What makes these vessels
different? The VMax vessels are fitted with twin skegs, twin rudders,
and twin screws—placed as far outboard as practical (fig. 9-18).
The twin- skeg/rudder arrangement acts to improve the ship's
directional stability, and also provides a much larger turning force than
that of a single, centerline rudder. The VMax ships have a cut-away
stern section that places the rudders at the extreme end of the submerged
area, where they are most effective. The cut-away stern also allows
maximum water flow by the rudders and significantly reduces vibration
while underway and proceeding at higher RPMs.
Contrary to expectations, these ships handle well due to that
configuration. Compared to other similarly sized vessels, less rudder is
needed to start a turn, the rudders are left on for longer before placing
them amidships, and less rudder is used to check the ship's swing. Often
the rate-of-turn decreases once the rudders are placed amidships.
Additionally, steerage is maintained for a long time with the engines
stopped, and they will remain on a nearly constant heading when
backing with both engines. Many pilots feel that the ships handle better
than predicted by early simulations, and they certainly handle better
than other ships of similar size and hull form.
To further improve maneuverability the rudders can be used
separately at slower speeds. This is especially useful when swinging
about after getting underway from anchor and when turning around
to go alongside a berth. By operating one engine ahead and the other
astern the ships can be turned about in their own length. Using the
rudder on the same side as the engine going ahead while leaving the
other rudder amidships enhances the twisting effect of the engines by
taking advantage of the capability to split rudder control with this class
of vessel (fig. 9-19).
The ships are noteworthy for several other reasons in addition to
excellent handling characteristics. There is a complete redundancy in
the operating and control systems to increase safety, two engine rooms
separated by a fire bulkhead, and a fully integrated bridge that provides
near 360 degree visibility. When designing the VMax ships the vessel

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 — SPECIAL MANEUVERS —

Fig. 9-19. The VMax owner and architect consulted with ship officers and pilots
to design efficient bridge equipment and controls and ensure success of this new
ship type. Courtesy Concordia Maritime

owner and operator consulted river pilots, harbor pilots and tug
companies, the loading and discharge port authorities, and the chartering
company to obtain input on features most needed to make these ships
successful. Further, they worked with the RTM STAR Center in Florida
to develop a simulator-based training course for bridge personnel and
the river pilots that would be handling the VMax ships. The pilots'
association felt the vessels were sufficiently different from other VLCCs
to require its members to make several trips with experienced pilots
before handling them on their own.
Although great effort was made to make these vessels extremely
safe there are still several considerations to be made when handling
them. Their extreme breadth necessitates planning meeting and
overtaking situations so that they occur on straight reaches and where
channel width permits. Even small angles of heel created during turns
cause a considerable increase in draft, so the maximum allowable draft
is reduced to 38 feet, as compared to a maximum draft of 40 feet for
most tankers. Additionally, the combination of their beam and freeboard

246
 - MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIPS -

make it impossible to see the tugs on the offshore side of the ship when
working from the inshore bridge wing, and as with any twin-screw
vessel, care must be taken when maneuvering near berths, when
handling lines near the stern, and when working with tugs aft.
These vessels have been extremely well received, and the demon-
strated success of this design makes it likely that many similar vessels
will be constructed in the near future.

MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIPS

The handling characteristics of VLCCs and ULCCs are surprisingly
similar to those of smaller ships. The Esso Osaka tests demonstrated
the excellent handling characteristics of very large ships, and the
conclusions drawn from these tests have been confirmed by pilots and
mooring masters who handle these ships. Especially appreciated by
masters is the ability of these ships to steer at very low speeds with
minimal use of the engine.
Stopping distance changes geometrically as ship size increases, so
it is important that the shiphandler think even farther ahead when
altering speed or maneuvering. These changes are exacerbated by the

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Fig. 9-20.

247
 - SPECIAL MANEUVERS -

higher tonnage-to-horsepower ratios typical of VLCCs. Some typical

ratios might be:

VLCC = 380,000 tons displacement/40,000 hp = 9.5

Bulk Carrier = 80,000 tons displacement/16,000 hp = 5.0
Containership = 65,000 tons displacement/60,000 hp = 1.1

While the displacement of modern ships is much greater, their

horsepower has not increased proportionally. It is no longer practical
to rely on engine power alone to stop a ship, but VLCCs and ULCCs
can be safely handled in restricted waters by planning ahead and using
the techniques previously described to slow a vessel. Too often the
nonseafarer makes much of the fact that more searoom is required to
stop a large ship when, in reality, that ship will usually alter course to
avoid a close quarters situation, taking advantage of the excellent
steering characteristics of VLCCs to compensate for her relatively low
backing power.
The large ship's maneuvering characteristics must be considered
when determining moderate speed in restricted visibility or areas of
heavy traffic. The COLREGS recognize this fact, and stipulate that a
ship's maneuverability is a significant factor when determining safe
speed at any time. Since the VLCC's most effective response in a close
quarters situation is an alteration of course rather than a reduction in
speed, the mariner must plan on this alternative when possible. I f
conditions make a reduction in speed necessary, it will be immediately
apparent why safe speed for a VLCC in a close quarters situation is
significantly less than for smaller ships.
In addition to changes in handling characteristics, a VLCC is affected
differently by changes in sea conditions. A smaller ship pounds heavily
in a head sea, so the need to reduce speed or alter course in those
conditions is obvious. The same head sea will set in the plates at the
bow of a VLCC without being felt significantly on the bridge. More
deliberate thought is therefore required when handling the larger ship,
since it is not possible to conn her in a seaway by feel alone. Because
of increased mass and length the panting and slamming stresses as the
ship pounds in a head sea are actually much greater, even though the
pounding itself may be hardly felt.
The hogging, sagging, and wracking stresses that are not usually
considered at sea aboard smaller ships now become important. A VLCC
works dramatically in a seaway, as she alternately hangs suspended

248
 - MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIPS -

between two crests at her ends and then is supported by the sea amidship
while her ends fall into the trough. Close attention to bending moments
and sheer stresses is required while loading a VLCC, and at sea the
mariner aboard a VLCC must reduce speed and/or alter course to reduce
severe hogging and sagging stresses that are rarely considered with
smaller ships. The mariner must recognize that the same sea state that
damages a smaller ship also damages a VLCC and reduce speed or alter
course accordingly to ease the vessel even when these stresses are not
obvious from her motion.
Instruments are being tested that may in the future give mariners
more absolute information about the forces of the sea acting on a hull,
but presently experience is the best guide for the master or deck officer.
Sea sense, and the mariner's appreciation of the environment gained
over years spent at sea, become extremely important when making
qualitative judgments, such as when to ease a VLCC's motion in a
seaway.
Shallow water effects are felt as the ship nears land or shoal, and
since the VLCC's draft is often twice that of the average ship these
effects are felt sooner and in deeper water. The changes in the ship's
directional stability, the larger diameter of her turning circle, and the
increased twisting effect are all felt in water that the mariner aboard
smaller ships considered open and deep.
The COLREGS define (Rule 3.h.) a vessel as being "constrained by
her draft" when, because of her draft in relation to the available depth
of water, she "is severely restricted in her ability to deviate from the
course she is following." This should be interpreted to include not only
restrictions on her track resulting from having to keep sufficient water
under her keel to avoid grounding, but also restrictions due to shallow
water effects, which degrade the ship's maneuvering capabilities. There
is some uncertainty whether this is the present intent, but such
interpretation is proper and consistent with today's understanding of
hydrodynamics and ship behavior.
In port, the mass and hull form of the VLCC becomes more significant;
bottom effects increase as previously discussed, while the ship's reaction
time when correcting for the results of such effects is significantly longer.
The shiphandler must plan the passage and maneuvers—must think
ahead of the ship—with greater attention to these effects. It is stressed
that there are no mysteries; very large ships obey the same laws of
hydrodynamics as other ships, and the differences in behavior are
differences in magnitude, not character.

249
 - SPECIAL MANEUVERS -

Forward speed of a VLCC is more difficult to judge not only because

of the greater height of eye from which the shiphandler works, but also
due to the subtle differences between proper and improper speeds
through the water with a ship of such mass. If the mariner is handicapped
by lack of proper instrumentation, there is no option but to err on the
safe side when moving a VLCC and the ship must progress at very slow
speeds. When estimating safe speed of approach, remember that a
VLCC moving at less than 2 knots still requires more than a ship length
to stop. Fitting large ships with state-of-the-art instrumentation makes
it possible to move such ships more expediently, as well as more safely.
Due to the greater mass some adjustment in technique is required:

1. Tugs are less effective.

2. It is impractical to warp a VLCC alongside using ship's lines
only.
3. A ship must be stopped farther off the pier and pushed alongside
due to the need to land fiat on the stringpiece or clusters.
4. Minimum lateral speed is important if the ship is to land without
damage.
5. Doppler speed indicators showing lateral motion, as well as
ahead and astern speed, are essential if the VLCC is to be docked
expeditiously.

The ship must come alongside flat so the forces generated as the
ship lands are distributed throughout the length of the midbody and
are absorbed by the maximum number of frames. The vessel's great
length makes this more difficult, perspective causing the bow to appear
much closer to the dock than the stern when actually the two ends are
equidistant from the stringpiece (fig. 9-21). Observe the rate of closing
forward and aft, rather than only the apparent distance off, since the
relative distances forward and aft will appear to decrease at the same
rate, even though the distances themselves do not appear equal when
the ship is parallel to the berth.
When the mariner steps aboard a VLCC for the first time there is
often some trepidation about handling this different ship. The differences
are really only of scale and timing—ship behavior is no different, and
the mariner will quickly adjust work habits to these differences in
magnitude. No new skills are required, only greater attention to the
advanced planning needed to stay ahead of the ship and greater patience
while waiting for her to respond. With a good professional background

250
 — MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIPS —

Fig. 9-21. Allow for the "railroad track" effect when estimating a VLCC;s
distance off a berth.

251
 - SPECIAL MANEUVERS -

a competent shiphandler can handle a VLCC as well as any other type

of ship. Too much is made today of qualifying a pilot for every different
type of ship that shows up at a pilot station, when it is general experience
gained over several years of doing gradually more demanding work
that prepares a shiphandler for a particular task, not two hours of
observation time aboard a "new" class of ship.
REPLENISHMENT AT SEA
A small but significant number of ships engage in replenishment
operations at sea, and this number can be expected to increase if the
trend toward greater use of merchant ships to support naval operations
continues. Transfer by helicopter will be considered separately and
only ship-to-ship transfer of equipment, oil, and stores will be considered
herein.
For clarity, the ship that maintains course and speed during the
maneuver is designated the "large ship," because this ship is usually
the physically larger of the two vessels involved. The second vessel is
the "maneuvering ship."
Initial planning between the two vessels is done by radio. A base
course and speed is determined to put the sea two points on the bow of
the "large vessel" that will be away from the operation, to make a lee
and minimize rolling and yawing. The steering gear must be tested
and inspected carefully prior to commencement of the operation, and
a seaman trained in shifting from bridge to local trick wheel steering
must be stationed in the steering gear flat. The "A" frame or other rig
is set up and all accessory gear is laid out. Sufficient crewmembers are
assigned to the deck and bridge, and a good helmsman—preferably
experienced in steering during ship-to-ship transfer operations—is
assigned to the wheel.
Usually the larger—or in the case of naval vessels the supplying
merchant ship—maintains the base course and speed throughout the
evolution, and all maneuvering is done by the approaching ship. In a
heavy sea, it may be prudent to have the larger ship maintain course
and speed and put the sea in the prescribed position, no matter which
ship is doing the supplying, to ensure the best lee for the transfer
operation.
When within one-half a mile of the large or steadied up vessel, the
maneuvering ship comes to a heading that parallels the large ship's
wake. Speed is adjusted to be about 3 to 5 knots greater than the speed
of the large ship and the approach is begun. Note that more speed is

252
 — REPLENISHMENT AT SEA —

Fig. 9-22. The area to be avoided during approach.

appropriate for this operation than for offshore lightering, when the
maneuvering ship actually goes alongside the large ship. There is
interaction between ships throughout the maneuver, but it is greatest
as the bow of the maneuvering ship passes the larger ship's quarter.
This "danger zone" (fig. 9-22) should be passed through before the speed
of the maneuvering ship is reduced to the final base speed to minimize
the passage and ensure good rudder control while in it. High-powered
naval vessels will often approach at much higher speeds and back down
just before coming abeam, but this is not a prudent approach when two
merchant ships are involved. It is not practical for merchant ships to
back down, since the effect on steering will be significant and their
backing power is not sufficient to slow a ship from the higher speeds
used by the handier naval vessels. A lower-powered merchant ship
continues at a speed greater than that of the steadied up ship until
past the danger zone and then reduces engine speed and slowly loses
headway until she is moving at the base speed.
One hundred feet is generally a proper separation distance between
ships, although some rigs used for transfer require less separation. Do
not allow the ships to be pulled together by constant tension winches
during the transfer operation. The maneuvering ship heads a few
degrees away from the larger ship to compensate for the pull of these
winches, and also for the suction effect between the two moving ships.
When in position abeam, the ships pass a distance line forward,
marked at intervals to assist in maintaining the required separation
distance, then pass the highline and other rigging required for the

253
 - SPECIAL MANEUVERS -

replenishment operation. Course is adjusted by giving the helmsman

headings to steer, rather than using helm orders, to ensure that all
changes are minimal, so the ships do not develop any radical swing
while alongside. The continued intership attraction while in this position
caused by the reduced pressure as the water flows between the two
ships presents no problem, as long as the specified distance and slight
angle is maintained between the ships. If the ships get closer to one
another they could be drawn together. The mariner can do little to
counter intership suction if the two ships are allowed to get too close,
since this precludes the maneuvering ship getting sufficient angle away
from the larger ship to overcome the suction.
While alongside, the maneuvering ship adjusts speed a few revolutions
at a time to match her speed with that of the larger ship. Do not make
any large changes in revolutions (such as would result from using the
telegraph to change speeds). Use abeam bearings and watch the distance
line to maintain the ship's position during the transfer.
To depart, open the angle at the bow slightly and let the maneuvering
ship come slowly away from the larger ship, increasing revolutions only
enough to overcome any decrease in speed due to the change in heading
and rudder. Do not pass ahead of the latter ship, since any machinery
failure would result in almost certain collision as the departing ship
veers across the other ship's bow. Do not increase ship's speed through
the water until well clear of the larger ship, as this increases intership
suction.
HELICOPTER OPERATIONS
It used to be a helicopter was used only for emergency evacuation of a
sick or injured crewmember. This task was accomplished by hovering
over the ship and lowering a litter to the deck. Increasingly, helicopters
are being used for crew changes and storing of VLCCs and ULCCs en
route from port to port—the helicopter lands on the ship's deck to make
the necessary transfer of stores and crew.
In either case, it is preferable to put the ship on a heading and
adjust speed to create a 15 to 25 knot relative wind on one bow. This
gives the helicopter a headwind, minimizes the turbulence over the
deck that would be created by the ship's superstructure if the wind is
put dead ahead, and carries the stack gases to one side away from the
approaching helicopter. It is stressed that it is the relative wind that
is important, and a maneuvering board plot should be done if necessary
to find the heading that produces the desired relative wind direction

254
 - HELICOPTER OPERATIONS -

and force. Often the necessary heading is not obvious, especially if the
true wind is stronger than the desired 25 knots.
Communication should be established with the helicopter on VHF
as soon as practical so maneuvers can be agreed upon. The helicopter
pilot may recommend course and speed changes. When the ship is
rolling more than a few degrees and the helicopter is to land on deck
for the transfer, the master must warn the helicopter off, since it is
dangerous to land under such conditions. If the helicopter is only to
hover this is not a problem.
Lower the dipole antenna and remove any other obstructions prior
to the helicopter's arrival so they do not foul the helicopter's rotor blades
during the operation. An unobstructed deck area must be provided,
clearly marked with the internationally recognized letter "H" surrounded
by a circle to designate the clear area. Have the engine ready to maneuver
in case any problems develop during the operation. Hoist a flag forward
and another on the flying bridge so the pilot can judge wind direction
and speed during the operation. Light the ship well so all obstructions
and the landing area are clearly visible, but use lights shining forward
so they do not blind the pilot as he approaches.
Do not touch a basket or litter when it is lowered. Allow the basket
to land on deck so any static charge is discharged before anyone handles
it. While putting a man or gear into the basket or litter do not secure
it to the ship in any way.

255
 Chapter 10

TRAINING
. . . the redeeming and ideal aspect of this breadwinning is the
attainment and preservation of the highest possible skill. . . It is
made up of accumulated tradition, kept alive by individual pride,
rendered exact by professional opinion, and, like the higher arts, it
is spurred on and sustained by discriminating praise.
That is why the attainment of proficiency, the pushing of your skill
with attention to the most delicate shades of excellence, is a matter
of vital concern.
—Joseph Conrad, The Mirror of the Sea

Like other professionals, the novice seaman must learn new concepts,
skills, laws, and practices; unlike other professionals, a seaman must
apply what is learned in a new environment, and become so adept at
living and working in that environment that once-alien reactions become
intuitive—the mariner develops "sea sense." Training for a maritime
career is therefore of greater depth than many other professions, begins
at a more basic level, and must be continued throughout a mariner's
career. It is formal through various private, union, and governmental
facilities, and informal through continuous self-study and contact with
shipmates, be they peers or senior officers.
Formal training receives the most attention and is handled well in
most cases. Equally important informal training unfortunately gets
less attention, yet it is through this type of training that a seaman
learns priorities and adjusts theory to reality.
Initial training in shiphandling and piloting is provided at the
maritime academies. Much of this training is done aboard smaller
vessels and using simulators. Significant training in these areas begins
aboard ship and is received from several sources, including:

1. Masters and senior officers, primarily covering at-sea shiphandling

and anticollision maneuvering, and maneuvering at the pilot
station or anchorage.
2. Pilots and docking masters. Few mariners take the initiative
required to tap this source of training, which is unfortunate, since

256
 — ONBOARD TRAINING OF SHIP'S OFFICERS —

pilots are proud of their skills and are generally willing to share
much information. In reality, pilots primarily train other pilots.
3. Passive observation of shiphandlers at work, a laudable but
relatively unproductive exercise similar to learning heart surgery
by watching a transplant operation on television.
4. Study of textbooks and video training material, both personal
and company supplied.
5. Simulator-based training programs and scale model basin training
facilities, where a mariner or pilot can obtain a good grasp of
shiphandling and bridge operating procedures in routine and
emergency situations.

ONBOARD TRAINING OF SHIP'S OFFICERS

Every officer is serving aboard a multimillion dollar training aid. The
ship, and the company and personal material aboard her, are available
to the mariner; it is in the master's and company's interest to encourage
use of that training aid. Training opportunities are limited only by a
master's imagination and initiative, and include:

1. Bridge demonstrations and critiques of situations that arise and

actions taken in those situations.
2. Informal coffee time discussions of professional subjects, including
shiphandling at sea and in port.
3. Planned training sessions covering anchoring, stopping a ship,
conning techniques, making a lee for a pilot, Williamson Turns
and man overboard exercises, and other appropriate shiphandling
skills.

Training should start at the most basic level. Masters must insist
that deck officers conn the ship to new headings at sea, rather than
just giving the helmsman a new course to steer, so that officers develop
a feel for the ship and the amount of rudder needed to handle her. Deck
officers should handle the ship when anchoring or picking up the pilot
while the master observes and corrects the work as necessary. Every
mate must be prepared for the duties of the next higher position,
especially the chief mate, who must do as much shiphandling as possible.
A promotion is not an opportunity to start training; it is a recognition
of skills already possessed.
Use all available time in the ship's schedule to train the ship's
officers using the techniques described for instruction in previous

257
 — TRAINING —

Fig. 10-1. "Only training and 'hands-on' experience take the mystery out of
shiphandling."

chapters. Select scenarios that are commonly encountered and re-create

them in an anchorage or open roadstead while waiting for a pilot or
berth, allowing each officer to handle the ship and complete the planned
maneuver. When routinely maneuvering the ship, explain to the deck
officers what you are doing and why—action taken in a particular
situation and the reasons for that action are not obvious to less experienced
officers unless you get them involved. Point out how the ship backs into
the wind or the bow falls off to starboard as the engine goes astern,
since seeing this action once makes a more lasting impression than
reading about it a dozen times.
Because of inexperience too many deck officers suffer from the "don't
touch" syndrome. The less experienced officer is not initially comfortable
with bridge equipment, so there is a very real hesitancy to use it. It is
important that these officers overcome this hesitancy or they can never
become proficient. If shipboard training accomplishes nothing else, it
is irreplaceable if the officer becomes more willing to take action.

258
 - ONBOARD TRAINING OF SHIP'S OFFICERS -

Hold a "hands-on" session and encourage each officer to use the

bridge equipment—insist that they repeatedly use the telegraph, whistle,
put the rudder hard over (yes, at sea speed. . .it will not damage anything).
Explain that each officer is just to grab on and use the gear repeatedly
and to its maximum, then stand back. "Go ahead Mate, use the whistle.
..sound it again. . .put the rudder hard over. . .put the engine astern,
ahead, astern again." Now that mate has started to be a useful and
competent deck officer. Few drills will ever be more productive than
these initial hands-on sessions.
There is no magic to shiphandling, just experience, good sense, and
confidence in one's skills; no one can become proficient until they are
totally comfortable using bridge equipment and making the ship respond
to their demands.
A newly built, 1,000-foot ship went aground years ago while
maneuvering to avoid fishing craft in the straits of Gibraltar. During
the ensuing investigation the master was asked why he repeatedly
altered course to avoid one vessel after another, rather than slowing or
stopping the ship. He replied that he wanted to go astern but hesitated
because he did not feel he could back the ship at the speed she was
making without losing control. He was not sure how his ship would
behave if the telegraph was put astern! A beautiful, new ship would not
have settled on the rocks if a short, simple, hands-on session had been
held aboard ship at some time during the master's twenty years at sea.
Most ships have a video player on board, and several good training
videos on all maritime subjects, including shiphandling and ship
behavior, are available for lease. Maritime academies and union school
libraries maintain source lists for such material which can be obtained
by a telephone call or e-mail if you do not already have addresses of
suppliers. Companies leasing or selling these films also advertise online
and in maritime publications, such as the excellent Safety at Sea and
Professional Mariner magazines, which should also be put aboard ship
as training material. Obtain training videos for use throughout the
fleet, in conjunction with training sessions and maneuvers, to get the
maximum benefit from an onboard training program.
Some masters combine fire and emergency drills with training
sessions and hold the sessions prior to each drill. By gathering officers
and crew in the lounge and discussing a particular subject over coffee
(the subject usually being complementary to the drill, although this is
not required), the crew and officers develop greater interest in drills
and training in general. The crew is soon requesting that specific subjects

259
 - TRAINING -

be discussed and contributed to the discussions. Most of the crew is

involved and interested in shiphandling, and it should be included in
this training program.
Distribute educational material obtained from professional
publications to all onboard, licensed and unlicensed; your interest is
contagious and your satisfaction great.
ONBOARD TRAINING OF PILOTS
Even with modern simulation there is still no better, more effective
training for apprentice pilots than "hands-on" experience aboard ship.
It has become increasingly difficult for ship's officers to develop
shiphandling skills aboard larger, fast-turnaround ships with ever
smaller crews, but pilots, by the very nature of their work, still have
daily access to the ultimate training tool: the ship.
The importance of hands-on training should not be downplayed in
favor of written tests and licensing, classroom time, standardization of
training requirements, and simulator training. This only reflects a lack
of understanding of piloting, since the state-of-the-art of other teaching
systems simply has not reached the level of sophistication required to
replace shipboard experience.
Apprentice pilots must make full use of the ship, just as the ship's
officers must use every opportunity to gain information on shiphandling
from a pilot. A great deal of money is being spent for pilot association-
owned, shore-based training facilities, which is commendable, but the
ship itself must be fully utilized as a training aid. Use the various types
of equipment, including radars, in every possible mode to keep skills
current. Too many pilots put the radar in the "head-up" presentation
as soon as they get to the bridge (even before getting a cup of coffee!)
because that is the only presentation with which they are comfortable.
You can't always effectively watch the relative motion of other ships
when the radar is used in the head-up presentation and the targets are
changing their location on the PPI (plan position indicator) as you
maneuver, yet when feeling your way up a narrow channel in the fog,
there is less chance of error when operating in the head-up mode. There
is a proper time for each mode and the ship is a laboratory in which to
experiment (fig. 10-2).
Question the ship's officers about any new gear found aboard ship.
This is their field of expertise and they are trained in the use of such
equipment. Exchange your knowledge of shiphandling for information
about the ship's new equipment.

260
 — ONBOARD TRAINING OF PILOTS —

Fig. 10-2. Make use of state-of-the-art ship's equipment, such as this ECDIS, to
continuously update shipboard skills. Used with permission of Kongsberg
Maritime

Work with all of the navigation equipment, including GPS units,

ECDIS, ARPA, MS, RADAR, fathometers, and Doppler equipment,
and learn about the latest types of steering gear so you are as familiar
with them as the ship's officers. Try to become comfortable and proficient
in their use, especially with the systems that are most useful for piloting
and shiphandling. Understand what information each unit is capable
of providing, how that information is obtained, and any shortcomings
of the equipment or information. Too often a pilot must ask for help to
perform even the most routine operations despite having had the
opportunity to use the same piece of equipment aboard other vessels.
Further, most shiphandlers, ship's officers, and pilots alike tend to use
the equipment in the open ocean and never develop techniques they
need when a rain squall hits while handling the ship in a narrow
channel. Over-navigate, even though the last thing you might need is
a fix as you make your thousandth trip up the river on a clear day; it
sharpens your skills and may save you from having to rely on a less
than competent mate when the fog sets in on a strange ship.
When training an apprentice create opportunities to use tugs or an
anchor in less common situations and insist that apprentices occasionally

261
 — TRAINING —

navigate by RADAR and ECDIS on clear days. Require multiple trips

under difficult conditions. Insist that an apprentice make a large number
of night passages and trips on difficult ships to give the broadest possible
base of experience and ensure the learning of good work habits. A
specific pilot in the association should be responsible for training, and
continually review and update training requirements to reflect the
changes in ship types and local conditions. Training, be it for the ship's
officer or the pilot, is too important to be left to happenstance.
There is a great deal of political pressure from within the industry
to standardize and formalize pilot training and have pilots work only
under a federal license. It is obvious to the working pilot that conditions
are too different in each port to adopt standard requirements—that is
the very reason that pilotage services are needed as ships move from
port to port. There is some basis for criticism at present, as some pilot
associations have no formal training program, and each pilot follows
an informal path to qualify for his various licenses. Other associations
have formal training, strictly enforced standards that usually far exceed
any statutory requirements, and a system of peer evaluation that again,
is often more effective than any federally administered licensing scheme.

Fig. 10-3. "Captain Buck is in charge of pilot training and takes the job very
seriously."

262
 - SHIPHANDLING SIMULATORS -

In. self defense, it is time that all pilot associations establish formal
training programs and definite standards to qualify an apprentice to
serve as full pilot. If the associations do not do this others will, and the
piloting profession and the industry will suffer for it.

SHIPHANDLING SIMULATORS
Teachers have used books, lectures, and written tests to teach the theory
of shiphandling and other maritime skills for generations. Countless
seafarers learned their trade through this traditional instruction and
then went directly aboard ship to apply their classroom knowledge in
the real world, where most did an excellent job in a profession where
skill development was motivated primarily by tradition and professional
pride.
This training served the industry well, even though it failed to
address some serious gaps between theory and application that the
mariner was forced to fill by trial and error at sea. These gaps were at
times sizable, as most mates standing their first bridge watch alone
will attest. Who forgets that first watch when, after dropping the pilot
and putting the ship on course to her next port, the master stepped
below, leaving the new third mate, alone and untested, to deal with
navigation and traffic. The young mate, who had read all the books and
mastered countless exams, quickly learned during the next few proud
but nerve-wracking hours that a sometimes horrifying gap exists between
theory and application. Most of us survive to serve without incident
through a career stretching for years and hundreds of thousands of
miles at sea, but there is no denying we all would have benefited from
some form of training that more closely resembled that first watch at
sea or first encounter with some new situation.
With simulation, mates, masters, and apprentice pilots have an
opportunity to apply theory to real-world situations without being
aboard ship, and simulator-based instruction is now part of training in
shiphandling and bridge operations at the US Merchant Marine Academy,
the state academies, the union schools, private training facilities, and
several simulator facilities worldwide.
These institutions realize that the simulator offers mariners the
opportunity to experience, in a relatively short period of time, a multitude
of situations that would take years to witness "on-the-job." More
importantly, these situations can be controlled and responses can be
evaluated and critiqued without bending a single plate of steel.

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 — TRAINING —

THE RULE OF THREES

An overview of simulation training as it impacts on shiphandling is
presented in this chapter, and the practice maneuvers in the book's
last pages can be used as part of a simulator-based shiphandling pro-
gram. More detailed information about a curriculum and teaching
techniques are outside the scope of this text and readers should consult
specialized texts (see the bibliography), such as chapter 8 of Watch-
standing Guide for the Merchant Officer, for a more detailed discussion
on this rapidly developing field. Complete reports of studies and guide-
lines for simulator-based programs have been produced at the CAORF
facility at Kings Point and are available for review.
Simulator training follows two basic Rules of Threes:

• There are three components to a good simulator program—the

simulator, the instructor, and the curriculum.
• There are three steps to effective simulator training—classroom
presentation of theory in a detailed briefing session, the training
exercises on the simulator, and an all-important debriefing
session where performance is reviewed and critiqued.

Together, the three components and the three steps form a teaching
process that changes the very nature of instruction for several facets
of the work done by shipmasters, deck officers, and pilots, as well as
for operating tasks performed by professionals in other demanding
positions, such as airline pilots and power plant operators.
Simulators are powerful tools for training in the very important
operational work done on the ship's bridge and in the engine room, but
simulation is not a panacea. Mariners are generalists in an era of
specialization and simulator-based instruction is not, at least at this
time, useful for teaching every type of work that deck officers routinely
perform.

SIMULATORS AS INNOVATIVE TRAINING AIDS

Simulators fill a long recognized gap between classroom instruction
and hands-on application of many operating skills, including
shiphandling, rules of the road, radar, navigation, watchkeeping and
bridge procedures, and bridge resource management. With simulation,
dynamic real-world situations can be created in a controlled classroom
environment where ship's officers and pilots can:

264
 —TYPES OF SIMULATORS —

1. Practice new techniques and skills with an instructor and peers.

2. Transfer theory to real-world situations in a classroom
environment.
3. Deal with multiple problems concurrently rather than sequentially.
4. Learn to prioritize those multiple tasks under the same high
stress, changing conditions faced in actual shipboard operations.

Shiphandling and many other facets of the merchant mariner's and

pilot's work are operating skills. The principles can be learned from
books and lectures, but proficiency comes through practice. Before
simulation, there was no way to complete the learning process without
actually going aboard ship and working at the job. As stated elsewhere
in this text, one does not learn to play the piano by reading about it,
and professionals doing operational work do not learn their craft through
study and classroom instruction alone. Mariners master their craft by
doing it aboard ship, but with simulation, it is now possible to at least
practice fundamentals, correct poor work habits, develop procedures,
and demonstrate basic proficiency before actually going aboard ship.
This is a major advancement in maritime training. Textbook
instruction can be put into practice, and at least as important, skills
can be applied in real-world situations where several tasks are done
simultaneously, not one at a time. Before simulation, shipboard skills
were discussed and tested sequentially, because there is no way to
address several tasks simultaneously on paper or to learn the all-
important art of prioritizing work. In real life, deck officers and pilots
deal with multiple operating tasks simultaneously, and through practice
they learn to prioritize instinctively, and most importantly, to shift
priorities in changing routine and emergency situations.
Simulators bring a new dynamic into the classroom where experienced
mariners or pilots teach skills using books and lectures with the added
dimension of real-time experience to actually teach operating skills
rather than just explain them.
TYPES OF SIMULATORS
There are two basic types of simulators: model-based simulators in
which pilots and deck officers ride in large scale models while learning
and practicing shiphandling; and computer-based simulators using a
bridge mock-up and a computer-driven presentation. Computer-based
simulators use either an image of the selected geographic area generated
completely by the computer with the ship's behavior programmed as

265
 - TRAINING -

an overlay or a computer-generated image together with points of light

projected on that image. Each has advantages and disadvantages, and
both types, properly operated, are very effective training tools.

SCALE MODEL-BASED SIMULATORS

Scale model-based simulators at facilities use large scale models of
various ship types to simulate actual ships and shiphandling situations.
The student rides in the models either with another student or with
an instructor (fig. 10-4) on relatively large, specially designed lakes laid
out with modeled channels, docks, locks, canals, mooring buoys, single-
point moorings, and anchorages to recreate a wide range of shiphandling
activities.
The model-based simulator gives a dynamic presentation of bottom
and bank effects, wind and sea conditions, and intership effects created
as two ships pass. Scenarios are created to provide a wide range of
shiphandling experiences (fig. 10-5). The ship models respond to external
wind and current, and behave like an actual ship when backed and
turned. Anchor work is practiced in the model-based simulator under
normal and emergency situations in a very realistic environment where
a real, albeit small, vessel is maneuvered using an actual anchor. These
are real floating craft in real water behaving according to the laws of
hydrodynamics, so the effect experienced by shiphandlers is correct,
even though it is scaled down.
Because the simulation is scaled down, neither the external effects
nor ship behavior can be in "real time." There is some difference of
opinion among experienced shiphandlers who have worked with
computer-driven and model-based simulators as to whether this scaled
behavior significantly decreases the effectiveness of this training.
SCALE—IS IT IMPORTANT?
Shiphandlers speak of "having a feel" for a ship—being able to take
the correct action at the correct time based on an almost instinctive
sense of a particular ship's behavior. The ability to anticipate ship
response at this level is gained by actually handling similar ships for
several years. It would appear that the lack of real-time response would
be a major disadvantage to any system that is being used to teach
shiphandling. In fact, most ship's officers and pilots insist they quick-
ly adjust to this scaled time, so it does not seem to degrade training.
Further, any disadvantage that might exist is partially offset by the
fact that many effects and situations can be simulated, and actually

266
 — SCALE—IS IT IMPORTANT? —

Fig. 10-4. A typical scale training model with riding positions for the instructor
and student. Courtesy the Southampton Institute, Maritime Operations Center,
photo by Steve Park

felt, in a dynamic, scaled-down vessel moving through the water that

cannot be re-created as effectively using present computer-driven
equipment. There seems to be general agreement, especially among
experienced pilots and shiphandlers who have actually spent time on
both types of simulators, that scale does not degrade the effectiveness
of scale model simulators as learning tools. Computer-driven and scale
model simulators each offer advantages, and generally, the more ex-
perienced shiphandlers seem to have a greater appreciation of scale-mod-
el training.

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 — COMPUTER-BASED SIMULATORS —

Fig. 10-6. Modern simulators use high-definition projectors to provide

360-degree photo-quality scenes. Courtesy STAR Center

COMPUTER-BASED SIMULATORS
Computer-based, full- and part-task simulators are proliferating at
maritime schools, union schools, and private training facilities worldwide
as ship bridge simulation becomes an affordable and effective marine
training tool. This growth of marine simulation, and particularly ship
bridge simulation, is very much technologically driven, as equipment
develops to fill a long-known need for a means to teach operating
techniques that, before simulation, could not be taught in a classroom
(fig. 10-6). Smaller, faster desktop and mini-computers with greater
memory capacity have made it technically and financially practical to
build equipment that simulates complex hydrodynamic models moving
over realistic visual scenes at a reasonable cost. Early simulation with
rather basic, cartoon-like presentations and simplistic ship models have
evolved into detailed and visually accurate scenes with complex models
and multiple meeting and crossing vessels. Limited ahead-view only
screens have evolved into 240- to 360-degree presentations that usually
provide a view aft so the computer-driven simulation is useful for pilots
and deck officers.
There are two basic levels of computer simulators defined by
completeness of the simulation and purposes served. Part-task simulators

269
 - TRAINING -

present a limited number of features—typically one or two systems—

and are intended for training in a specific task, such as radar, rules of
the road, ARPA, or cargo system training, where it is not necessary to
use a more expensive, complex full bridge simulation. Full-task
simulators, also referred to as full-mission bridge simulators, present
a complete environment, such as a complete engine control room or a
full ship's bridge complete with navigation equipment, radar, steering
stand, communications equipment, engine control, and all the other
systems that would be present in a modern wheelhouse. A full-task
(full-mission) simulator is designed to create a realistic environment
in which the ship's officer or pilot can train and practice the same full
range of tasks in a real-time scenario that they would experience aboard
ship in routine and emergency bridge watch situations.
Full-task simulators, regardless of type and builder, share a common
background. All begin with a mathematical model developed from data
collected in shallow water tests and sea trials of the class and type of
ship being simulated. The hydrodynamicist supplies the ship data to
programmers who create a visual presentation that moves across a set
of screens, re-creating vessel motion and the hydrodynamic and
environmental effects suitable to the particular training session, limited
only by available computer memory and speed. Experienced pilots then
spend many hours working with the programmer and hydrodynamicist
tailoring the model, modifying the data-based presentation until it
"feels" to the shiphandler like the class of ship being modeled. This
modification or tailoring of models is controversial and obviously
unscientific, but with current simulators and the maneuvering data
available to the hydrodynamicist, it seems necessary to blend the
experienced mariner's intuitive evaluation with the theoretical model
to develop a sufficiently accurate simulation.
Simulators have a mock-up of a generic ship's bridge, with some
type of front or rear projection visible forward of the bridge upon which
the visual scene and the ship's deck are either projected or developed
(figs. 10-7 and 10-8). It is generally accepted that the simulator's bridge
should re-create, to the maximum extent possible, the actual shipboard
environment. Most facilities include a chart room, ship's passageways,
and the usual navigation equipment, reference books, and instruments
found on a typical ship's bridge. The visual presentation should present
at least a 240-degree field of visibility, since shiphandlers depend as
much on a view aft, or at least abaft the beam, as they do on the view
ahead when moving ships in pilot waters and close quarters situations

270
 — COMPUTER-BASED SIMULATORS —

Fig. 10-7. The MITAGS simulator uses a hydraulic system to move the
wheelhouse platform and add roll, yaw, and pitch to the simulation. Courtesy
Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies

(fig. 10-8). A greater arc of visibility is desirable when working in very

close quarters situations, and a view astern is now available in a few
simulators for training in docking and undocking.
Various ship types are simulated. Depending on the work to be
done, the mathematical ship model might be specific, such as when
doing port research or training for a new class of ship, or it might only
simulate an average ship of a particular size or type for less specific
instruction in bridge operations and general shiphandling. Effects
inherent to the ship, including steering characteristics, engine response
ahead and astern, and effects of backing, twisting, trim, draft, and
directional stability or instability are all included in the ship's program.
Shallow water effects, the hydrodynamics of bank and intership action,
and external forces, such as tugs, wind, and current effects that change
as the ship type and loading conditions are altered are overlaid on that
ship's program. The ship and the forces affecting it are overlaid on a

271
 - TRAINING -

The exception might be the use of anchors for routine and emergency
maneuvers, which is not currently simulated with sufficient accuracy
to be useful to a pilot or mariner. The effects of dragging and maneuvering
on one or two anchors are poorly simulated at best. This is probably
the case because programmers and design engineers do not appreciate
the important role anchors play in emergency and routine shiphandling
and the lack of sufficient real data that can be used for programming.
The anchor looks to them like a big parking brake. This shortcoming
is significant, because the anchor is the primary tool in emergency
situations when power or steering is lost, and since simulators are
touted as tools for teaching emergency maneuvers, the effects of the
anchor must be simulated accurately. The most recent generation of
simulators seems capable of doing this to a limited degree, but simulators
will not reach their full potential as tools for emergency training until
the effects of dragging and working with anchors are fully and accurately
documented and simulated.
COMPARISON OF MODEL AND COMPUTER SIMULATORS
There are some advantages and disadvantages to both model- and
computer-based simulators independent of the operational differences
between the two types.
Model-based simulators need several acres of natural or man-made
lake, so there are limitations to where this type of facility can be located.
A suitable natural or man-made lake and a few acres of open land are
needed for the facilities, so the model facility may have to be established
in an inconvenient, and possibly expensive, location. Computer-driven
simulators can be set up literally anywhere, without regard to proximity
to water or large areas of open land, since only a few reasonably sized
rooms are needed for the equipment and bridge mock-up. The facility can
be built in a convenient, low-cost location, although the site cost consideration
is at least partially offset by the high cost of purchasing, maintaining, and
upgrading the computer-driven simulator and its software.
Model simulators are affected by weather, which can significantly
reduce the time this type of simulator is usable. This can be a significant
disadvantage in areas with severe winters and a high percentage of rainy
days. Computer facilities can be used for training year round, independent
of weather conditions, although some mariners claim the real-life
environment of model-based simulators adds to the learning experience.
The very low teacher-to-student ratio inherent in a model-based
simulator, where the instructor rides with only one or two mariners

274
 - TOOLS OF SIMULATOR INSTRUCTION -

for several days, makes this type of instruction expensive. The teacher
to student ratio is only marginally better for computer simulators, so
neither type of simulator has a significant advantage in this regard. It
seems then that there are no overriding advantages or disadvantages
to one system over the other, and that each is more effective for teaching
particular aspects of shiphandling.
These designs and cost differences tend to balance out, so the
real consideration is which type of simulator is most effective for
teaching the particular subject matter. Pilots seem to prefer the
model simulator that effectively re-creates hydrodynamic effects,
external forces, anchor work, and ship behavior both ahead and
astern in very close waters, since they are more interested in the
subtleties of shiphandling and operations in pilot waters. Deck
officers seem to prefer computer-driven simulators for their ability
to simulate particular ports and a familiar bridge-like setting of a
ship underway for training in bridge operations, navigation, rules
of the road, and other operations more related to the work of a ship's
officer. Perhaps this is to be expected, since the two user groups do
have different interests.
If a generalization can be made, it is that there are advantages to
the ship-model simulator for teaching the subtleties of shiphandling,
while the computer-driven bridge simulator seems to be better for
teaching many of the other aspects of the deck officer's or pilot's work.
In any case, advantages of model simulation may be lost if the next
generation of computer-driven simulators is able to re-create the effects
that are presently simulated most effectively using models. Until that
time, the best facilities will probably use computer-driven and scale-
model simulators to teach those aspects of shiphandling for which each
is most suitable.

TOOLS OF SIMULATOR INSTRUCTION

Modern simulators create an environment where performance can be
demonstrated, measured, and replayed, so recording equipment of
several types is important. The simulator changes the methods used
to review and test learning in much the same way it changes the nature
of instruction itself, because simulator recordings provide an active,
dynamic measure of performance, rather than the passive pass-fail
written tests used in the traditional classroom (fig. 10-9).
Typically, the tools used to record performance and behavior under
routine and high-stress emergency conditions include:

275
 — TRAINING —

Fig. 10-9. Control room of a modern marine simulator with computer input,
monitors, and recording equipment to allow instructor and operator to manage
and record the session for later debriefing and evaluation. Courtesy Maritime
Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies

1. "X-Y" or similar plotters that reproduce a vessel's track and

heading.
2. Computer- or printer-generated graphs and tables of vessel
speed, engine and helm orders, rate of turn, and associated data
related to time.
3. Simulator playback capability, so that situations and performance
can be recreated for selected times.
4. Audio recording of the pilot's or deck officer's orders and discussions
during a simulator run.
5. Video recording of participants' actions and use of equipment.

Use these records of each simulator exercise in a debriefing session

to review and compare performance with past sessions and accepted
standards. Skills are mastered on a simulator through this process of
measured performance, review, and repetition after a debriefing where
each recorded session is reviewed by participants and the instructor.

276
 — THE SIMULATOR INSTRUCTOR —

Be critical of yourself and open-minded when reviewing records of each

exercise so that subsequent simulator sessions do more than reinforce
old, often improper work habits (fig. 10-9).

SIMULATOR VALIDATION
A simulator is of little use if the information presented is not accurate,
since incorrect or misleading information is worse than useless: it can
be dangerous. The process of evaluating the accuracy of the simulation
is known as validation.
Studies of various means for measuring accuracy of the simulation
and validating simulator facilities are ongoing in several countries, but
as yet the criteria are nebulous at best, since the user is trying to catch
up with the fast-changing technology, while at the same time deciding
where simulators fit into the maritime training picture. Simulator
validation is becoming increasingly important as simulators gain
acceptance for required training, testing, and licensing, and as companies
increase their use of simulators for evaluating mates and masters for
promotion and retention.

THE SIMULATOR INSTRUCTOR

The instructor is the second and most important component of the
simulator package.
It is far too easy to overlook the instructor's essential role amidst
the bells, whistles, and flashing lights of a modern simulator, but as
impressive as it might be, the simulator is only a sophisticated teaching
tool used by an experienced mariner with the aptitude and training to
teach a well-planned course covering the various aspects of vessel
operations and shiphandling to cadets, pilots, and deck officers.
An uncodified but nationally and internationally accepted stan-
dard is evolving that requires very skilled mariners as instructors
rather than a third mate waiting for a job at sea, or a retired mili-
tary officer with two years' sea time aboard military ships that are
very different from today's large and often underpowered deep draft
merchant ships. Instructors should be experienced pilots, master
mariners, or maritime professionals who have in-depth experience
in the particular maneuvers being taught and are also teachers
trained in operating the simulator. At the better facilities, the in-
structors also have specialized training in adult education and the
techniques for using simulation effectively as a training tool. When
very specialized training is offered, the facility may use a team

277
 — TRAINING —

concept with two instructors: one trained in teaching with simulators

and a second who is usually a professional with current experience
in the specialty being taught.
Poor instruction only perpetuates the very shiphandling mistakes
and poor operating procedures that the pilot, mate, or master came to
the course to overcome, and courses taught by anyone other than senior,
experienced mariners with training as instructors do a disservice to
this area of maritime education.
Companies, pilot organizations, and the mariners using a facility
should consider the qualifications of the instructor as well as the
capabilities of the simulator when evaluating a simulator program, and
simulator facilities should budget for well-qualified instructors, not
excessively expensive equipment. A simulator with limited capabilities
in the hands of a skilled instructor with strong course material is an
excellent training tool. The best full-task simulator is a weak teaching
tool in the hands of a poor, professionally inexperienced instructor and
an instructor who does not take simulation seriously.
Training facilities recognize the need for competent instructors and
understand the important role they play in providing worthwhile
training to students. They currently offer training for instructors;
courses that train the trainer. Additionally, governing bodies and
international organizations have set standards for accreditation of
simulator instructors, facilities, and courses. The process of determining
accreditation standards and methods continues to evolve. As mariners
are subjected to increased requirements for continuing education and
training certification the capabilities of training facilities and quality
of their instructors must be taken into consideration.

DEGREE OF INSTRUCTOR INVOLVEMENT

There are two schools of thought regarding the degree to which the
instructor should be involved in the simulator exercise.
Some believe instructors should be on the bridge, working with the
student group. The instructor would explain maneuvers and actively
guide the shiphandler or mate through the exercise so that each maneuver
is performed correctly.
Others feel the instructor should be at a separate operating console
removed from the students, going through each exercise independently
after the briefing session. The shiphandlers and mates are allowed to
make mistakes and perform the exercise at their own pace, after which
the instructors and students go through a detailed debriefing, critiquing

278
 - THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR DECK OFFICERS -

each other's work based on performance and records of the exercise.

With the plethora of excellent measuring and monitoring equipment
available most facilities are using the latter method, which most
students and more experienced instructors generally agree is more
effective. Specialized courses sometimes use both alternatives. The
expert simulator instructor works at the console, while a second
instructor with specific skills in the subject matter taught works on
the bridge. Maritime academies commonly use a combination of
classroom training, where the instructor is present and plays an active
role, and independent training with a scenario run on a full-scale
simulator or simulator module while the instructor and operator observe
the students. In the latter case, a debrief is conducted with instructors
and peers.

THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR DECK OFFICERS

The curriculum is the third component of an effective simulator program.
It is interesting to watch experienced seamen get deeply involved
in well-planned shiphandling lessons on a real-time simulator
presentation, responding emotionally as the fog sets in or another ship
approaches in a narrow channel. This is perhaps the best testimony for
the effectiveness of such training.
On the job, deck officers do not routinely get enough closely supervised
shiphandling training or hands-on experience in pilot waters, even if
they glean as much information as possible from a pilot aboard their
ship. For them simulation is especially important. Shipboard work is,
to a large extent, a solitary task, and mariners often carry bad habits
throughout their career because there are limited opportunities in the
normal course of a voyage for someone to point out their errors. The
simulator is valuable if it does no more than provide a briefing and
debriefing forum with peers under the supervision of experienced
shiphandlers and shipmasters with no obligations other than to teach
professional skills.
As already stated, simulators are very effective aids for teaching a
multitude of subjects. This text focuses on shiphandling, and considers
skills only to the extent that they impact on shiphandling. In this regard,
ship model and computer simulators are both very effective for teaching
basic shiphandling theory and specialized piloting and shiphandling
techniques, but more advanced shiphandling skills must be honed to
the level expected by the maritime community, and the public, by
spending hundreds of hours actually handling ships.

279
 — TRAINING —

It is generally agreed that detailed, carefully developed scenarios

that reflect situations a pilot or deck officer will encounter in the course
of their work should be used as a basis for instruction rather than a
rote lesson. Plan a very detailed scenario that includes all the navigation,
radio communications, and intraship communications, watch reliefs,
and other routine events in an arrival, docking, undocking, departure,
or other evolution being practiced.
Based on discussions with experienced instructors and students, it
is apparent that scenarios that closely track real-world situations are
more effective than impossible situations that degrade the simulator
session to the level of a video game. Avoid the temptation to overdo
problems to the point where exercises become unrealistic, no-win
situations, but include all the work a shiphandler or pilot will have to
do during the same evolution aboard ship so the work load and priorities
reflect on-the-job experience. Ideally, the problems developed in those
scenarios increase in difficulty at the student's pace until realistic limits,
rather than the limits of the computer, are reached.
Subjects covered on the simulator vary depending on the intent of
the program, since a third mate needs material different from a master
preparing to command a VLCC, but as a minimum the program should
include:

1. An introduction to general ship maneuvering characteristics.

2. Basic maneuvers as discussed in the master's trials.
3. The Williamson Turn maneuver to demonstrate steering
characteristics.
4. Watchkeeping scenarios requiring maneuvering a ship at sea
in close meeting and crossing situations (both when aboard the
giving way vessel and the standing on vessel), stressing the
importance of a round-turn maneuver in such situations.
5. Maneuvers to arrive at a pilot station and make a lee to embark
a pilot in all types of weather and sea conditions.
6. Maneuvering to make a lee to launch a lifeboat or recover a
person from the water.
7. Maneuvering in narrow channels and with traffic, including
stopping a ship in a narrow channel in the minimum time while
maintaining good control of the ship.
8. Use of tugs in narrow channels and while docking and undocking.
9. Response to own ship machinery failures and failures aboard
approaching ships.

280
 — THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR DECK OFFICERS —

10. Methods for handling a ship with sternway, with and without
strong winds.
11. Comparison of high-sided versus low-freeboard ships and their
behavior in strong winds.
12. If within the capability of the simulator, demonstrate techniques
for working with bank suction, intership action, and strong river
currents.
13. Proper communication techniques using sound signals, running
lights, and radio, stressing the importance of limiting such
communication only to necessary information.

Insist on proper procedures for every task and teach the full range
of work involved in a shiphandling exercise, including navigation, rules
of the road in traffic situations, bridge organization, bridge resource
management, a command presence, decision making and leadership
skills, and voyage planning techniques under routine and emergency
situations, not just shiphandling itself. All these skills impact on
shiphandling. The pilot or deck officer must master the entire package
of professional skills and techniques of bridge resource management
to use the crew and equipment to advantage. Use the simulator's
capability to its fullest extent so that the mariner is practicing the skills
in as close to a real-world environment as possible. That is the very
essence of the simulator experience.
Bridge organization is discussed briefly in this text to the extent it
impacts on shiphandling, and some excellent texts on voyage planning
and bridge resource management are listed in the bibliography. Develop
these skills as part of the study of shiphandling, since they are an
integral part of that work. The simulator is the most effective tool for
putting the concepts of voyage planning and bridge management into
practice, both of which are integrated into every well-planned simulator
program.
Plan exercises under progressively worsening weather conditions
with increasing winds and reduced visibility. Analyze maneuvers
done under clear conditions compared with those done as conditions
deteriorate. Incorporate several lessons into one exercise as the ship
is brought from sea to a dock. Practice maneuvering in traffic, applying
the Rules of the Road, making a lee and picking up a pilot, and learn
to work with tugs, communicate, organize the bridge in pilot waters,
and understand hydrodynamic effects all in one exercise by being
creative with carefully planned scenarios. Be sure to do the same

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work under night conditions, since the same jobs appear different in
the dark.
The simulator also makes seafarers, particularly the younger ship's
mate, comfortable with the idea that a ship is designed to be maneuvered.
This may sound basic, but too many deck officers are reluctant to take
action when a problem develops due to a stigma of inviolability attached
to the bridge and its equipment. Effective course material takes this
into consideration during training in shiphandling, maneuvering in
traffic, and bridge resource management. The "hands-on drill" discussed
elsewhere in this text is also applicable to the first day on a simulator,
and after several days of simulator training the reluctance to maneuver
should be gone.
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR PILOTS
As previously stated, deck officers and masters are having an increasingly
difficult time finding opportunities to practice shiphandling to the
degree needed to develop strong shiphandling skills. Fortunately, this
is not the case for pilots, who have no problem accumulating shipboard
experience. By the very nature of their work pilots have daily access
to ships for training and practice of shiphandling and bridge management
skills. They are aboard ships in pilot waters, maneuvering, at all hours
under all conditions. They learn and practice their skills on a routine
basis, under the tutelage of experienced, skilled pilots at no cost other
than their time—they train aboard the ultimate ship simulator—the
ship—and that training is free!
Simulators, in their present state of development, do not give pilots a
sense of depth and distance or the subtle visual cues and hydrodynamic
effects needed to master close quarters shiphandling. It is still the ship that
best demonstrates all the nuances of ship behavior at the level required to
develop total competence under all the conditions encountered by a working
pilot. Simulators, in their present state, are effective tools to enhance pilot
skills, but they do not replace the ship for much pilot training.
Simulators do not presently replace the traditional apprenticeship-
oriented training methods that have served pilots so well, and any
claim to the contrary does a disservice to the development and acceptance
of simulators, but they are definitely a useful tool for pilots for many
purposes, including:

1. Theory and basic techniques of shiphandling, including training

in emergency situations.

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2. Bridge resource management and bridge organization.

3. Familiarization with new or unusual ship types not customarily
handled in a pilot's home waters.
4. As a forum for pilots to demonstrate and compare various job
techniques with peers in a structured training environment.
5. Radar, ARPA, navigation, and communications training to update
knowledge of new equipment and techniques.
6. Port development and improvement studies to reconfigure ports
and establish parameters for handling new, larger, or unique
ship types.
7. New methods for dealing with specialized pilot tasks, such as
handling new or larger vessels and maneuvering in realigned
channels and new port configurations.

Technical reports from CAORF published in March 1985 discuss

simulator training for pilots in depth, and those reports provide an
excellent basis for planning a generic pilot training program. More
definitive training must be developed in conjunction with the pilots'
association for the port or area simulated because piloting is inherently
port specific and very specialized. That is the very reason pilots exist.
No one other than the pilots themselves appreciates the techniques
used and the local knowledge needed to work safely and efficiently in
a particular port.
Like ship's officers, pilots need training in navigation, radar, bridge
operations and bridge resource management, and emergency maneuvers.
Apprentice pilots must especially make full use of the ship features
and equipment, rather than concentrating on shiphandling alone, since
they need the same training and experience in bridge operations as the
third mate. Again, scenarios should be planned to include all aspects
of a passage through pilot waters—not just shiphandling techniques—
even though the pilot may be inherently more interested in the
shiphandling aspects of the exercise, and the scenarios must be
challenging but realistic, so the exercise remains a job to be done rather
than a game to be won (fig. 10-10).
Spend time discussing hydrodynamics and theory of ship behavior
with pilots who benefit from a better understanding of why ships
behave as they do, rather than just knowing how they behave. An
appreciation of hydrodynamic principles and shiphandling gives pilots
the basis for anticipating ship behavior on the job rather than reacting
to it.

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Fig. 10-10. A typical modern simulator bridge includes full instrumentation and
interchangeable control systems for training on a full range of ship types and
propulsion systems. Courtesy RTM STAR Center

Have the pilot role-play as master, working with another pilot to

better appreciate the master's position in the pilot-master relationship.
Take a ship into familiar ports. Broaden the pilots' experience by placing
them in challenging situations with larger ships and different ship types
from those being handled in the pilot's home waters. Use the recording
and replay capabilities of the simulator to facilitate self analysis and
peer critiques of not only the actual shiphandling performance, but also
bridge demeanor and bridge resource management. Even the most
skilled and experienced pilots find, when reviewing graphs and videos
of their exercises, that they may give many unnecessary orders or show
signs of stress that create unnecessary tension on the bridge in challenging
situations. Pilots are using the playback and review process routinely,
and pilot organizations are participating in bridge resource management
courses on a routine basis.

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Fig. 10-10b. The lower cost of computing power and display screens has made it
practical to provide individual or small group simulators for classroom
instruction. Author photo

Bridge operations and resource management have become increas-

ingly difficult for pilots who work more and more with multicultural
crews without advance preparation to move a ship safely through pilot
waters. The pilot organizations recognize this and the American Pilots'
Association is promoting bridge management training for all pilots.' In
fact, pilots insist that a simple requirement to communicate in a common
tongue—usually English—would do more to increase marine safety
than a wheelhouse full of new instruments or a volume of regulations.
Communications and bridge organization remain a major challenge to
working pilots, and simulator exercises provide an excellent opportu-
nity to sharpen the pilot's skills in bridge resource management and
communications.

' APA Promotes BRM Training for Pilots. Washington, DC: American Pilots'
Association, October 5, 1983.

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Training exercises should include vessel-specific exercises for more

senior pilots and nonspecific exercises for less experienced pilots learning
the basics of shiphandling using generic ships operating over the pilot's
route. Insist that all pilots involved in the course follow correct
procedures and make every aspect of the training scenario as realistic
as possible.
Pilots are also using simulators for port studies, familiarization
with new vessel types, and as a forum with peers in the workplace,
practicing shiphandling exercises and exchanging ideas on their work.
Pilots are most familiar with ships that routinely call in the waters on
which they serve, and when radically different types of sizes of ships
begin serving that port, they sometimes have to reinvent the wheel.
Increasingly, pilots are getting together with peers from another port
who have experience with that ship type and are using simulators as
a tool for transferring knowledge and experience within the profession.
This forum aspect of the simulator exercise provides a unique opportunity,
since pilots normally work alone, with little opportunity to critique
each other's work and discuss shiphandling. Piloting is by nature a
solitary job, with little routine contact between peers, and the simulator
can change this—serving as a catalyst for professional discussion among
pilots that can be quite beneficial.
So, is simulation effective in improving piloting skills? The pilots
must think so, since they attend model- and computer-based simulators
at their own expense. They see the value of training that enhances
their abilities in broad shiphandling skills and specialized areas peculiar
to their own port and work. Cost is an important consideration, though,
since simulators are expensive. Perhaps it is time for a nationally
uniform training surcharge on all pilotage fees that is retained by each
association to pay the cost of training and educating its members. This
equalizes the cost of training between ports and creates a fund so that
even the smallest associations can afford training paid for by the
beneficiaries of that training—the shipowner whose ships are moved
safely and expediently in that port.

THE THREE STEPS OF SIMULATOR TRAINING

As stated previously, there are three steps to simulator training: a
briefing session where theory and an outline of the simulator exercise
are discussed in a classroom environment, the simulator exercise itself,
and a debriefing session to review performance. Simulator training
time seems to be broken down about evenly between these three steps,

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so that only approximately a third of the total training time is actually

spent on the bridge simulator.
This is logical, since instruction and appraisal is done by the instructor
through a well-planned course, and without intensive instruction and
evaluation, the pilot, master, or mate would only be using simulator
time to practice and reinforce weak or improper work habits.

BRIEFING AND DEBRIEFING

Time must be allotted for a classroom briefing before each simulator
period to discuss the theory and hydrodynamics involved in each problem
and plan the intended passage. Charts and tide tables must be studied
and a passage plan developed. The more carefully the passage is discussed
and planned the more beneficial the subsequent simulator period will be.
After the simulator exercise there should be a lengthy, carefully
moderated debriefing where bridge work is reviewed and the performance
of each of the individuals involved in the lesson is critiqued. Most of
the learning from a simulator session is done during this debriefing,
when the users are led by the instructor to look critically at their
performance and the results of their work and analyze what they might
have done differently (fig. 10-11). The mates and pilots are usually
allowed to critique their own performance with guidance from the
instructor using reruns of selected sections of the passage, and a review
of video, audio, and chart records gives mariners a clear picture of what
occurred during the simulator exercise. Without this review, the period
on the simulator becomes a high-priced video game since the lessons
are never really fixed in the user's mind.
It is surprising how often mistakes are not recognized during the session
but are immediately seized on and discussed during the debriefing. Even
the most experienced mariners and pilots often comment on work habits
they had not realized they had developed during years of work aboard ship.
This peer-to-peer review is especially helpful to experienced pilots and
shipmasters, since they rarely have an opportunity to compare techniques
and develop improved work habits through discussion with their peers.
The third segment of the simulator training, the time actually spent on
the simulator, has already been discussed in preceding sections of this chapter.

THE FUTURE OF SIMULATORS

Simulation is a developing field. Technology, need, and application are
changing and improving rapidly as the simulator is more widely accepted
as a useful training and testing tool in the marine community.

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 — TRAINING —

Fig. 10-11. A properly equipped debriefing room includes a large area for group
discussion and equipment to play back key segments of the exercise and review
graphs and printouts of maneuvers. Courtesy RTM STAR Center

Each generation of simulator offers more accurate presentations

and better visual detail as more and faster computers are put into
smaller spaces at lower cost.
Several firms have built small simulators driven by desktop
computers for use aboard ship. This type of simulation is useful for
learning the rules of the road, ARPA and radar operation, basic
navigation, and other skills. Some companies provide software so a
ship's officers can use desktop simulators to become familiar with a
port before arrival. That said, the dream of developing desktop
shiphandling simulators has been elusive at best.
Shiphandling is an applied art, not a video game, and the restricted
arc of visibility, total lack of depth of field, and the plan view presentation
used in many cases has limited the usefulness of this equipment.
Memory capacity and computer speed continue to increase exponentially,
so it is reasonable to expect such equipment to be more useful at some

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point in the future. Shiphandlers can utilize desktop simulators to

practice and develop some areas of their professional skill set, but for
now, shiphandlers should not place much faith in skills developed and
practiced on desktop simulators. Ironically, it is the video game industry
that will likely deliver the greatest advancements in simulation
technology. The drive to provide immersive virtual reality will likely
result in advancements for shiphandling simulators.
Computers are developing because of universal demand. There is
a much smaller demand for research and data needed to increase the
usefulness of simulation for teaching and testing. Research is needed
to develop the human side of simulation and collect more complete
data on the effectiveness of instruction and the degree to which simulator
training transfers to work aboard ship. Research is also needed on ship
behavior in shallow water. The accuracy of mathematical models is
still limited because cost and tight schedules make it difficult to collect
data aboard ships operating in shallow water, and without that
information, much of the basis for current models is theoretical and
extrapolated from deep water sea trials and tank tests. The effectiveness
of simulator training and testing will increase as this information
becomes available.

COMPUTERS FOR TESTING AND EVALUATION

Computers will be used more for assessments and license examinations as
better testing criteria are developed. A great deal of work has been done in
this area in the past decade and reasonably objective evaluation criteria has
been developed for special purposes. For example, the STAR Center developed
criteria that has been tested, and in the opinion of staff, pilots, and state
commissions proven useful for evaluating state pilots prior to license renewal.
Simulators have been used for several years for deck officer license
exams and pilot evaluations at maritime academies and union simulator
facilities to test performance-based skills, such as applied rules of the
road and performance as conning officer and officer of the watch in fog
and heavy traffic situations. The ability to evaluate a mariner's ability
to prioritize tasks in realistic shipboard scenarios is a major step forward
in examining performance-based skills. The testing becomes more
valuable when situations are introduced that test the professional's
ability to apply skills under stress. Simulation is the best and, at
present, the only method for doing this.
The US Coast Guard, Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate
Studies (MITAGS), US Merchant Marine Academy, STAR Center, and

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other training facilities have completed studies and established some

criteria for this type of testing and evaluation. The National Research
Council's Marine Board has also completed intensive studies and
published recommendations for training and testing using simulation.
The testing usually meets with initial skepticism from mariners
who feel there is some gap between shipboard performance and
performance in what they feel is an artificial environment in a simulator.
Those same mariners and pilots usually change their opinion after
experiencing simulator-based testing. A good case can be made that
pilots and mariners benefit directly from this type of testing. There is
a direct correlation between testing, licensing, and professional standards
that raise the entry threshold and protect jurisdiction for anyone moving
ships in restricted waters.
The International Maritime Organization recommends performance-
based testing of underlying skills rather than dependence on written
knowledge-based testing.2 This and other reports reflect a significant change
in testing methodology away from traditional written multiple choice
examinations that test memorization more than the ability to pilot ships.
A cadre of senior mariners and pilots independent from or contracted
to the US Coast Guard are needed to administer these examinations.
To date, technological developments in simulation have outpaced the
uses of this equipment for testing and assessment.
The STAR Center in Dania, Florida, continues to develop more and
better criteria through their computer-based examinations for unlimited
ocean master licenses and the Alaskan Pilot Evaluation Program
developed for the state of Alaska. Criteria developed for that evaluation
include a point scoring system based on lengthy tasks related to piloting
in Alaskan waters that was developed jointly by the pilots and the
facility. The testing criteria were validated in several ways, including
having multiple instructors evaluate the same pilot independently.
This was done during trial evaluations and scores were almost identical
in every case.
The policy of having pilots evaluate pilots is key to the success of
that Alaskan program. This peer review is a model for similar programs.
There are no hard and fast, right or wrong responses in a given test
situation, so this application of simulation requires experienced peers
to evaluate performance.

2Review of the 1978 Standards of Training and Watchkeeping. IMO

Subcommittee on Standards of Training and Watchkeeping, Section 4.2.3,
October 5, 1993.

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SIMULATOR VERSUS HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE

In addition to license examinations, time spent in simulator training
is being considered as on-the-job experience when computing service
requirement for original, upgraded, and renewed marine licenses. There
is a definite shift to a policy of equating written tests and licensing,
classroom time, and standardized training requirements with hands-on
training, and there are international and national precedents for
substituting simulator and classroom time at some multiple of days
credit for each day of training.3
There is serious doubt among professionals about this practice;
many feel simulation should be seen as an additional tool for raising
standards to meet the requirements of an increasingly demanding
profession, rather than as a substitute for other experience and training.
Pilots especially seem to feel simulator training enhances shipboard
experience but does not replace it.
Supporters of granting service credit at some ratio of equivalency
contend the structured simulator experience provides better training
than onboard experience. Opponents of equivalency contend time aboard
ship is meant to provide experience, not training, and that it is
irreplaceable precisely because it is not structured. They maintain that
broad and random experience seasons and prepares the officer for
promotion and command. The latter group also feel the work of mates,
masters, and pilots encompasses much more than just bridge operations,
and reducing time requirements also reduces important experience in
areas not addressed in a simulator exercise.
The US Coast Guard currently grants up to six days' sea time credit
for each day spent on a simulator, with a maximum credit equal to 25
percent of the total required time being granted. Whether this practice
continues in this form will probably depend on the findings resulting
from present studies and input from the industry. It is possible in the
foreseeable future that mates will prepare and be examined for upgraded
licenses on a simulator.
Simulation has matured into a widely used and effective training
tool for teaching basic shiphandling and other bridge skills. Simulation's
place in maritime training is in a state of flux, but there is no doubt it
will play an increasing part in the education and testing process for
mariners and operating professionals in many other high-skill fields.

3Standards of Training and Watchkeeping 1978 Regulation 11/4, Article IX, (1)
Equivalents, and CFR Title 46—Shipping, Part 10.304—Substitution of training
for required service.

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 Chapter 11

MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP
AND BRIDGE RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
I f a pilot undertakes the Conduct of a vessel . . . and fails of his
Duty therein . . . and the Merchants Sustain Damage thereby, he
shall be Obligated to make full Satisfaction for the same . . . and if
not, lose his head.
—Rule 23, Laws of Olero

It must first be stressed that this chapter is not a legal treatise on the
complex relationship between shipmaster and pilot; it is a discussion
of the day-to-day working arrangements between two professionals. An
excellent discussion of the legal aspects of the master/pilot relationship
can be found in Law of Tug, Tow, and Pilotage)
This text was used as the principal reference for the discussion that
follows.
At first glance, the master/pilot relationship appears poorly defined.
Areas of responsibility seem nebulous and conflicting, with the master
appearing responsible for much of the work performed by a pilot whom
the master does not select and is usually compelled by statute to employ.
The case law in this area further befogs the relationship, leaving the
mariner to figuratively "navigate under Rule Nineteen."
In practice, though, the master and pilot are experienced professional
seamen working together to complete a passage safely, understanding
the relationship between their two positions that has evolved through
custom and practice over centuries. The arrangement works well, and
thousands of ships are moved each year without incident. It is only
when a casualty occurs that this informal but well understood and
workable arrangement becomes unnecessarily complicated.

' Alex L. Parks and Edward V. Cattell Jr. Law of Tug, Tow, and Pilotage. 3d ed.,
Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press, 1994.

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THE PILOT ABOARD SHIP

The pilot comes aboard to take charge of the navigation of the ship from
the pilot station to her destination, or to some intermediate point if
multiple pilots are used. The pilot moves the ship toward her destination
using local knowledge and a degree of shiphandling skill that the
seagoing master generally is not expected to possess. Local knowledge
is such a broad term that it might be said to encompass the whole of
the pilot's expertise, but at least it would include:

1. Local tides and currents.

2. Bottom and channel depths and configurations.
3. Courses, distances, aids to navigation, and significant geographic
features en route.
4. Local customs and practices for ship movements.
5. Local weather patterns.
6. The shiphandling skills necessary to move vessels in the waters
employed.

The pilot must possess many of the mariner's skills, including a

knowledge of the rules of the road, navigation, and the use of all forms
of navigation equipment. The landman's picture of the quaint old pilot
standing at the master's side mumbling pithy bits of local wisdom and
advice as the ship proceeds under the master's direction toward her
destination is patently incorrect and unrealistic.
A clear distinction must be made between voluntary and compulsory
pilots. A voluntary pilot is one engaged for the convenience of the vessel.
A North Sea pilot employed to take a ship between the Rotterdam and
Bremerhaven sea buoys would be one example of a voluntary pilot. No
statute requires a ship to have a pilot aboard, but the master or owner
may hire a pilot to aid in making the passage expeditiously.
The owner, through the master, has great control over the voluntary
pilot. The pilot need not be hired in the first place, or the pilot's services
can be rejected during the passage and the vessel continue to her
destination. The voluntary pilot is in a significantly different position
aboard ship than the compulsory pilot.'

2Homer Ramsdell Transportation Company v. Compagnie Generale

Transatlantique, 182 US 406 (1901).

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TUG MASTERS

SHIPMASTERS
Fig. 11-1. "Pilots as seen by . . ."

Practically speaking then, the master can feel much more free to
advise or relieve a voluntary pilot—the voluntary pilot is in much the
same position as the ship's mates.
On the other hand, a compulsory pilot is one that is required by
law to be aboard while the ship is navigating certain specified areas.
Penalties such as fines or imprisonment, or both, are the hallmarks of

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compulsory pilotage laws. If a ship is allowed by statute to refuse the

services of a pilot provided she pays a portion of the pilotage fee, the
pilotage is not compulsory.3
The relationship between master and compulsory pilot is in many
ways unique, in that it is usually defined by custom, practice, and
statute, rather than contract. While the pilot is generally neither an
employee of the ship nor a member of her crew, he is ultimately
subordinate to the master, although the degree of subordination is less
than popularly perceived. The public and the industry benefit from this
working arrangement, and from the degree of overlapping responsibility
that compels both pilot and master to be concerned about a vessel's
safety.
The compulsory pilot is not aboard in a purely advisory capacity.
That pilot is in charge of the navigation of the ship while aboard, and
the ship's crew is required to obey the compulsory pilot's orders relating
to navigation unless the master determines it is necessary to intercede
for reasons yet to be discussed. A compulsory pilot is responsible for
his own actions and receives a significant fee because of this responsibility.
In the presence of the compulsory pilot a master's responsibility is not
total and forever. Both master and pilot have a job to do, and bear an
unusual degree of responsibility not only to the vessel, cargo, and crew,
but also to the public.
Except for American flag vessels operating in the coastwise trade
under enrollment, ships are required to have a pilot aboard in most
inland waters of the United States to provide local knowledge and
shiphandling skill. Most pilots are compulsory, and it is that type of
pilot that is referred to throughout this chapter unless specifically noted
otherwise.
An exception is found to the traditional master/pilot relationship
at the Panama Canal. The Panama Canal Authority accepts a greater
degree of liability in exchange for greater control of ships' navigation
in that strategic waterway. Inside the locks of the Panama Canal the
Authority is liable for payment for injuries to the vessel, cargo, crew,
or passengers arising out of a passage through the locks under the
control of employees of the commission, unless the commission shows
that the injury was caused by a negligent act of the vessel. Outside the
locks the Authority is liable for payment for injuries to a vessel, cargo,

3The Merrimac, 81 U.S. (14 Wall.) 199, (1872).

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crew, or passengers when such injuries are proximately caused by the

negligence or fault of a Canal Commission employee. . .provided that
in the case of a ship required to have a Panama Canal pilot on duty,
damages are only payable if at the time of injury the navigation was
under the control of the Panama Canal pilot.
Shipmasters should be aware of the manner in which the traditional
master/pilot relationship is distorted in this special circumstance.

THE MASTER'S RESPONSIBILITIES IN PILOTAGE WATERS

The master retains overall responsibility for the vessel and her
operation, for having a competent watch on duty and seeing that
they perform their work efficiently, for being sure a proper lookout
is maintained, and for compliance with all regulations and statutes,
including the rules of the road (COLREGS). The master's authority
is never completely in abeyance even while a pilot (compulsory or
not) has immediate charge of the ship's navigation. The master is
also responsible for his own professional competence, including
having sufficient knowledge and experience to be able to judge the
pilot's performance and recognize significant pilot error, and to have
studied the local waters and be able to recognize known and published
dangers.
The master has a duty to advise or relieve a pilot in cases of:

1. Intoxication.
2. Gross incompetence to perform the task at hand.
3. When the vessel is standing into danger that is not obvious to
the pilot.
4. When the pilot's actions are in error due to a lack of appreciation
of particular circumstances, including the limitations of the
particular ship being handled.

In carrying out these responsibilities, the master may either advise

or relieve the pilot at the master's discretion. In practice, there is a real
burden upon the master to justify relieving the pilot should some
casualty result, so the action of relieving must not be arbitrary. There
are several ways to do a job, and while admittedly some are more
expeditious than others, the master must not relieve simply because
he feels that he can do a better job—the pilot should only be relieved
when the master feels, based upon professional experience and training,
that the vessel, crew, or cargo is being placed in real and imminent

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danger because of that pilot's present course of action. On the other

hand, the master is negligent if action is not taken when required. The
master first objects to an action, then recommends an alternative, and
only in the rare case when the pilot refuses to accept a recommendation
does the master relieve a pilot in a timely manner—while it is still
possible to avoid an accident.
The decision about when to become involved is more difficult than
the absolute problem of whether it is necessary to do so. There is a
natural reluctance to act because of the ramifications in case of a
casualty, yet the question of timing is most critical. Relief usually occurs
when it is too late—when the situation has deteriorated so far that
even the most competent shiphandler could not correct matters, and
the master's efforts then only complicate an already bad situation.
There is no requirement that a ship be in extremis before the pilot is
relieved, only that the master foresees danger should a present course
of action continue.
It is imperative that the master be sufficiently skilled in shiphandling
to recognize a problem early and have sufficient confidence in those
skills to take prompt and decisive action if it is necessary to relieve a
pilot. The correctness of action taken reflects the training and experience
that a master has had, and it is too late to compensate for years of neglect
in this area at such a time. The decision to relieve a pilot is not an easy
one, but a master who instead stands by as the vessel heads for certain
catastrophe remains a responsible party and must take action. It is a
judgment that can only be made based on professional experience and
is but one example of why the title "shipmaster" bears a connotation of
unusual responsibility.
"RELEASE FROM LIABILITY" FORMS
Occasionally a master is presented with a form to be signed releasing
the pilot from liability. These forms may be based on local practice or
special circumstances, such as a tugboat strike. The validity of these
forms in a particular case is questionable, and depends on local laws
and regulations of which the master cannot reasonably be expected to
have knowledge.
Inasmuch as the master may be under pressure not to delay the
vessel, and may not be able to consult with anyone about the advisability
of signing a release, he may elect to sign and note over the signature
that the release is "Signed under protest so that the vessel may proceed."
An entry to that effect should be made in the ship's log. Forward a copy

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of the release to the owners so they can advise you about signing such
documents in the future.
In any case, the form will have no immediate practical effect, since
the master has ultimate responsibility for the ship in any case, and the
document in no way alters the master's conduct during the docking or
other work at hand.
SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The real world must be kept in mind when discussing a relationship
between master and pilot. In practice, the pilot will not refuse to work
more safely, or to slow down, or use an additional tug when requested
to do so by the master, so it is extremely rare that a conflict over relative
authority arises between pilot and master aboard ship. No reasonable
pilot is going to reject a master's request to work more safely, nor would
any master object to such a request by a pilot. This duality of interest
works to the obvious benefit of all concerned. As long as one of the two
parties has an interest in working safely the ship is handled in a proper
manner, and when both work professionally the concerns of one tend
to amplify those of the other.
It is a fact that very few casualties occur in pilot waters that do not
involve some degree of acquiescence on the part of the master. In many
cases, if the master had done no more than suggest that the pilot reduce
speed in fog or clarify a proposed meeting arrangement with an
approaching vessel no accident would have occurred, since the pilot
will not refuse to handle a situation more safely in such conditions. In
most reports of marine casualties it is obvious that the master was
reluctant to get involved and allowed the pilot to act alone until it was
too late to avoid an accident.
It is again stressed that the master must not wait until the situation
is hopeless before getting involved. It is time to get involved—to at least
question a pilot's intentions—at the first moment that there is any
doubt about the correctness of the pilot's actions.
What options do the compulsory pilot or master have when an
irreconcilable disagreement arises about a course of action?
The pilot can accept the master's recommendations, or take the
vessel to the nearest safe anchorage until the matter is resolved, or
stand aside and allow the master to complete the job. The master can
relieve the pilot, complete the maneuver if conditions require it, and
then either return the conn to the pilot or put the ship to anchor. It is
again stressed that the master intervenes only when the pilot's work

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is endangering the ship, cargo, crew, or assisting tugs—not because

the master feels a job can be done in another, more expeditious manner.
Let me reiterate for emphasis. It would be wrong to give an impression
that such differences occur with any regularity. They do not! The master
and pilot are professionals with a common interest, and the fact is that
irreconcilable differences almost never occur because of the context in
which objections to a course of action are made.
Recently, the relationship between master and pilot has been
complicated by the growth in popularity of the "team concept" of
shipboard organization. The pilot is often said to be another member
of a team that is to navigate a ship from one point to another, as if the
pilot were employed as a crew member for the passage. This is clearly
not the case with a compulsory pilot who is providing a one-time service
to the ship, and it is unrealistic to attempt to put any pilot in that
position.
The team concept in its intended form is not new. The well-organized
crew has always operated as a team under the master, each member
performing assigned tasks to move the ship expediently from point to
point, and the concept is valid as long as it is kept in that context. The
team is organized vertically, with the mate and helmsman, engineer
on watch, and others involved in the navigation of the ship performing
tasks as assigned by the pilot, through the master. These tasks might
involve machinery operation, log and record keeping, position fixing,
or radar plotting—all jobs being performed to support the master or
pilot who has the conn. It is important to differentiate between this
vertically organized team and a horizontally organized committee. There
is no place for the latter aboard ship—any concept that diffuses
responsibility beyond the master or pilot only confuses the relationship
that exists between those two and is counterproductive to safety and
sound operation. The shipboard team should exist only to supply
information and assistance as assigned by the responsible master or
pilot.
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SHIPHANDLERS
Proper bridge organization is commonly referred to as Bridge Resource
Management (BRM). The organization is designed to reduce errors and
omissions through a system of checks and the delegation of duties.
Training in Bridge Resource Management is required by regulation,
and the benefits of BRM are steadily being recognized in the maritime
community.

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— MASTER/ PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT —

BRM evolved from Cockpit Resource Management, which was

developed by the airline industry after studies revealed human error
was a contributing factor in the majority of accidents. A training
system was devised to produce a coordinated effort among cockpit
personnel, ensuring t h a t each member contribute i n a specified
manner to the safe flight of the aircraft. There are differences between
the cockpit of an airplane and the bridge of a ship, but many of the
practices developed by the aviation industry have been adapted to
fit maritime demands.
This is not a text on BRM. The subject is discussed in this book to
the extent that it effects shiphandling. Readers should consult a text
dedicated to the subject for a more complete discussion of BRM affecting
vessel operations and day-to-day operations.
There are some key terms common to most discussions of BRM that
are pertinent to BRM and to this text because they are also central to
good shiphandling practices, including:

• Error Chain: Accidents are often a result of a chain of errors—a

series of minor mistakes or oversights leading to a casualty.
• Perceived World: Many times the initial errors in that chain go
undetected because the conning officer is working in a perceived
world; that is, he is interpreting the event as he expects it to be
based on assumption or previous experience that may not be
applicable.
• Error Recognition: The conning officer fails to recognize the errors
because of many factors, including:
• A loss of situational awareness
• Failure to set priorities
• Inadequate monitoring
• Failure to delegate tasks and assign responsibilities
• Failure to use available data
• Failure to communicate
• Preoccupation with minor technical problems

The bridge team shares the workload, obtains and communicates

relevant information early, and monitors the vessel's progress by cross-
checking the decisions and actions of all members of the team within
the context of the master/pilot relationship.
As previously mentioned, vessel operators must not confuse teams
with committees. A committee makes joint decisions and enjoys some

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equality of decision making responsibility. A ship's bridge requires

discipline, a defined chain of command, and a clear understanding as
to which officer has the conn—that is, who is in charge.
Proper BRM formalizes the roles of the participants, but it does not
alter the customary roles and relationship between the master and
pilot as appropriate for the particular waters in which the vessel is
operating. This is equally true when the pilot has gone ashore and the
master or a deck officer is in charge of shiphandling and navigation
important in restricted waters. The team supports and provides feedback
to the shiphandler.
From time to time, experienced pilots board ships where inappropriate
BRM practices lead to confusion regarding the pilot's role relative to
the ship's bridge team. In fact, the master-pilot relationship is not
altered under law or the practice of good seamanship as described in
this chapter regardless of what might be stated in a ship's operating
manual, since ships operate in a larger world where custom, practice,
and precedent prevail. The pilot comes aboard to take the conn, lead
the bridge team as he finds it, and assume responsibility subject only
to a master's obligations to relieve the pilot in specific circumstances
discussed in this chapter.
On a properly organized bridge, each member of the bridge team
serves as a filter—removing extraneous information and duties so the
conning officer is able to focus on safe movement of the vessel. The roles
of bridge team members are discussed in several sections of this text
and in the many BRM courses now available to ship's officers. The
master and pilot delegate tasks and accept an open flow of information
from bridge team members. The shiphandler, be it the master or the
pilot in pilot waters, receives timely, pertinent information from the
supporting bridge team to make proper decisions.
It is noteworthy that the bridge team has additional responsibilities
in pilot waters, that is, under watch condition 4 as discussed in this
chapter. The pilot's requirements are more intense and fluid in nature,
as events occur more quickly and there is less leeway for error in pilot
waters. For this reason, pilot associations have teamed with the best
simulator schools to develop bridge resource management courses
specifically for pilots. Shipmasters engaged in trades where they are
responsible for shiphandling and piloting in narrow channels and inland
waters should also take these courses that are designed when bridge
team members have the responsibility for shiphandling regardless of
whether a pilot or master is conning.

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— MASTER/ PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT —

As previously discussed, the state-licensed, compulsory pilot brings

aboard his or her own responsibilities as a third party responsible to
the state and federal government, as well as for the safety of the vessel,
its cargo, and crew. The pilot is charged by the commissioning authority
to navigate in the best interests of the state and local environment.
Sound BRM organization formalizes the responsibilities of everyone
working on the bridge, serving as lookout, or performing other duties
as a team in support of the pilot to fulfill that responsibility.
What constitutes a bridge team? Basically, it consists of anyone
needed for the safe navigation of the ship and may include the master,
deck officers, unlicensed crew, and the pilot. The bridge team must be
of sufficient size to perform normal bridge duties, which BRM groups
into three general areas:

1. Collision Avoidance—Detecting and avoiding other vessels and

objects.
2. Navigation—Keeping the vessel safely clear of shoal water, close
to her intended track, and near to on schedule.
3. Administration—Routine watch duties, such as communications,
log keeping, and supervising watch personnel.4

The size of the bridge team varies based on the watch condition,
which is dictated by the environment in which the vessel is operating.
The environment includes factors such as weather, traffic, and vessel
location. The following chart shows an example of watch condition
criteria.

Ship's Environments
Watch Condition Visibility Waterway Traffic
1 Clear Offshore Light
2 Reduced Restricted Moderate
3 Reduced Restricted Heavy
4 Reduced Pilotage Heavy

4Bridge Team Management, Maritime Institute for Training and Graduate

Studies, and American President Lines, LTD., Linthicum Heights, Maryland,
1992.
5Ibid.

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 — BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SHIPHANDLERS —

The watch condition may be determined by a combination of factors.

For example, if a ship were operating in clear visibility, in light traffic,
and in pilotage waters, the watch condition would be 4. In a basic sense,
as a s i t u a t i o n becomes more i n f o r m a t i o n intensive and/or less e r r o r
tolerant more people are required to perform bridge duties safely.
The size of the bridge team increases as the situation intensifies,
and the following chart illustrates the way in which duties are divided
as team size increases.

Bridge Duty6

Watch Collision Radio Other

Condition Conn Avoidance Comm.'s Navigation Duties Helm Lookout
1 Watch officer AB
2 Master Watch officer AB AB/OS
3 Master Watch officer AB AB/OS
4 Pilot Master Watch officer AB AB/OS

Note: "Other Duties" may include record keeping, tending the engine
order telegraph and/or thruster controls, monitoring equipment, etc.'
The division of duties is similar to the concept of triage. As the
situation warrants, additional personnel are added so that the person
conning can focus on the task at hand. There is considerable overlap of
duties, which allows members to cross-check each other. It might be
better if this chart were drawn with hatched lines to show that the
division of duties is not static or exclusive to a particular officer or crew
members. Effective BRM dictates that duties are divided based on the
expertise of team members. For example, the pilot may handle most of
the radio communications during a passage, but he may delegate less
essential communications to the master or watch officer. If the master
deems it necessary, there may be two watch officers sharing navigation
and other duties.

6ibid.
7Bridge Team Management, Maritime Institute for Training and Graduate
Studies, and American President Lines, LTD., Linthicum Heights, Maryland,
1992. (Note: Several sections of this chapter were adopted from the MITAGS
course material.)

303
 Chapter 12

VESSEL OPERATIONS
Many officers spend much time in perfecting themselves in deep sea
navigation, where the ship is not endangered, but make no effort
to acquaint themselves with conditions such as tides, currents, etc.,
when coming into port, because the Captain or pilot will then be
taking responsibility. This is where danger really exists. . . .
—Merchant Marine Officer's Handbook

PLANNING THE PASSAGE

Columbus was not sure what he would find at his destination or what
would be encountered en route, but he planned his passage with
meticulous care and made the best use of information available at that
time. He planned a stop at Gomera, in the Canary Islands, and a track
down the twenty-eighth parallel, which he felt would take him to his
destination. Through the centuries masters and ships' officers have
continued to plan each passage using all available information to safely
and expeditiously reach their destination. Passage planning is neither
new nor any less important today, whether a passage is offshore or in
pilot waters.
Further, as discussed in chapter 7, the need to plan a passage does
not diminish with experience on a particular route or body of water;
too often a mate or master neglects planning because "I've made this
run a hundred times." This is illogical, since no one plans a passage
more thoroughly than a pilot who has probably made a thousand trips
over a route. Because of the pilot's competence and experience the
planning may at times seem effortless and sketchy, although in fact,
the pilot has planned the passage in great detail; an apparent
contradiction, since the pilot already has such detailed knowledge of
the area being navigated. The fact is the mariner may not have sufficient
local knowledge to appreciate the planning that is required. The pilot
checks currents and tides at several points—not just at the pier as the
mariner tends to do—and compares dead reckoning to actual positions
continuously during a passage. Notices to mariners are checked even
though the aids long ago became so well-known that positions are
reconciled almost without conscious thought. Distances off points and

306
 — PLANNING THE PASSAGE —

Fig. 12-1. "Look, Chris, just because the Satnav is kaput is no reason to scrub
the voyage."

aids are checked, times for standing by the anchors and taking tugs
are discussed, times for rising and setting of the sun and moon are
computed because of their effect on available light during a passage,
and weather conditions along the route are studied. If the pilot considers
all this work essential, it is only logical that the mariner who is less
familiar with an area should plan at least as carefully.
The hazard of overplanning and its effect on handling the ship must
also be considered—and more significantly, the dangers of following
an inflexible passage plan regardless of conditions that develop. Do not
plan the placement of every mooring line at the dock and then attempt
to blindly follow that plan regardless of the 30-knot wind that develops
off the dock after the planning is done, or despite the freshet found to
be running across the berth. Select an area to anchor, but use your
professional skill to adjust when you find a ship anchored in your
planned location. This may sound obvious, yet a few years ago a ship's
mate religiously followed an overly detailed passage plan until the
ship's bow was 50 feet over the Cristobal breakwater! It is not uncommon
for a pilot to board a ship and find bridge personnel overly concerned
because another ship has stopped ahead on the preplanned track line
that "we have to follow." The plan is meant only as a formalized dead
reckoning and does not replace good seamanship, navigation, and
shiphandling ability.

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 — VESSEL OPERATIONS —

Fig. 12-2. "No one plans a voyage more thoroughly than a pilot."

The at-sea passage plan begins in an abstract tabular format that

includes

1. Planned track with waypoints and junction points.

2. Courses to steer from point to point, or between waypoints.
3. Distances from point to point, and for the passage.
4. Estimated time of arrival at various points computed for selected
speeds at half-knot intervals.
5. Lights and aids to navigation expected en route, with characteristics
and range of visibility.
6. Notations of banks, shoals, and other points of particular interest.
7. Port and pilot requirements, VHF working frequencies and
reporting requirements, and times of high and low water at the
port.
8. Set and drift expected from ocean and local currents.
9. Particular information required by any unusual conditions
existing along the track.
10. Local vessel traffic control practices and requirements.

308
 - THE COURSE CARD -

This information is also put on all the necessary charts as a reference

that will remain throughout the passage—a graphic plan that is even
more important and useful than the tabular plan, since good navigation
practice calls for all navigation to be done directly on the charts of an
area. As the passage plan is laid down on the chart, the charted data
is compared to the tabular plan for errors or unforeseen dangers along
the planned route. Put this information on the chart in ink so it will
remain in its original form. This avoids the cumulative errors that occur
when penciled courses are continually shifted as fixes are obtained
during a passage. Daily navigation is done in pencil for comparison
with the planned track. Lay down arcs of visibility for all lights that
will be used and put all distance, course, expected currents, and other
information that is shown on the tabular plan into the chart.
Additional information is required in pilot or inland waters, including

1. Courses and distances in each reach or leg of a port passage.

2. Each turning point, with a reference buoy or bearing and distance
off a prominent aid or point of land.
3. Set and drift at several significant points along the route.
4. Time of high and low water at similar points.
5. Location of anchorages, pilot boarding areas, and the location
where tugs will be met and made fast.
6. Shoals and hazards highlighted to bring them to the navigator's
attention during the passage.

Again, everything except the times of tides and current changes

should be in ink to avoid mistakes and to save future work, since the
courses and distances will not be lost when the chart is erased and will
be available for subsequent passages.

THE COURSE CARD

In addition to the chart, a pocket-size course card (described in
chapter 7) is prepared by the master for reference during the passage
to or from the dock (fig. 12-3). The pocket card minimizes distraction
from the ship's operation and allows the master to remain at the
centerline window to conn the ship or observe the pilot's work, rather
than having to shift between the wheelhouse and chartroom. The pilot
has a course card, even though he is able to draw the chart of the port
from memory; how can the master effectively conn the ship without
one? The card shows the reaches in order with the course, length of the

309
 — VESSEL O P E R AT I O N S —

reach, turning point at the end of each reach, and the characteristics
of turning point lights noted. Put the information on one or two 3-by-
5-inch cards, which are kept in the shirt pocket. The cards are meant
to supplement the charted information and to minimize distracting
trips to the chartroom, rather than to replace the use of the charts
completely. The card must cover the entire area between the sea and
dock, not just the portion of the passage that is made without a pilot.
This card will be especially appreciated when that heavy rain squall
or fog sets in midway down river and the master needs only to glance
at the course card to check the heading as the ship feels her way to sea.

ECDIS
Paper charts are rapidly disappearing from the wheelhouse and being
replaced by Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDIS).
In many ways ECDIS is superior to paper charts. Information, including
real-time vessel position, is provided in the wheelhouse, where it is
readily accessible to those navigating the vessel. Charts can be
automatically updated to reflect the most current data available. Vessels
may be equipped with a complete set of up-to-date charts at a lower
overall cost than maintaining a complete chart library. However, as
with any piece of equipment, those using it must be thoroughly trained
and competent, and ship's officers must familiarize themselves with
the ECDIS equipment aboard each vessel they join. While paper charts
were common to all vessels, the ECDIS equipment aboard each vessel
may be starkly different. It would be ridiculous to expect a newly-signed

P I L O T V I -IF Ko 1 2 .
SEA T o M E - V . 1 7 0 W ri W H A R F -
F a o FROM T O C i - I A R A c . T E R L S n c . COURSE D I S T:
LT. i t : v. / E s t B u o - f 4 1 8 G X < F L cz. 9 1 1 2 . - q
guoy#8 Bucry-fil 7 O.K. 3 1 9 1 - 9
6 U 0 Y 1 7 J O N E S PT: G P . PL...W.65-zti) 3 2 7 z . 7
J O N E S P T 8 u o y ' 2 . . . P R , Q K . FL. W 3 2 2 2.2.
B u o y - P R" B u o y " F L . 6 5 4 5 0 337 3 . 6
13JOY 's 7 PR" BASH4 3 3 2 1.9
eAsf N D o c k * 6 3 2 - 2 - 0 . 5
To TA L pis-17 1 5 . 7 tatt
VARIAricKt 3 . s v i

Fig. 12-3. Pocket course card.

310
 - ECDIS -

mate to be familiar in the use of a ship's equipment when first sailing

from port, and consideration must be given for pilots, who may have
exposure to different manufacturers equipment but limited time actually
working with all of their features.
There are a number of issues with ECDIS and mariners need to be
alert when using this equipment. The most obvious issue is that data
may be input incorrectly, generating an error in the vessel's position.
For example, an error inputing the position of the GPS antenna will
lead to the vessel's position being inaccurate. Additionally, an error in
the ship's speed log will affect the accuracy of the predicted position.
As with any computer equipment, "garbage in, garbage out" is the rule.
Users are able to determine the layers of information displayed, and
what one user decides is not important may prove to be essential for
the safe navigation of the vessel. Users also need to be aware of which
features have been turned off.
Future position indicators, which display a predicted future track
of a vessel based on current movement, should be used with a great
degree of skepticism. These predicted tracks fail to take into account
a shiphandler's intended actions which will have an impact on the
actual future position of the vessel. Those monitoring the predicted
track of the vessel should consider this prediction as a rough estimate
of the vessel's future path.
One real-life problem with ECDIS is that the amount of information
displayed may be overwhelming, and managing or filtering this
information may be so time-consuming as to detract from the navigation
of the vessel. There are times when the frequency of alarms being
generated leads to the majority of the alarms being ignored, and it is
not uncommon for those accustomed to hearing such frequent alarms
to tune them out entirely.
ECDIS equipment has aided passage planning in some ways, but
has also made it more time-consuming in others. For example, it takes
more time to prominently display information for parallel indexing on
an ECDIS than on a chart. Some might argue the merits of placing
navigation notes on an ECDIS when the ship's position is automatically
maintained in real time. The use of electronic aids does not diminish
the importance of providing information that is useful in position
monitoring, most especially in pilotage waters. All of the information
previously highlighted as being necessary for passage planning also
applies to vessels equipped with ECDIS. Importantly, any information
that is supplied automatically must be verified manually.

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 — VESSEL OPERATIONS —

BRIDGE DESIGN
Good bridge design is essential if the mariner and shiphandler are to
work safely and effectively. I t is difficult to use improperly located
equipment, or to bring a ship on to a range that can't be seen because
of obstructions placed in the shiphandler's line of sight. The mariner
must insist that naval architects give the same consideration to good
bridge design as is given to hull and engine room design, so the bridge
is planned to fit the deck officer's and pilot's work habits. The cost of
installation should be secondary to good design and ease of maintenance;
the bridge layout affects the operation and navigation of the ship
throughout her life.
An excellent study was done by a committee of master mariners
and pilots chaired by Capts. Wilbur H. Vantine and Robert D. Valentine
in 1975,1 to develop practical criteria for bridge design. The study has
since been adopted by the International Maritime Pilots' Association,
has been reviewed and approved by over two hundred ship designers,
builders, and owners, and was included by IMO in the internationally
accepted standards for bridge design. This study is available from those
groups and should be consulted by mariners, naval architects, and
operations managers when designing or updating a ship's bridge. Design
criteria are presented, rather than a standardized bridge design, so
there is no risk of institutionalizing present-day technology.
Standardized designs are neither necessary nor practical; different
types of vessels, their manning scales, and their intended service all
affect design, so that an "all ship" bridge is not feasible. Guidelines and
minimum requirements do have value, though, especially if developed
by experienced seafarers and pilots so that design fits use, and good
work habits do not have to be compromised to adapt to impractical
design. A small, bridge-controlled coaster that docks with one man on
the bridge requires a more centralized layout than a VLCC, and the
height and open design required with a 900-foot-long containership is
not necessary for the coaster. It is counterproductive for any study to
be overly specific; only those features desirable on all vessels should be
presented.
Aboard new ships, miniaturized equipment should be grouped in
clusters or stations that do not interfere with the shiphandler or mate

' Wilbur H. Vantine, "Good Bridge Design from a Master Mariner's Point of
View," p 99-104.

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 — BRIDGE DESIGN —

Fig. 12-4. Group bridge equipment in clusters in appropriately located consoles

to increase efficiency of the bridge watch crew and conning officer or pilot.
Courtesy Kvaerner-Mass Yards

on watch. I t is now technically possible to place all bridge equipment

in one console, but this is counterproductive, since several people must
then work in one area. Gear should be grouped by use so i t is not
necessary to move from one side of a 100-foot-wide wheelhouse to the
other to perform a single task, and place each console-mounted group
in that area of the wheelhouse where it is most useful (fig. 12-4).
No two mariners or pilots will agree on the exact placement of bridge
equipment, but there are general principles upon which all experienced
pilots and mariners concur:

1. A clear view must be provided on the centerline, or as near the

centerline as possible, from the wheelhouse to the stern.
2. The wheelhouse windows must be large and give a clear all-
around view of the horizon, with as few bulkheads and pillars
as possible.

313
 — VESSEL OPERATIONS —

3. There must be unobstructed access to the centerline wheelhouse

windows so the shiphandler can see forward and abeam without
having to move around the wheelhouse.
4. A conning station is required around the centerline windows, or
slightly to port if there are obstructions on the centerline. With
most pilots carrying Personal Piloting Units (PPU's), the conning
station should include a power connection, clear work space to
hold a computer unit, and a Pilot Plug.
5. At sea, navigation equipment should be located so there is as
near to a 360-degree clear view as possible from the chart table.
6. The helmsman's station should be on the centerline well back
from the windows.
7. A ship control console is required near the center of the wheelhouse,
well back from the windows, where the officer on watch can
clearly hear all helm and engine orders.
8. The wheelhouse should be soundproofed; too many casualties
occur because the mate or helmsman cannot hear orders clearly.
9. A conning station is required on each bridge wing.
10. A clear walkway is needed from one bridge wing to the other,
through the wheelhouse, with all equipment other than the
conning station aft of the walkway.

Naval architects seem to have a misconception about the helmsman's

duties, soa significant number of modern ships have the wheel forward
at the wheelhouse windows. Ships with the wheel in this improper
location seem inevitably to sign on a helmsman who is 7-feet tall, making
it physically impossible for the master or pilot to see! On future ships
the helm station should be placed well back from the window and
equipped with a gyro repeater, gyro pilot controls, rate-of-turn indicator,
and wheel and rudder angle indicators (fig. 12-5).
I f your ship's helm station is improperly located adjacent to the
wheelhouse windows give the helmsman a stool to sit on in pilot waters.
The pilot or conning officer can then at least see over the helmsman's
head.
Arrange a conning station around the centerline windows, the
equipment being bulkhead-mounted over the windows and on a console
aft of the window facing forward to keep access to the windows clear. It
is i m p o r t a n t t h a t the shiphandler and mate on watch have an
unobstructed view ahead and abeam while working. This becomes
especially significant when a light rain covers the windows with beads

314
 — BRIDGE DESIGN —

Fig. 12-5. A proper helm

station. Courtesy Sperry
Marine Systems

Fig. 12-5b. A modern integrated bridge with ergonomic working stations.

Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

315
 - VESSEL OPERATIONS -

of water and it is impossible to see out without getting right up to the

glass. This simple detail—providing unobstructed access to the centerline
windows—materially increases the margin of safety when handling
the ship. If you can't get up to the bridge windows aboard your present
ship, it might be possible to move a bulkhead table or other equipment
to create the needed access.
This conning station is designed to group in one location all the
equipment needed for shiphandling. Any changes you can make in your
present ship, such as shifting a tachometer, VHF transmitter, fathometer,
or rudder angle indicator so they can be used while you remain at the
center windows will be worth the effort. Even if only a few pieces of
gear are shifted you can create at least a minimal conning station. The
optimum station would include a VHF transceiver, wind direction and
force indicators, whistle control, Doppler speed indicators, digital
fathometer, gyro repeater, tachometer, rate-of-turn indicator, rudder
angle indicator, and radar/CAS display. If this equipment is placed at
one station, the mate or pilot can obtain needed information without
having to move about the wheelhouse. This is important, since it is
difficult to remain oriented to ship motion—particularly lateral motion—
if the shiphandler must continually move from one location to another
to work (fig. 12-6). A second radar/CAS and ECDIS displays should be
placed to starboard of this location, good seamanship dictating that the
horizon off the starboard bow of a ship should be visible from the radar
SOit canbeused by the officer on watch at sea, and by the bridge team
while in pilotage waters. Due consideration needs to be given to the
amount of light put off by bridge equipment. Displays, even when fully
dimmed, give off a glare that diminishes night vision. Designers need
to place equipment in a manner that it is easily viewed, and yet does
not detract from the mariner's ability to see what is happening outside
the window.
A similar station should be placed on each wing. Less equipment
is needed at this station, since the pilot or master normally works from
the bridge wing only when embarking or disembarking a pilot, or
conning alongside a dock, a small boat, or other vessel. A tachometer,
gyro repeater, the VHF and internal communications handsets, rudder
angle indicator, and bow thruster controls should be placed here. If the
telegraph is not visible from this station, a small repeating indicator
is needed on the wing. If your ship lacks these wing indicators have
them installed. Aboard larger ships, or ships with a high level of bridge
noise, a communications system is needed between the bridge area,

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Fig. 12-6. This modern bridge design provides unobstructed access to the
wheelhouse windows and a clear view ahead of the vessel. Courtesy MV Happy
River, Merwede Shipyard

helmsman, and mate on watch to eliminate shouting that leads to

misunderstood commands and accidents. Use an answerback system
so the mate and helmsman can acknowledge orders either via a
talkback hailer arrangement or a walkie-talkie. A microphone mounted
at the steering console is useful so the helmsman can repeat commands
back to the conning officer on the bridge wing.
Mariners and pilots should be consulted when designing the bridge
layout prior to construction of a new ship; once the ship is built seamen
can make changes only where practical and then work around remaining
restrictions placed upon them by poor design. Mariners must insist,
through the Council of American Master Mariners and other professional
groups, on having some impact on future design and regulation of the
ship's bridge and its equipment. Even if no change is made in bridge
design other than countering the trend toward blocking access to the
wheelhouse windows with a helm station and operating console a
major improvement in design will have been made.

PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT

Laptop Systems and DGPS-General
More and more often pilots are bringing aboard laptop navigation
systems and other aids specially designed for a particular port.
Miniaturized electronics make navigation equipment smaller, less

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 — VESSEL OPERATIONS —

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L 5 ft
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4a. I elo.o.me,na

Fig. 12-7. Pilot laptop showing the Panama Canal CTAN system with a display of
all traffic movements to scale in real time, plus an abundance of navigation
information. Note the accuracy of the system as demonstrated by the ship moving
down the center wall of Pedro Miguel Locks. Courtesy Panama Canal Authority

expensive, and more portable, so systems can be designed with software

and features that are port specific and extremely useful. In some ports
pilots are now able to operate in ice, fog, and other conditions that would
have closed a port in the past because they have these specially designed
and extremely accurate systems.
It is important to note that the systems discussed in this section are
not simply laptop computers with off-the-shelf chart programs. These
are specially designed navigation systems. The equipment, programming,
and upgraded charts are expensive, but pilot associations and ports
realize this investment provides a payback in increased safety, greater
port efficiency, and improved navigation many times the cost of the
system. Commercial programs are basic aids to navigation, but do not
provide the degree of accuracy or other features discussed in this section.

318
 - PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT -

These pilot systems are evolving year-by-year under various

equipment names, but all share some common features to provide
pilot-specific information for

• Navigation
• Shiphandling in channels
• Communications
• Traffic management
• Speed measurement
• Vessel location and detection
• Transponder and vessel identification
• Active vessel traffic management

An example of such equipment is found at the Panama Canal, where

pilots are using CTANS (Communications, Traffic Management, and
Navigation System) that do all this and more. The system was devel-
oped in the late 1990s by a pilot team working with the Panama Canal
Commission and experts from the Volpe Center in Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, to increase efficiency and safety in the Panama Canal.
When using the CTAN system, each pilot brings aboard a single
case containing a combined satellite and UHF antenna, a laptop
computer, and a unit that combines a radio transceiver, DGPS equipment,
and software to allow everything to interface (fig. 12-7).
Within minutes after coming aboard the unit is set up and the
system is receiving signals to support DGPS navigation and transmit
and receive radio information between ships via a system of shore-based
transceivers and repeaters. The system processes the ship's movement
as measured by sequential DGPS calculations of ship position to calculate
location, speed, and course. That information is broadcast from ships,
tugs, and launches underway in Panama Canal waters to a centralized
location, where it is combined with similar information from other
vessels and rebroadcast back to all ships simultaneously.
Each ship broadcasts an identifier and preprogrammed information,
including speed, course, draft, length, beam, antenna location, cargo
type, pilot name, and other information entered when the ship entered
the system. The information is used to generate a graphic presentation
of the ship on every computer screen in the system. The rebroadcast
signals include information from every ship moving in the Panama
Canal to provide a continuous, real-time presentation of the entire
waterway and all traffic. Ships are shown to scale rather than as simple

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 — VESSEL OPERATIONS —

blips on a screen, so pilots "see" actual ship locations and movements

throughout the Canal. Information that is essential for safe and expedient
maneuvering and navigation that was previously unavailable, or
obtainable only through input from a third party, is now readily available
in display directly accessible to the pilot (fig. 12-8).
It is important to note that DGPS-based laptop systems are additional
navigation aids that provide additional information to experienced
mariners. This standard caveat applies as much to the DGPS systems
as it does to other navigation equipment used by mates, master, and
pilots. The DGPS laptop system is merely an additional tool used to
move ships more safely and efficiently. The pilot should set up the
laptop system so it may be used in conjunction with the radar and other
ship's equipment. Remember, like anything mechanical, the systems
are still subject to breakdown, and despite all their "gee-whiz" features,
they will not detect any vessel moving without the system on board,
such as that yacht drifting into your path or an off-station buoy lying
in the channel.

CTAN Operational Diagram

GPS rtulltes

11111-411-M N E W . I n f i x Cotasol Celae

Server C a t ; -

1
sc°

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Fig. 12-8. Diagram of typical laptop-based system with DGPS positions and ship
data broadcast to repeaters and rebroadcast to all ships simultaneously to
provide real-time area-wide information. Courtesy Panama Canal Commission.

320
 - PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT -

Pilots must still look out the window!

Laptop systems and DGPS—Navigation and Piloting

Laptop-based navigation systems designed or modified for pilot or
shiphandlers' use in a particular port brings inland navigation and
piloting to an entirely new level. The systems have many uses, and are
accurate to the point where ships piloted by experienced and trained
shiphandlers and pilots can navigate in restricted visibility, ice, or other
situations when aids to navigation are not present or visible. The axis
and limits of the channel, charted positions of buoys and ranges, and
readouts of distances from the centerline and distance to a course change
are presented graphically on the laptop screen. Ships can navigate in
all weather once users gain confidence in the accuracy of the system.
To demonstrate this capability, several pilots navigated ships
through the winding Gaillard Cut in Panama using only the laptop
presentation. They went through the narrow, twisting eight-mile-long
Cut—making turns, adjusting for bank suction and steering through
each reach while standing in the chartroom. The extremely accurate
graphic presentation of channel limits, shoreline, the axis of the channel,
and own-ship shown to scale using the known antenna location and
the position of the ship's bow and stern make it possible for skilled
shiphandlers to proceed in fog or heavy rain that closed the Panama
Canal when ships used radar and conventional instrumentation.
Is the system really accurate enough to be used in this manner?
Designers for these pilot navigation and communications systems
acknowledge accuracy to within a couple meters. In fact, pilots find the
specially designed systems to be accurate within a foot or two i f the
information is superimposed on extremely accurate charts. The Panama
Canal is a good test area to demonstrate that accuracy. The constantly
updated and very accurate surveys collected during a century of
construction and operation provide extremely accurate data that was
programmed point by point by Volpe programmers to create extremely
accurate electronic charts. By visually comparing the clearance between
a ship's hull and the walls of the canal locks with the distances shown
on the laptop presentation, it is obvious the system is accurate to within
a foot or less.
The charts are the limiting factor when determining the accuracy
and usefulness of the laptop presentation. Off-the-shelf electronic charts
and handheld or laptop computers are not acceptable for the uses
described in this chapter. Standard charts available for hand-held

321
 — VESSEL OPERATIONS —

computers are convenient for routine navigation, but only special purpose
DGPS-based pilot systems can provide information on other ships and
own ship with the accuracy required for the uses discussed in this
section (fig. 12-9).
The specially designed laptop-based navigation systems are a great
advance for inland waters navigation as demonstrated by pilot systems
used on the Delaware River, Tampa, the Chesapeake Bay, and other
ports where true pilot navigation systems are operational. Even DGPS
systems that show only own ship and the channel axis and boundaries
in real time make all weather navigation possible. Ports remain open
in the winter ice when, in the past, they closed, and ships move in fog
and narrow channels even though ranges and buoys are not visible.
Most systems also supplement the graphic-chart presentation with
continuously updated and accurate readings of the distance to waypoints
and the distance right or left of the centerline and passing ranges in a
channel. The system is even more useful when the laptop receives and
presents information to show course, speed, draft, location, and meeting
points from other ships. Those systems can be used for more complete
passage planning and active traffic management.

Fig. 12-9. Typical laptop display for special purpose pilot navigation system.
Photo courtesy Raven Industries and Pilots for the Bay and River Delaware

322
 — PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT —

The capabilities of such systems are still evolving. I t is not an

exaggeration to say the laptop-based DGPS systems take piloting
services and inland navigation of large vessels to a new level. Typical
systems provide

• Rate-of-turn indication.
• Automatic calculation of ship meeting points that adjusts
continuously as ships alter speed and course.
• Extremely accurate calculation of own vessel speed with graphic
and audible presentation that is useful in close quarters situations,
such as when approaching a dock or lock without the limitations
of Doppler systems.
• Constant readout of distances from centerline and to waypoints.
• Weather, tide, and current information broadcast directly from
instruments at strategic points to the ship.
• Real-time information regarding tugs and availability of docks
presented in a graphic format.
• S h i p -to-ship a n d broadcast e m a i l c a p a b ility for p i l o t
communications.
• Direct readout of other ships' courses and speeds with greater
accuracy, without the time delays required by radar-based collision
avoidance systems.
• Range and bearing to shore and other vessels measured past
bends or obstructions in a channel based on either straight-line
measurements or following the axis of a channel, which is often
much more useful.
• Direct DGPS-generated own-ship positions on extremely accurate
electronic charts prepared for pilot use in a portable presentation
that pilots can move about the wheelhouse or to the bridge wing
as work requirements change.

Independent pilot carry-aboard systems have several advantages

that benefit the shiphandler and the ship. First, the pilot-provided
equipment is independent of all ship's equipment, so its capability and
controls are consistent from one ship to another. The pilot can have
confidence i n the basic and ancillary systems and the information
provided is known. I t is a fact that the condition and maintenance of
shipboard equipment varies significantly from one ship to another. I f
the equipment is shoddy or non-functioning the vessel cannot proceed
until repairs are made or substitute equipment is provided from ashore.

323
 - VESSEL OPERATIONS -

The use of a laptop system operating independent of shipboard equipment

provides a degree of redundancy that improves safety. Also, the ability
to quickly obtain a replacement for the laptop-based and portable pilot
system should it fail is an obvious advantage over fixed shipboard
equipment that depends on redundancy and maintenance for measure
of reliability. This is also a good reason to minimize integration between
the pilot's system and shipboard systems, since the systems are redundant
rather than interdependent.
In practice, the DGPS system provides very useful information with
only broadcasted data and information calculated by the DGPS. Chart
information, speed calculations, and navigation information are at least
as good directly from the laptop system as the information provided by
integrating ship's equipment into the laptop system. Accuracy does
improve significantly at very slow speeds with additional input from a
flux-gate compass or other heading reference.
The impact on safe and efficient ship movements of a system that
moves an almost infinite volume of directly measured real-time
information to a shipboard laptop receiver in a graphic format cannot
be exaggerated. In fact, it is impossible to provide this volume or type
of information via spoken broadcasts or printed lists. The impact of
this equipment on VTS is discussed elsewhere.

Laptop Systems and DGPS—Shiphandling

In addition to collecting and distributing useful traffic and navigation
information, the DGPS-based navigation system is also a valuable
shiphandling tool. The uses for shiphandling are evolving as pilots and
masters gain experience using the systems in restricted waters.

Making Turns: The DGPS-based chart presentation can be used to

make accurate turns in channels. Shiphandlers have been using radar
presentation to make turns for many years. When using the radar,
pilots frequently start a turn when the ship reaches some known distance
off a fixed point ahead. These reference points are learned by trial and
error and refined through use. Every pilot learns one or more reference
points for every turn on a passage. The variable range marker (VRM)
is set at some known distance and the turn is started when the VRM
touches the reference point. The electronic bearing line (EBL) is commonly
used to monitor the ship's progress through a turn. By setting the EBL
on the next course the pilot can watch as the EBL falls into the next
range. The helm is put over as the EBL nears the desired track and

324
 — PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT —

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E44 i c . r d w , ! I v Ewa i t a s t Cark VIS 1147P
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Sched # S 1 6
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r
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epes

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Imo to Amy& 8:39
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SOPS I Fingctlig I ETA', I

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pirtadi .;......114ciown Paseo.' • vis sialtaigApeeand 1V3 . J A M 4 3 1 2 PM

Fig. 12-10. Unlike radar, laptop navigation systems show ships behind holls,
around corners, and miles ahead in a winding channel. Courtesy Panama Canal
Authority

the rate-of-turn is adjusted so the EBL falls on the desired location in

the channel when the turn is finished.
The DGPS-based system is even more useful for this purpose because
of increased accuracy and improved presentation, although the method
employed when using a DGPS-based system is very similar. The majority
of laptop systems display the distance to the intersection of channel
legs either as Distance to Go, Distance to Waypoint, or some similar
term, and they display the distance of the antenna from the channel
centerline or the desired track line. In lieu of using the VRM and EBL,
the pilot uses the distance to the intersection when starting the turn
and distance off the centerline of the next leg to adjust the rate-of-turn.
In addition, the range and channel are presented on a laptop screen
independent of line of sight, so the system "sees around corners" and
the rate-of-turn can be adjusted to put the EBL on the next range even
though the reach or channel is behind a hill or other obstruction. (See
figure 12-10.)

325
 - VESSEL OPERATIONS -

Again, through practice the pilot learns at what distance from the
intersection he or she prefers to start the turn using the laptop system.
This starting point is normally anywhere from 2'/2 to 3 ship lengths
from a turn, but it will vary depending on any number of factors,
including ship size and hull form, direction and strength of the current,
ship's speed, and even from pilot to pilot. Many experienced pilots find
they can even make turns by simply watching the ship's position and
orientation in the turn and adjusting the rate-of-turn when the laptop
presentation shows the channel and ship's hull to scale—many DGPS-
based sets display this information in that form. It must be noted that
the information is most useful at very slow speeds when the system
has a heading reference generated from a compass or gyro interface.

Meeting Points: The better systems also provide continually updated

graphic presentation of meeting points of vessels being monitored. The
system calculates each ship's future positions and the point at which
they will meet using programmed information about courses in the
channel and assuming constant speed. This calculation is different from
a CPA calculated using radar-based systems. Radar-based systems
assume constant speed and straight-line course, so CPA calculations
are only useful in open water. The pilot system includes software and
electronic charts so meetings are calculated along the course of a channel
with multiple turns. The pilot system measures straight-line distances
and distances along the centerline of a channel so meeting points can
be calculated using the DGPS pilot system even though the ships are
changing course.
This capability to predict meeting is particularly useful when ships
must meet or overtake in narrow channels, and particularly in channels
where the vessels are not visible to each other. The process is simple.
Select the ship being met and initiate the meeting point calculation.
The system usually shows the meeting point as a small circle or ellipse.
Adjust speed and watch the meeting circle shift as the system continuously
recalculates the point where ships will meet and pass. The meeting is
arranged with extreme accuracy—within a couple hundred feet—by
adjusting speed in this manner and observing the resultant change in
the meeting point.

Laptop Systems and DGPS—Traffic Management

Traffic management moves to the next generation using two-way DGPS
systems. The end user—the master or pilot—now has an active role in

326
 — PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT —

Fig. 12-11. "Working from greater bridge heights creates new problems."

Fig. 12-11b. Large Containerships such as the Maersk McKinley-Meller have

bridges forward of amidships and at great height. Courtesy of the Maersk Group

327
 - VESSEL OPERATIONS -

traffic management. The shipboard user has better real-time data for
ship position, speed, course, and other data than the shore-side traffic
control watch officer using traditional reporting systems.
All ships, and when applicable the shoreside centers, have the same
complete real-time information. When equipped with a complete DGPS
graphics-based system, the pilot and ship master also have a constantly
updated presentation of meeting points for other ships being tracked
as previously discussed. No distractions. No delays. No chance of error
due to misunderstood or incomplete information. Meetings are arranged
in appropriate locations by two shiphandlers using the graphic
presentation, with no chance of the errors inherent in passive systems
that introduce a third party—the shoreside traffic coordinator—in the
decision-making loop. The value of this type of data is most appreciated
when the pilot adjusts course and speed and watches the meeting point
immediately change so pilots and masters know the effect of any change
with certainty.
Passive vs. Active Management
Traditional passive traffic management systems rely on filtered
information relayed by radio, or in more modern systems, using MS
(Automatic Indentification System) to provide information on the ECDIS
or radar presentation. Information passed to ships is by definition
filtered depending on standard procedures or the judgment of the
controller. This was the best possible process when the passive vessel
traffic systems were designed. New DGPS-based real-time systems
make the improved, inherently safe, and more efficient active VTS
practical where the end user—the master or pilot—has an active role
in traffic management using unfiltered and uninterrupted information
passed directly from one vessel to another.
Using active traffic management principles, the master or pilot can
arrange safe and expedient meetings based on weather, ship type, and
maneuvering characteristics of both own-ship and the other ship. With
active systems, the decision makers are experienced mariners aboard
ship with first hand immediate knowledge of each ship's characteristics
and external effects at the time the ships are meeting, because the data
needed to arrange meetings and manage traffic is now moved into the
hands of the end user aboard ship (fig. 12-10).
Laptop-based DGPS presentations that receive and display positions
and data for other ships differ from radar because they are not line of

328
 — BRIDGE HEIGHT —

sight. This means active traffic management by the shipboard end user
is appropriate in almost all situations, regardless of the configuration
of the port or channel. The bridge team can watch vessel movements
miles away around bends and behind hills using the DGPS pilot system.
They know the location of every vessel in the system and the effect of
every speed and course change. No more simplistic "MV ABC just passed
buoy 1" or other limited and relatively useless information from shoreside
centers when traffic management shifts from a passive shoreside-based
system to the active shipboard-based system.
Technology has made the passive shoreside-based VTS systems
obsolete. For example, in the Panama Canal, the pilot has the ability
to see any section of the canal in real time and can plan to arrive at an
anchorage or arrange a meeting miles away while looking at scale
presentations of ship movements as they are occurring. They watch
ships leaving the locks, moving in the channel behind hills and around
bends, and see the location of ships at anchor before arriving at the
lock or anchorage.
It is noteworthy that these systems provide pilots with the navigation
aids recommended by the National Research Council Marine Board in
the definitive study and report Minding the Helm that was issued in
1994.2
BRIDGE HEIGHT
Bridge height is a critical design consideration. Several years ago, a
major European containership operator put a class of vessel into service
with a wheelhouse so low that the tops of the containers were above
the lower part of the wheelhouse windows, making it physically impossible
to conn the ship from that location. The ship was a masterpiece of
engineering, yet the pilot worked hanging over the bridge wing like an
old-time locomotive engineer. The wheelhouse must be raised, even if
it requires an extra unused deck, so the berth alongside and areas
ahead are visible at a reasonable distance. This is especially important
aboard bridge aft ships, since that design restricts visibility over the
bow under the best of conditions.
Keep in mind when working from the greater bridge heights common
aboard modern ships that distance and speed of advance are greatly
distorted as height of eye increases. The ship appears to be moving

2National Research Council Marine Board. Minding the Helm: Marine

Navigation and Piloting. Washington, DC, National Academy of Sciences, 1994.

329
 — VESSEL OPERATIONS —

much more slowly and to be much closer to points of reference than it

actually is. The height of eye aboard a modern LNG ship, for example,
is 110-to-130 feet—working from that height is similar to working from
the roof of a ten- to twelve-story building.
Automobile carriers, LASH ships, RO/RO, smaller passenger vessels,
and similar ships commonly have the wheelhouse placed extremely
close to the bow. Working 75 feet from the stem makes it difficult to
estimate turning rates, so work looking aft, "Great Lakes fashion," when
maneuvering in restricted areas and narrow channels. It is especially
important that these types of ships have a clear view from the wheelhouse
to the stern, both from the bridge wings and from amidships, and that
the bridge wings extend outboard to the maximum beam of the ship so
the parallel midbody is visible. Some arrangement must be provided
that overcomes the short bridge-to-bow distance that greatly reduces
perspective. Most commonly, markers are placed on the centerline—a
pole or high vertical jackstaff at the bow and a marker on the centerline
window in the wheelhouse—to provide a "gunsight effect" to make small
changes of heading more obvious. Since competent shiphandlers normally
watch the stern as much as the bow when working, a wheelhouse located
in the extreme forepart of the ship presents no significant obstacles, as
long as the bridge is properly designed (fig. 12-12).

Fig. 12-12. Ships with a bridge well forward need a centerline marker.

330
 — NIGHT VERSUS DAY MANEUVERING —

Prepare a visibility diagram for every ship you serve aboard showing
areas not visible from the wheelhouse in light and loaded conditions,
with and without containers if carried, and post the diagram in the
wheelhouse. The diagram is simple to construct using basic trigonometry
and the basic ship dimensions, such as bridge height, bridge-to-bow
distance, ship's beam, etc. The diagram is especially helpful when
maneuvering around piers and in restricted channels (fig. 12-13).

NIGHT VERSUS DAY MANEUVERING

Darkness creates new problems for the shiphandler and there are two
pilotages in any water: a daylight and a night pilotage.

1. Speed and distance become more difficult to estimate, since depth

perception is lost at night and relative size and changes of relative
motion must be used to judge distance.
2. It is even more important to look abeam or aft at night than
during the day, since it is impossible to estimate speed during
hours of darkness by looking ahead of the ship.
3. On a clear night objects appear closer, yet when visibility
deteriorates they appear farther away.
4. Unlighted buoys and shoreline are no longer visible, so more
reliance must be placed on radar presentation and local knowledge
to stay clear of shoals and banks.
5. A poorly lighted stringpiece must be avoided by instinct because
it is not visible during docking.

Even the smallest increase in light helps, since some degree of depth
perception is regained. Do not make a passage without computing the
time of moonrise and moonset for the night in question, and given a
chance, delay a particularly difficult passage until daybreak if there is
not at least a gibbous moon at the needed time. The ship's ETA is often
an indication of the master's experience, since a more seasoned shipmaster
appreciates the problems caused by darkness and delays arrival until
daybreak when there is no real need to arrive at an earlier hour.
Some degree of experience is needed on a dark night at sea to
estimate distance from other ships, especially when masthead and range
lights are poorly placed, although radar overcomes this problem to a
great extent and darkness is now much less a problem in open water
navigation. Make it a practice to estimate distance off before going to
the radar so you can develop the ability to judge distance visually with

331
 — VESSEL OPERATIONS —

" K I S O M A R U " I N V I S I B L E D I S T A N C E

At41440.411'

L W L

INVISIBLE D I S TA N C E
/v-

HEIGHT OFANTENNA / 7 9 (ANTENNADOWN / 6.2.ft)

DISPLACEMENT DRAFT INVISIBLE DISTANCE FROM WHEEL HOUSE METER

MOULD TRIM METER

METRIC TONS METER 0 10 2 .0

DESIGNED 4 7. 9 5 5 1 0 . 6 2 31 7 35 5 3 98

SCANTFULL 5 4 . 6 7 6 1 1 . 7 0 29 7 33 3 3 75

Fig. 12-13. Post a visibility diagram on the bridge.

reasonable accuracy. This skill is greatly appreciated when the radar

goes down, or when conning by eye in an anchorage or congested area.
Younger mariners especially need to make a conscious effort to develop
this ability, since they do not acquire i t by necessity, as did senior
officers who stood watches before radar was so widely accepted.
Depth perception is a result of binocular vision and unconscious
evaluation of relative position. When this ability is lost at night the
mariner substitutes other techniques:

1. Relative size is an indication of distance. For example, the height

of a buoy, and thus its distance off, can be estimated at night
since the light marks the top, while the reflection of that light
on the water shows the base of the buoy.
2. Relative motion is quite helpful, since at more than 2 miles
distance a buoy will appear nearly stationary, at 1 mile its change
in bearing becomes more noticeable, and when the buoy is close
at hand its movement nearly equals the speed of the ship.
3. Brilliance is helpful, but can be deceiving, since it is affected by
so many factors, such as atmospheric conditions, the aspect of
the light, and motion of the light in the case of a buoy.
4. Techniques such as computing the arc of visibility and bobbing
a light are applicable at greater distances than the shiphandler
is generally concerned with, but can be used on occasion.

332
 - RECORD KEEPING -

To expand on the importance of rate of changes in relative bearing,

consider a ship turning inside a buoy. The apparent motion of the buoy
is significantly greater as its distance from the ship decreases, and thus
the change in motion can be used with reasonable accuracy to estimate
the change in distance from the buoy as the ship turns. Again—practice
estimating distance in these conditions before looking at the radar and
the skill of handling a ship at night comes quickly.

RECORD KEEPING
The keeping of logs and records of maneuvers is inherent in proper
shiphandling, although the two tasks often conflict when record keeping
becomes redundant or unnecessarily complicated. Proper organization
and the use of autologging relieve the mate of some of the administrative
chores so more attention can be given to navigation of the ship. Give
priority to navigation, rather than getting so involved in record keeping
that problems are not recognized and acted upon. It is more important
to avoid a casualty than to record the exact time of impact.
Good work habits develop with experience. Remember your first
undocking as a cadet or green third mate? There seemed to be a myriad
of tasks to accomplish and details to be noted and logged. With time
these responsibilities become second nature, until while accomplishing
everything required you had time for coffee and perhaps swapping sea
stories with the pilot. When record keeping is properly organized, it
can be done concurrently with other tasks and consumes little time.
This sort of organization is essential while maneuvering in pilot waters.
Every ship should be fitted with an automatic bell logger. The mate's
time is better spent checking the tachometer and rudder angle indicator
to see that helm and engine orders are properly executed than
continuously recording the bells.
Eliminate all the separate books and limit all record keeping to one
scratch log /workbook and the chart when in pilot waters. Important
data is transferred to the deck log at a later convenient time and the
mate does not have to shuffle bell books, navigation books, logbooks,
sounding books, and whatever other record books might be required
by company policy. Keep the book neat, but do not waste time with
elaborate entries that divert attention from the shiphandling and
navigational duties at hand—after all, the book is called a "scratch log."

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Refer to any of the classic navigation or seamanship texts for more

detailed information about what should be included in the deck log
when in pilot waters, but be certain to include

1. Times and locations of course and speed changes, and times of

changes to diesel fuel or maneuvering speeds.
2. Time of passing abeam of important lights, landmarks, buoys
marking the end of a reach or other significant location, and the
bearing and distance of those aids.
3. Times of encountering significant changes in depth of water
under the keel.
4. Important meteorological information, such as visibility, passing
showers, fog, wind force, and direction.
5. Engine maneuvers (recorded by the automatic bell logger).
6. Time of passing conning responsibility between master, pilot,
and the deck officers.
7. Significant radio transmissions, such as those for making passing
arrangements with ships being met or overtaken.

Note all the navigational information first on the chart, and then
put essential information into the scratch log. Compare each position
with the DR and the inked passage courses, and notify the master and
pilot of any set indicated. Do not end your duties with recording information
while the vessel is set toward a shoal that only you are aware of, and
do not assume that the pilot is aware of the situation—tell the master
or pilot about it—information is gathered so you can supply it to the
officer conning, not just so it can be recorded for historical interest.
Keep the passage plan nearby for reference and have it preplotted
in ink on the charts used. This greatly reduces record keeping while
maneuvering and serves as a check on the ship's actual progress as
compared to the passage plan. Graphic records are often more meaningful
and minimize the need for many distracting tabular records. Avoid
redundant work by keeping the scratch paper off the chart table. Enter
bearings and other information directly into the scratch log, rather
than putting them first on scratch paper, and reduce logging chores
by nearly fifty percent. This helps you to record all necessary data
without taking excessive time away from priority tasks. The scratch
log is just that—a rough notebook for later reference—so anything of
interest can be recorded in i t while avoiding distracting and time-
consuming double work.

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 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND
PRACTICE MANEUVERS

Page numbers in parentheses indicate where in the text the answers

may be found.

CHAPTER 1. ARRIVAL
Review Questions
1. I n day-to-day work, the most useful unit of measurement for estimating
turning circles and other distances is the ship's own length. (Page 10)
a. t r u e
b. f a l s e
2. I n shallow water, a ship's turning circle is (Pages 10 and 17-18)
a. l a r g e r
b. s m a l l e r
c. t h e same
3. A n average-size ship's turning circle is usually slightly w h e n the
ship turns to the right than when she turns left. (Pages 10-11)
a. l a r g e r
b. s m a l l e r
c. t h e same
4. A VLCC's turning circle to the right is usuallyh e r turning circle
to the left. (Page 11)
a. l a r g e r than
b. s m a l l e r than
c. n e a r l y the same as
5. W h e n revolutions are increased during a turn the tactical diameter
becomes (or stays) (Page 11)
a. l a r g e r
b. s m a l l e r
c. t h e same
6. F o r a given rudder angle and engine speed, the rate of turn a s
the depth of water decreases. (Pages 10 and 18)
a. increases
b. decreases
c. d o e s not change

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III. the ship's rate of turn increases when the rudder is put amidships
during a turn.
a. I only
b. I and III
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
18. The only effective way to slow a ship is to stop the engine, and i f
necessary, go astern. (Pages 23-26)
a. true
b. false
19. A VLCC makes a hard-over turn. You would expect her to lose nearly
p e r c e n t of her headway when her heading changes by 90 degrees.
(Page 25)
a. 10
b. 20
c. 25
d. 50
20. A ship is on your port bow in a crossing situation and her bearing is
steady. You reach the point where you doubt that collision can be
avoided by her actions alone. Usually, i t would be better to (Pages
25-26)
I. back down
II. make a round turn
a. I only
b. II only
c. both I and II
d. neither I nor II
21. A combination pilot ladder/accommodation ladder is required when
the distance from the water to the top of the ladder exceeds f e e t .
(Pages 29 and 31)
a. 10
b. 20
c. 30
d. 50
22. A modern containership has more sail area than a full-rigged sailing
ship. (Page 34)
a. true
b. false
23. The ship's call letters should be transmitted frequently when
communicating by VHF, and in any case, at intervals of (Page 36)

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 — CHAPTER 1. ARRIVAL —

I. before and after every transmission during a series of transmissions

with another ship.
II. at ten minute intervals.
III. before the first transmission and after the last transmission of a
VHF conversation regardless of length.
a. I only
b. II and III above
c. III only
24. Mariners have several means for communicating ship's actions and
intentions, including (Pages 36-39)
I. verbal communications such as VHF radio
II. graphic communications, such as CTANS and interactive DGPS
presentations
III. radar and ARPA
IV. whistle signals
a. I and IV above
b. I and III above
c. All of the above

Practice Maneuvers
1. Make a hard-over turn in deep water and use the wake to measure the
ship's tactical diameter. A brightly painted oil drum can be used as a
reference, or the diameter can be measured by radar using the display
of the sea return generated by the ship's wake. How does the diameter
of the turning circle compare with the ship's length?
Make the same turn in shallow water (a depth less than 1.25 times
draft) and measure the turning circle. How does the diameter of the
turning circle in shallow water compare with that observed in deep water?
2. Your ship is dead in the water. Put the rudder hard over and put the
engine progressively from slow, to half, and then to full ahead so the ship
executes a complete circle, with the revolutions increasing through the
entire 360 degrees. Use the wake as in maneuver 1 above to measure
the diameter of this turn. Now leave the engine on full ahead and again
measure the turning circle diameter while making another complete
360-degree turn with the engine speed unchanged (a steady state turn).
How does the diameter of the accelerating turn compare with that of the
steady state turn?
3. Perform the master's maneuvers described in chapter 1 while one of the
ship's mates collects data on your ship's characteristics using a data
sheet similar to figure 1-2 on page 9. Analyze these data and compare

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the rate of turn, time to stop, change of heading when stopping and
backing, and other important characteristics with the data collected
aboard other ships you have maneuvered. Study all the pertinent
information so you have some feel for your ship and can predict her
behavior with reasonable accuracy.
4. This exercise will give you a feel for, and appreciation of, using hard-over
rudder to reduce speed. First, measure your ship's speed approaching
an open anchorage or pilot station. This can be done with a Doppler log
or the ship's ARPA (plotting a fixed point while the ship's speed is
manually input to 0 knots so the "computed speed" of the fixed object is
then your ship's speed), or by any other method you might choose. A
series of simple fixes at frequent intervals can be used to at least get a
rough measure of speed and changes in speed. You can't accurately
determine absolute speed with the latter method, but changes in speed
will be quite apparent to the experienced mariner, and this exercise can
still be very useful even i f your ship is not fitted with equipment to
measure speed accurately.
Put the rudder hard over and change the ship's heading by at least 45
degrees. Measure the ship's speed again and calculate the reduction in
speed. Repeatedly shift the rudder from hard over to hard over while
continuing to measure or estimate speed through the water and changes
in speed until the ship's headway is significantly reduced.
5. When searoom permits, make a practice of putting the rudder hard over
toward the lee side (toward the side on which a pilot is boarding) a short
time before the pilot begins boarding. Observe how this sweeps a smooth
lee for the pilot and makes boarding quicker and safer.

CHAPTER 2. SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL

Review Questions
1. T o break a sheer in narrow channels a pilot should (Page 47)
a. reduce engine revolutions
b. increase engine revolutions
c. turn away from the bank and increase distance
d. increase rudder toward the bank
e. both a and c
f. both b and d
2. Yo u r vessel is steaming parallel to a shoal or bank. How does she
behave?

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A. her bow moves away from the bank or shoal. (Pages 47-48)
a. true
b. false
B. her stern moves toward the bank or shoal. (Pages 47-48)
a. true
b. false
C. her midbody moves laterally away from the bank. (Pages 47-48)
a. true
b. false
D. competent shiphandlers do not just react to the ship's behavior and
decide on a course of action after a situation develops; they think ahead,
anticipate situations, and plan alternative maneuvers. (Page 49)
a. true
b. false
E. ships with variable-pitch propellers steer best if speed is reduced
quickly. (Page 52)
a. true
b. false
3. Advantages of omnidirectional propulsion systems over conventional
systems include (Page 53)
I. greater safety
II. increased maneuverability
III. reduced reliance on traditional shiphandling skills
a. all of the above
b. I and II only
c. I and III only
4. Shiphandlers should reevaluate any maneuver requiring the repeated
use of the engines or thrusters at half and full power. (Page 55)
a. true
b. false
5. W h e n steering using Azipods in the At Sea mode the pod is turned to
port to turn the ship to starboard. (Page 61)
a. true
b. false
6. Although Azipods may be placed in virtually any position, there are
three positions that have been found to be most effective in practical
use. (Pages 61-63)
a. m o d e , which is used in open waters
b.m o d e , which is useful in narrow channels
c. m o d e , which is used as the ship approaches the berth

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7. W h e n operating in Harbor mode the pods are placed at 45 degrees in

opposition to each other. The vessel is turned to port by moving the
c o n t r o l ahead and pulling back on thec o n t r o l . (Page 62)
a. port, starboard
b. starboard, port
8. W h e n in Docking mode and going port side to the berth, thep o d
is placed parallel to the centerline and thep o d is placed in the
3 o'clock position with the propeller. (Pages 63)
a. port, starboard, inboard
b. port, starboard, outboard
c. starboard, port, inboard
d. starboard, port, outboard
9. W h e n researching various methods for standardizing Azipod commands,
some pilot groups found it worked well to use (Pages 63-65)
I. standard steering and engine commands in the At Sea mode.
II. standard steering and engine commands in the Harbor and Docking
modes.
III. clock positions and percentage of full power for all modes.
IV. clock positions and percentage of full power for Harbor and Docking
modes.
a. I and II above
b. Ill above
c. I and II above
d. I and IV above
10. When operating under computer control the shiphandler is controlling
(Page 65)
a. revolutions per minute of the pod and thruster and direction
of the thruster and pods' forces.
b. resultant power, speed, and vessel movement.
11. Experienced mariners l i m i t the use of computer control when
maneuvering near docks and fixed objects. A good rule-of-thumb is to
change from automatic to manual control when within o f a
hazard. (Page 66)
a. three ship lengths
b. 100 feet
c. one ship length
12. Standardized commands for maneuvering Azipod vessels are important
because (Pages 67-70)
I. lack of standard commands makes it impossible to follow recommended
Bridge Resource Management practices.

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II. lack of standard commands makes it necessary to have a single

person both conning and controlling engine and thruster movements.
III. pilots and deck officers lose situational awareness when standard
commands and conning practices are not used.
IV. the pilot cannot fulfill requirements under law to control the vessel
or provide sufficient controls to be held responsible for maneuvering
in many situations without standardized commands.
a. I above
b. I and II above
c. all of the above
13. The tactical diameter and turning rate can be precisely adjusted during
a turn by visually aligning an external fixed object, such as a buoy or
point of land, with a reference point aboard ship.
A. the tactical diameter isw h e n the object moves ahead relative
to the shipboard reference point. (Pages 76-77)
a. increasing
b. decreasing
B. the rate of turn isi f the object moves ahead more rapidly.
a. increasing
b. decreasing
14. I t is best to overtake and pass close by another ship in a narrow channel
at a very slow speed, while the overtaken ship should increase her
speed before being passed. (Page 81)
a. true
b. false
15. The clicking sound made by the gyrocompass should be eliminated as
it distracts the pilot. (Page 82)
a. true
b. false
16. A rate-of-turn indicator usually indicates turning rate in p e r
second orp e r minute. (Page 83)
a. meters/feet
b. tenths of a degree/degrees
c. degrees/degrees
d. feet/feet
17. A ship changes draft when moving into shallow water. The change in
mean draft is known as . The hull rotation about the transverse
axis and resulting change in draft forward or aft is known as.
The increase in deep draft, forward or aft, is called . (Page 85)

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a. squat, trim, and sinkage

b. sinkage, trim, and squat
c. sinkage, squat, and trim
18. The increasing pressure drop under a hull and the corresponding
increase in squat caused by water flowing under the hull at increased
velocity as ship's speed increases follows a basic principle of physics
known as theP r i n c i p l e . (Page 86)
19. Ships always trim by the stern in shallow water. (Pages 91)
a. true
b. false
20. The pilot or ship's officer can reduce sinkage and squat by reducing
the (Pages 95-100)
I. block coefficient
II. speed
III. blockage factor
IV. the rate and period of acceleration
a. all of the above
b. none of the above
c. II and IV only
d. II only
21. Squat for a given speed and hull condition in confined water is
that in open water. (Pages 88)
a. half
b. twice
22. A useful formula for calculating approximate sinkage in open water is
(Pages 88)
Squat (feet) = block coefficient x (speed in knots)2/30
A. calculate squat for a ship having a block coefficient of 0.8 proceeding
at 6 knots in open water.
B. calculate squat for the same ship proceeding at the same speed in
a restricted channel.
C. calculate squat for the same ship proceeding at 12 knots in a restricted
channel.
23. Underkeel clearance is influenced by several factors, including (Page
95-96)
I. vessel speed
II. channel dimensions
III. changes in engine revolutions
IV. vessel interaction
a. I, II, and IV only

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b. I and II only
c. II and III only
d. all of the above
24. Underkeel clearance is reduced significantly when two ships pass in a
narrow channel because squat increases % to % or even more
depending on ship speed and distance of separation. (Pages 95 and 98)
a. 10% / 25%
b. 25% / 50%
c. 50% / 100%
d. none of the above
25. Underkeel clearance is reduced significantly as a ship accelerates and
squat increases as much as% . (Pages 95-98)
26. Wide-beam ships increase draft significantly when they roll, so rolling
may have a greater impact on underkeel clearance than draft. (Page
95-96)
a. true
b. false
27. Changes in the shape of a channel have no affect on squat as long as
the blockage factor does not change. (Pages 95-98)
a. true
b. false

Practice Maneuvers
1. Closely observe the rudder angle indicator as a ship passes near banks
and points of land. Compare the amount of rudder needed to hold a ship
steady on her course as the bow passes each point of land with that
needed when the stern reaches the same point.
2. Compare the amount of rudder and duration of time it is applied when
starting a turn with the amount and time needed to check a ship's swing
at the completion of the turn. Do this when your ship is trimmed by the
head and when she is trimmed by the stern. Is she directionally stable
or unstable in each case?
3. Observe the change in rate of turn after the rudder has been put amidships
for each case described in maneuver 2. Does the rate increase or decrease?
Is your ship directionally stable or unstable?
4. Select a buoy or point that lies on the inside of a turn while making
routine maneuvers at the pilot station or in an anchorage. Stand in a
location that puts this buoy or point in line with the edge of a wheelhouse
window and turn your ship around this reference point without changing
the rudder angle. Closely watch the object's relative motion as the ship

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turns. Did it move forward or aft relative to the reference point as the
ship turned? How did the ship's distance from the reference object change
in each case? How did the change in your ship's rate of turn affect the
rate of relative motion of the reference object?
5. Make the same type of turn around the same or similar reference point
and adjust the amount of rudder being used to keep the buoy fixed in
position relative to your shipboard reference point. Did the ship then
maintain the same approximate distance off the reference object? You
are now making controlled turns.
6. Carefully note the location of buoys and points relative to your ship's
pivot point as a pilot begins each turn in a narrow channel. Develop a
feel for the time at which turns should be started. (Note: Most inexperienced
shiphandlers begin a turn too soon.)
7. Closely watch the rudder angle indicator as your ship meets and passes
other ships in a narrow channel. Was more or less rudder used as the
bows passed, or when the ships were abeam, or when their sterns were
passing? Was the rudder toward or away from the other ship?
8. Watch the rudder angle indicator each time your ship overtakes and
passes other vessels in a narrow channel. Also note any changes in engine
speed made by the pilot while the other ships are being passed. Were the
rudder and engine used in the manner described in shiphandling texts?
9. Make a habit of listening to the clicking sound of your gyrocompass while
turning. I t will soon become second nature, and you will immediately
know when your rate of turn is increasing or decreasing and to what
degree.
10. Have the forward and after tugs read your draft as closely as possible
while your ship is moving at 6 to 10 knots, and again when they have
made up and your ship is proceeding at bare steerageway. Note sinkage
(change in mean draft) and squat. Does your ship squat by the head or
by the stern? How did this compare with your computed sinkage using
Barrass's formula?

CHAPTER 3. USE OF TUGS

Review Questions
1. Prepare a sketch showing how a tug is typically made fast alongside
in a US port using two lines. Label the backing line (head line) and the
come ahead line (spring line). (Page 104)
2. M a k e a similar sketch showing the tug made up with three lines,
labeling the come ahead and backing lines, as well as the additional

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stern line. (Page 104)

3. A tug being used for ship work can only be used to move a ship's bow
or stern laterally. (Page 106)
a. true
b. false
4. Y o u are docking a ship using two tugs. You have the quarter tug stand
off until just before the ship enters the slip. Give two reasons for this.
(Page 108)
5. M a t c h the following signals with one or more tug responses. (Page
105-106)
A. increase to full power. a . one blast
B. t u g is dismissed. Let go. b . two blasts
C. i f working, stop. c . three blasts
D. i f pushing, increase power. d . series of short blasts
E. come ahead dead slow. e . one long, two short blasts
F. b a c k the tug, normal power. f . one long blast
G. i f stopped, come ahead.
H. n o t a tug signal.
I. i f stopped, come ahead.
J. i f backing, increase power.
6. A bow thruster used correctly will have the same effects on the ship
as a tug made fast on the ship's bow. (Page 107)
a. true
b. false
7. A tug's lines do not have to be heaved up tightly when she is lashed
up alongside to work if she has good leads for spring and head lines.
(Pages 111-12)
a. true
b. false

CHAPTER 4. APPROACHING THE BERTH

Review Questions
1. I t is important that the pilot keep moving about the wheelhouse so as
to always have a good view of every part of the ship while docking or
doing other work. (Pages 115-16)
a. true
b. false
2. T h e r e are several techniques a shiphandler can use to hold a ship in
position in a channel or other confined area, including (Page 118)
I. steam on the anchor at slow engine speeds.

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 — REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS —

II. anchor to a short scope of chain with the current from ahead.
III. simply back and fill in the channel.
a. I only
b. II only
c. III only
d. all of the above
3. Generally, the less experience shiphandlers have, thet h e y work.
(Page 118)
a. faster
b. slower
4. Quickwater (propeller wash when backing) moves ahead at about the
same speed as the ship when the ship is making aboutk n o t s .
(Pages 126)
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
5. Quickwater begins to move forward, up the ship's side, when the ship
is making a speed of approximatelyk n o t s , and the quickwater
reaches the ship's midships section when the ship is moving at a speed
ofk n o t s . (Pages 119-20)
a. 1/0
b. 2/1
c. 3/2
6. A n experienced shiphandler always looks at objects ahead of the ship
when estimating speed during a maneuver because it is difficult to
detect movement by looking abeam or abaft the beam. (Pages 120-21)
a. true
b. false
7. W h y is it better to approach the berth with less angle when docking a
ship with a right-hand propeller starboard side to the dock? (Page 122)
8. Sketch two alternative methods for making tugs fast when backing
into a slip starboard side to the pier. (Pages 124-25)
9. S h i p s docking at a wharf in strong current can expect to be set off the
berth just as they come alongside because of the a n d the
especially when there is a bank or solid face below the wharf. (Pages
126-27)
a. hydraulic cushion/Bernoulli effect
b. Bernoulli effect/eddy current
c. hydraulic cushion/eddy current
10. I t is best to think of a ship as being docked stern first when she is

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 — CHAPTER 4. APPROACHING THE BERTH —

docking with the current from astern. The docking is done as if the
ship were movingr e l a t i v e to the. (Pages 126-27)
a. ahead/water
b. ahead/bottom
c. astern/water
d. astern/bottom
11. When docking at a wharf with the current from astern, thei s
used to move her laterally the last few feet to the berth. (Page 126)
a. current
b. engine
12. Your ship is docking port side to a wharf parallel to the channel. There
is a strong ebb current running as you come alongside, and tugs are
made fast at the bow and stern. (Page 127)
I. the tugs should come full ahead at a 90-degree angle to the ship to
pin the ship tight alongside and prevent movement while lines are run.
II. the tugs should work at an angle toward the ship, into the current,
to hold the ship both alongside and in position.
III. the tugs should come ahead parallel to the ship's side, against the
current, to hold the ship in position while lines are run to keep the ship
alongside.
a. I only
b. II only
c. III only
d. either I or III

Practice Maneuvers
1. Try to handle your ship without moving around the wheelhouse more
than is absolutely necessary. Notice how your feel for the ship's movements
(and especially lateral movement when turning, backing, working in
currents, or using tugs) is significantly improved when you are not
constantly moving around the wheelhouse.
2. Make use of every opportunity to practice handling your ship at minimum
speed. Stop the engine and keep her on course while approaching an
anchorage or pilot station using hard-over rudder as headway is lost. Be
patient, watch the stem or jackstaff closely to detect movement as soon
as possible, and learn how slowly your ship can be handled. When she
no longer answers to rudder alone use short kicks on the engine to start
and check swing, and practice until you can handle your ship at less than
1 knot in all but the worst conditions with a minimum of engine maneuvers.
Anyone can handle a ship at sea speed!

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3. Look over the side and check the position of the quickwater every time
you back the engine to slow or stop your vessel. Use the location of the
quickwater to estimate headway when approaching an anchorage, berth,
or pilot station. (Read pages 119-120 for approximate speeds versus
quickwater position.)
4. I f your ship is fitted with a Doppler log, check your speed through the
water when the quickwater is moving forward at the same speed as your
ship, when the quickwater starts moving forward along the ship's hull,
and when the quickwater reaches amidships.

CHAPTER 5. DOCKING
Review Questions
1. A competent shiphandler plans a job so that wind and current can be
used as aids to maneuvering rather than forces to be overcome. (Page
129)
a. true
b. false
2. A 1-knot current exerts the same force on a given surface area as
knot(s) of wind. (Page 130)
a. 1
b. 10
c. 20
d. 30
3. A ship moving at 2 knots moves approximatelyi n one minute.
(Page 132)
a. 50 feet
b. 100 feet
c. 200 feet
d. 200 yards
4. L a t e r a l motion can be caused by (Pages 132-33)
I. wind and current
II. turning the ship
III. extended use of tugs
a. I and II
b. I and III
c. all of the above
d. ships do not move laterally
5. Yo u are docking a ship with a right-hand propeller and she is about to
come alongside and be stopped, in position, at the berth. The ship should

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be set up for backing to allow for, and use to advantage, the normal
twisting effect as the ship goes astern. This is most commonly done
(Pages 133-34)
I. when docking starboard side to, by "kicking" the engine ahead with
hard port rudder before going astern.
II. when docking port side to, by "kicking" the engine ahead with hard
starboard rudder before going astern.
III. when docking port side to, by going astern to take off headway and
bring the ship alongside.
a. both I and II
b. both I and III
c. III only
d. none of the above
6. I t is important to always put the rudder amidships before the engine
starts turning astern. (Page 134)
a. true
b. false
7. Quickwater can have a significant effect, forcing the ship away from
the berth when docking starboard side to. (Pages 134-35)
a. true
b. false
8. S h i p s must usually be forced into a berth and maneuvered using full
revolutions ahead and astern because shiphandling is not a subtle art.
(Page 136)
a. true
b. false
9. W h i c h of the following statements about landing a ship alongside a
berth is/are true? (Pages 136)
I. a ship should be parallel to the pier when she lands alongside so all
frames along the parallel midbody can equally absorb the force of
landing.
II. a ship should be at an angle to the pier when she lands alongside
the wharf or pier to minimize the effects of quickwater as she stops.
a. I only
b. II only
c. both I and II
d. neither I nor II

Practice Maneuvers
1. Measure the time required for your bridge to move between bollards on

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the pier. Estimate the distance between bollards by comparing that

distance with your ship's beam. What was your ship's speed of approach?
2. Work to become more aware of lateral movement. Make a practice of
standing on the centerline when approaching a berth and watching
natural ranges (corners of buildings, stacks, flagpoles, rooflines, etc.) for
changes that indicate lateral movement.

CHAPTER 6. UNDOCKING
Review Questions
1. Undocking is, by its very nature, a simple maneuver that requires less
planning than a docking. (Pages 139-40)
a. true
b. false
2. I n a ballasted condition, it is usually better to have too much drag than
not enough, if such trim is necessary to get the propeller and rudder
well submerged. (Pages 140-41)
a. true
b. false
3. I t is best to approach a potential hazard, such as a pier or a shoal, stern
first, because you can always put the engine ahead to reduce sternway.
(Page 150)
a. true
b. false
4. Y o u are about to undock a ship berthed port side to at a wharf. Ships
are berthed close ahead and astern, so the ship must be moved laterally
to starboard, away from the berth, to clear those ships. Only one tug
is available. Describe one way to accomplish this. (Pages 142-44)
A. the tug could be made fastw i t h at least one backing line from
the tug's bow.
a. forward
b. aft
B. the tuga t a 45-degree angle toward the stern, while the ship's
engine turns ahead and her rudder is put hard to
a. comes ahead/starboard
b. backs/starboard
c. comes ahead/port
d. backs/port
5. Yo u r ship is docked in a slip with her starboard side to the berth. A
tug is made fast on the port bow and the last line has been let go. The

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 — CHAPTER 6. UNDOCKING —

ship has a right-hand turning propeller. There is no ship berthed astern.

The ship's engine is put astern. (Pages 144-46)
A. the stern will movet h e berth unless there is a strong current
or wind countering the propeller's effect.
a. toward
b. away from
B. the bow movest h e berth as the ship's speed increases.
a. toward
b. away from
C. the tug willt o steady the ship as she moves astern out of the
berth.
a. back
b. come ahead
6. Yo u r ship is berthed in a slip with her port side to the berth. One tug
is available and is made up on the starboard bow. There is no ship
berthed astern, but you will need to back approximately 300 feet to get
clear of the slip. Describe one way to do this job. (Page 145)
A. the tug comes
a. ahead
b. astern
B. this moves the ship's t o w a r d the berth.
a. bow
b. stern
C. the tug continuesu n t i l the ship is at a significant angle to
the pier.
a. pushing
b. pulling
D. this is necessary because the stern will movet h e pier when
the engine goes astern and the ship backs from the berth.
a. toward
b. away from
7. A ship's bow can be moved or canted toward a pier before undocking
by (Page 145)
I. pushing with a bow tug.
II. letting go the forward spring and then heaving on the headline.
III. coming ahead dead slow against the spring line with the rudder
hard over toward the dock.
a. I only
b. I and II
c. I and III
d. all of the above
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8. F a c e w h e n moving a ship stern first. (Page 152)

a. ahead
b. astern
9. W h e n turning in a tidal basin it is usually best to (Pages 152-154)
I. turn the ship with some headway to complete the maneuver in the
least time and to minimize effects of currents.
II. turn the ship in the up current side of the basin to avoid being set
out of the basin before completing the maneuver.
III. have as much way off the ship as possible before starting to turn
in a basin.
a. I only
b. I and II
c. II and III
d. none of the above
10. Ships fitted with variable-pitch propellers respond in am a n n e r
than ships fitted with conventional propellers when the engine goes
astern. (Pages 151)
a. more predictable
b. less predictable
11. Variable-pitch ships should be fitted withp r o p e l l e r s . (Page
151)
a. right-hand
b. left-hand
12. Always dismiss the forward tug as soon as possible to reduce tug
charges. (Page 155)
a. true
b. false

CHAPTER 7. DEPARTURE
Review Questions
1. T h e pilot's duties include clarifying the intentions of other ships and
making safe meeting arrangements with those ships, and the master
should not release the pilot at departure until this is done. (Page 157)
a. true
b. false
2. S a f e speed at departure is to a large extent determined by (Pages
157-59)
I. the shiphandler's experience and confidence in his shiphandling
ability.

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II. the depth of water, the speed of departing traffic, and the weather
conditions.
a. I only
b. II only
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
3. B y increasing ship speed and moving faster than other departing traffic
the shiphandler significantly reduces the potential for collision. (Pages
158-59)
a. true
b. false
4. M o d e r n bridge equipment has made it possible for the ship's master
to conn a ship to sea with little or no assistance from the other ship's
officers. (Pages 159-60)
a. true
b. false
5. Passage planning that stresses a pocket course card, formal pilot/
master exchange of information, and charts with preplanned courses,
turning bearings, distances, operating notes, and other navigation
information noted in ink is preferable to pages of written instructions.
(Pages 161-62)
a. true
b. false

CHAPTER 8. ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING

WITH ANCHORS
Review Questions
1. A competent shiphandler can anchor safely in any anchorage and never
has to lay off for conditions to improve. (Page 165)
a. true
b. false
2. Anchoring is one continuous evolution, and considering it in parts
makes it unnecessarily complicated. (Pages 166-67)
a. true
b. false
3. Allowance should be made one degree at a time for set and leeway
when maneuvering at slow speeds in an anchorage. (Page 168)
a. true
b. false

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4. A ship moving at 3 knots moves aboutf e e t ahead in one minute.

(Page169)
a. 50
b. 100
c. 200
d. 300
5. A ship 600-feet-long, moving at 3 knots, would require about
minutes for her entire hull, bow to stern, to pass a fixed point. (Page
169)
a. one
b. two
c. three
d. four
6. A 1-knot current on the beam sets a 600-foot ship aboutf e e t in
that amount of time. (Page 169)
a. 100
b. 200
c. 300
d. 600
7. A ship can turn and maneuver to depart from a crowded anchorage by
heaving short and maneuvering on her anchor. (Page 172)
a. true
b. false
8. S h i p s lie at anchor on their final heading (Pages 174-75)
I. lying to the strongest force, wind or current, affecting the ship.
II. lying to the resultant of all forces acting on the ship.
III. lying into the current.
a. I only
b. II only
c. both II and III
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
9. L i s t three reasons why it is preferable to have the ship on her final
heading before letting go the anchor. (Page 174)
10. The difference between the apparent motion of closer ships or objects
and farther objects or the shoreline can be used to accurately detect
lateral motion and motion ahead and astern. (Pages 177-78)
a. true
b. false

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11. Go astern to estimate ship's speed through the watert h e final

anchoring location, when anchoring. (Page 179)
a. when at/at night
b. before reaching/at night
c. when at/at all times
d. before reaching/at all times
12. Always place the anchor halfway between ships anchored ahead and
astern so your ship will lie at an equal distance from all ships when
your anchor fetches up. (Page 180-181)
a. true
b. false
13. Ships at anchor always appeary o u r ship than they are actually
lying. (Page 183)
a. closer to
b. farther from
14. There is significant risk of damaging a ship's rudder and propeller with
a stern anchor. Make sure the ship isb e f o r e letting go a stern
anchor and that sternway isw h e n heaving the stern anchor.
(Page 190)
a. moving astern/increased
b. stopped/minimized
c. moving astern/minimized
d. stopped/increased '
15. I t is important to use the proper amount of chain when handling a ship
with her anchor. Used correctly, the anchor will drag along with
considerable resistance, but it will not dig in and hold. (Page 195)
a. true
b. false
16. I t is unusual for anchors to be used in day-to-day shiphandling because
anchors are ineffective with today's larger ships. (Page 191-192)
a. true
b. false
17. A n anchor is only used for shiphandling in emergencies when
maneuvering today's larger ships. (Page 192)
a. true
b. false
18. A ship sheers immediately and violently to the side on which an anchor
is dropped. (Page 192)
a. true
b. false

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 — REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS —

19. The offshore anchor is recommended when docking a ship because

(Pages 193-94)
I. there is more chance of the anchor digging in and holding.
II. there is less chance of damaging the hull and chain.
III. the offshore anchor may be used later to heave off the berth and
undock with minimum damage to hull and chain.
a. I only
b. II only
c. both II and III
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
20. Static friction (when the wildcat is not turning) between the asbestos
brake band and the windlass's brake drum is approximately
times as great as dynamic friction (when the wildcat is turning). (Page
194)
a. two
b. three
c. five
d. ten
21. When docking with the anchor, using the correct amount of anchor
chain (Page 197)
I. the bow is steadied.
II. the ship loses headway when the engine is stopped.
III. the ship responds to her rudder without gaining headway at low
RPMs.
IV. the ship can be moved ahead by further increasing revolutions.
a. I only
b. II and III only
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
22. A ship can be turned in a considerably smaller area using an anchor.
(Page 199-200)
a. true
b. false
23. I n an emergency, let go at least one anchor with enough chain to be
certain the anchor will dig in and hold—and not drag—as the ship
moves ahead. (Page 195)
a. true
b. false

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 — CHAPTER 8. ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS —

Practice Maneuvers
1. Select a pilot station or anchorage with a fairly uniform sand or mud
bottom and a depth 10 to 20 feet greater than your ship's draft. Arrive
an hour or more before the ship's pilot time and practice using the anchor.
a. Head across the wind and stop the engine. Try to steer using the rudder
alone as the ship loses headway. Note the wind's effects on the ship.
b. Come ahead, if necessary, and increase the ship's speed to approximately
2 knots. Stop the engine and let go the windward anchor and one shot
of chain well in the water. Slack more chain, as necessary, until the
drag of the anchor begins reducing the ship's headway (a length of chain
equal to approximately twice the depth of water). Note how the ship is
steadied by the anchor as compared to maneuver l a above and that
there is no immediate or violent change in the ship's heading when the
anchor is used.
c. Come dead slow or slow ahead and use the ship's rudder to maintain
the ship's heading across the wind. Slack out more chain if necessary
so the ship remains dead in the water at low RPM and note how the
ship's heading and position can be maintained, even when lying across
the wind.
d. Increase revolutions until the ship begins moving ahead again and use
the rudder to maintain the selected heading across the wind. Increase
and reduce revolutions to increase and decrease the ship's headway.
Observe the ship's behavior under control of the anchor, including the
change of headway when engine RPM is changed; the time required
for the ship to lose all headway when the engine is stopped; and speed
through the water at a given RPM with the anchor on the bottom, as
compared to the speed at the same RPM without the anchor.
e. Reduce to dead slow ahead, and when the ship is dead in the water,
use the rudder to change heading to port and starboard. Note the effect
of rudder on rate of turn and how quickly the ship steadies up with the
rudder amidships. Also pay attention to the forward shift of the pivot
point toward the bow; the reduced diameter of the ship's turning circle;
and leeway or, more accurately, the lack of leeway as the ship is held
on a particular heading.
f. Increase and decrease RPM and again alter the ship's heading, this
time with headway. Note that it is possible to make very controlled
maneuvers by coming ahead on a fixed heading to move the bow toward
a desired point, and by reducing RPMs until headway is lost and then
using the rudder to move the stern to one side or the other, as might
be done to come alongside a berth.

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7. W h e n approaching the offtaker, the VLCC proceeds atp o s s i b l e

speed. (Page 222)
a. maximum
b. least
8. D u r i n g this part of the operation, the VLCC should headt h e
prevailing wind and swell. (Page 222)
a. into
b. across
9. A t the same time, the offtakert h e VLCC's quarter and comes
alongside. (Page 222)
a. stays close to
b. keeps clear of
10. Anchors can be used to steer a ship backing to a berth or mooring,
because the ship's stern will move to port if the starboard anchor is
held and to starboard if the port anchor is held. (Page 230)
a. true
b. false
11. When making a Mediterranean moor, the ship should back with her
engines until in position, close up to the berth, before running any
lines. (Page 232-33)
a. true
b. false
12. Departing a multiple-buoy mooring or Mediterranean moor, it is usually
best to (Pages 231 and 235)
I. heave the weather anchor short.
II. steam on the weather anchor as required while heaving home the
lee anchor.
III. steam away from the mooring as soon as the lee anchor breaks
free, heaving on and dragging both anchors until well clear of the buoys
or berth.
a. I only
b. II and III only
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
13. Williamson Turns are less effective with a VLCC because she maintains
her speed longer and the vessel's path of travel is less predictable.
(Page 235)
a. true
b. false

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14. When making a Williamson Turn, a ship should always be steadied

up 60 degrees from her initial heading before starting a hard-over turn
in the opposite direction. (Pages 235-36)
a. true
b. false
15. Twin-screw ships fitted with single rudders are generally more responsive
at slow speeds through the water when the engines are stopped. (Page
238)
a. true
b. false
16. Twin-screw ships can be moved laterally toward a berth by pushing
the bow with a tug or bow thruster and backing thee n g i n e
while coming ahead on the other engine. (Pages 239-40)
a. inshore
b. offshore
17. VLCCs generally steer well at very slow speeds. (Page 247)
a. true
b. false
18. VLCCs usually go astern to avoid close quarters situations. (Page 248)
a. true
b. false
19. "Safe speed" is the same for all sizes of ships. (Page 248)
a. true
b. false
20. Loaded VLCCs often experience shallow water effects at greater depths
than smaller ships. (Page 249)
a. true
b. false
21. The term "constrained by draft" should take into consideration both
shallow water effects and danger of grounding. (Page 249)
a. true
b. false
22. Hydrodynamic effects are different for VLCCs. (Page 249)
a. true
b. false
23. VLCCs are less easily damaged when coming alongside a berth. (Page
251)
a. true
b. false

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24. When a VLCC is being brought alongside a berth, mooring lines must
be used to heave the vessel into final position. (Page 250)
a. true
b. false
25. Longer ships are more difficult to bring flat alongside because perspective
makes the farther end appear much closer to the berth than the closer
end (the "railroad track" effect). (Pages 250-51)
a. true
b. false

Practice Maneuvers
The Williamson Turn is used for man-overboard emergencies and for routine
vessel maneuvers, both to bring a ship back to a desired point with a
minimum of maneuvering and to help mates and masters appreciate a
ship's handling characteristics at full speed at sea. Turning circles, the
time and amount of rudder needed to make and check turns, and the
amount of speed a ship loses making large course changes can all be
demonstrated during a Williamson Turn.

1. Paint an oil drum or other object bright orange so it can be easily seen
and used as a reference during the Williamson Turn. Puncture both ends
of a 5-gallon paint pail and attach it to the drum with small diameter
line. (The pail serves as a drogue to minimize wind drift during the
exercise.) Also prepare a data sheet like the one described in chapter 1
for the master's maneuvers to collect data during the maneuvers. The
information will be useful when studying the ship's performance and
comparing handling characteristics under different conditions of loading.
2. Muster the crew prior to starting the Williamson Turn and explain the
maneuver and its purpose as both a man-overboard drill and a shiphandling
exercise. The details of the man overboard procedure are outside the
scope of this book so only the shiphandling aspects of the maneuver will
be discussed here.
3. Throw the drum or reference object over the side, note the ship's base
course, put the rudder hard over, and start the turn as described on page
237. Measure the time required for the ship to begin turning after the
rudder is put hard over and compare the advance and tactical diameter
with the ship's length as the ship turns, using the drum as a reference.
This information will be helpful for maneuvering in close quarters
situations at sea and in any future emergency situation that might arise.

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The time to turn, the tactical diameter, and the advance will probably
be significantly less than you expected.
4. Continue the maneuver, shifting the helm from hard over to hard over
when the heading has changed 55 degrees from the base course (point
"A" in figure 9-15). Note the heading when the ship steadies up and begins
swinging in the opposite direction. Calculate the number of degrees that
the ship swings before she checks up and you will know the arc of swing
required to steady up from a hard-over turn.
5. Keep the rudder hard over as the ship turns through a circle toward the
reciprocal of her initial heading. Apply the arc required to check her
swing as calculated in maneuver 2 above, and when the ship's heading
is that number of degrees from the desired final heading (the reciprocal
of the initial heading), reverse the rudder hard over again. The ship
should check up on, or near, the final heading as the ship returns to her
starting point alongside the reference oil drum.
Example: Object overboard on the starboard side, rudder hard right to
turn the ship to starboard.

Original course 030 degrees

Initial change of heading +55
Heading to shift helm ("A") 085
Ship steadies up 095
Arc to check swing (difference) 10

Final (reciprocal) heading 210

Arc to check swing 10
Heading to shift helm ("B") 220 degrees

The ship will have completed the Williamson Turn in a predictable

manner with the least possible helm movements (three) and thus the
minimum of variables. Note the total time to complete the maneuver, the
speed through the water at the end of the maneuver, and the distance and
bearing from the starting point. If desired, back down and stop the ship as
close to the starting point as possible.
6. Perform the maneuver again using an initial change of heading at point
"A" of 35 degrees. Did your ship return closer to or farther from her starting
point using this smaller initial course change? The required initial change
of heading is, to a large extent, determined by the ship's directional
stability, and the more positive the directional stability, the farther the
ship should be allowed to swing before shifting the helm at "A."

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Practice this maneuver at light and loaded drafts, in various conditions

of trim, and let all the ship's officers perform Williamson Turns so everyone
learns the procedure. A great deal can be learned about shiphandling
parameters and the effects of various loading and trim conditions by
comparing the turning rate, most effective change of heading at point
"A," tactical diameter, advance, etc.

CHAPTER 10. TRAINING

Review Questions
1. Onboard training and experience is important because (Pages 256-57)
I. it is impossible to teach some marine skills in a classroom.
II. priorities needed to apply theory to real-world situations can only
be learned on board the ship.
III. masters and senior officers can transfer the lessons gained from
experience through shipboard training.
IV. it is possible to learn most skills, such as shiphandling, simply by
watching senior officers and pilots at work.
a. I only
b. both I and III
c. both II and III
d. IV only
2. D e c k officers can't become effective watch officers and shiphandlers
until (Pages 257-59)
I. they have twenty years of experience at sea.
II. they have "hands-on" drills and feel comfortable using equipment.
III. they learn not to touch equipment unless absolutely necessary.
a. I only
b. II only
c. III only
d. I and III
3. Simulators are innovative training aids because they make it possible
to (Pages 264-65)
I. learn to prioritize tasks and perform several tasks concurrently.
II. watch experts work.
III. transfer classroom theory to real-time situations.
IV. learn most shipboard work without spending a great deal of time
aboard ship.
a. I only
b. II only

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 — CHAPTER 10. TRAINING —

c. II and IV
d. I and III
4. Simulator type is more important than instructor experience when
judging potential benefits of a training facility. (Pages 277-78)
a. true
b. false
5. Professional instructors are preferable to professional mariners at
simulator training facilities. (Pages 277-78)
a. true
b. false
6. T h e following mariner's skills could be improved with simulator training:
(Pages 279-82)
A. shiphandling.
a. true
b. false
B. rules of the road applications and maneuvering with other ships.
a. true
b. false
C. bridge organization.
a. true
b. false
D. watchkeeping practices.
a. true
b. false
E. restricted visibility navigation.
a. true
b. false
F. emergency procedures.
a. true
b. false
G. ship-to-ship communication procedures.
a. true
b. false
7. T h e computer-based simulator is an advancement that is replacing the
ship-model type simulator at most training facilities. (Pages 274)
a. true
b. false
8. T h e most important component of the simulator course is the (Page
277)
a. simulator

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b. instructor
c. the curriculum
d. all of the above
9. Performance-based testing on simulators should overload the student
with scenarios that are more difficult than real-world situations. (Page
280 and 289)
a. true
b. false
10. Time should be divided between the briefing, simulator session, and
debriefing approximately (Page 286)
a. 'A, 'A, 'A
b. 1/2,1/2, 1/2
C. 'A, '4, 1/2
d. the debriefing is necessary only if students make many errors.

CHAPTER 11. MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP

Review Questions
1. I t is not particularly important that pilots possess traditional seagoing
skills because their main task is advising shipmasters of courses and
speeds from point to point. (Page 293)
a. true
b. false
2. A pilot whose services are required by law is ap i l o t . (Pages
293-95)
a. compulsory
b. voluntary
3. A pilot taken at the master's option is ap i l o t . (Page 293)
a. compulsory
b. voluntary
4. A compulsory pilot is aboard in a purely advisory capacity, and as such
has no responsibility or liability for his actions. (Page 295)
a. true
b. false
5. T h e r e are no significant differences between the responsibilities of the
compulsory and the voluntary pilot. (Page 293-95)
a. true
b. false
6. S h o u l d the shipmaster immediately relieve the pilot in the following
situations? (Pages 296-97)

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 — CHAPTER 11. MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP —

A. the pilot is intoxicated.

a. yes
b. no
B. the pilot demonstrates gross incompetence.
a. yes
b. no
C. the master knows a more expedient way to complete the maneuver
at hand.
a. yes
b. no
D. the vessel is standing into danger that is not obvious to the pilot.
a. yes
b. no
E. the pilot's actions are in error due to circumstances or the limitations
of the ship being handled.
a. yes
b. no
F. the master recommends a change that the pilot rejects.
a. yes
b. no
7. A master must wait until the ship is "in extremis" before relieving a
compulsory pilot. (Page 297)
a. true
b. false
8. I t is essential that the master be a competent shiphandler because,
under certain circumstances, he has a responsibility to relieve a pilot
in a timely and effective manner. (Page 297)
a. true
b. false
9. T h e traditional overlapping of responsibility between the master and
pilot prevents many accidents. (Page 298-299)
a. true
b. false
10. Irreconcilable differences between master and pilot occur often in the
course of moving ships in pilot waters. (Page 298-299)
a. true
b. false
11. Penalties and liabilities for accidents that could occur should be foremost
on the mariner's mind when deciding on a course of action. (Page 305)
a. true
b. false
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 — REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS —

12. Bridge Resource Management is designed to reduce errors and omissions

through a system of checks, delegation of duties, and joint decision
making by a group of vessel personnel referred to as the bridge team.
(Page 299-301)
a. true
b. false
13. The bridge team shares the workload, obtains and communicates
relevant information early, and monitors the vessel's progress by
crosschecking the decisions and actions of all members of the team
within the context of the master/pilot relationship. (Page 300-1)
a. true
b. false
14. BRM has changed traditional pilot responsibility for overall vessel
control and protection of the public interest and the local environment
by integrating the pilot into the joint decision making bridge team.
(Pages 301-2)
a. true
b. false

CHAPTER 12. VESSEL OPERATIONS

Review Questions
1. F o r m a l plans are only needed if the master and mates have not recently
madeapassage in a particular area.(Page 206)
a. true
b. false
2. Passages can be overplanned. An inflexible passage plan, without
alternatives based on professional planning and judgment, is as
dangerous as no plan at all. (Pages 307)
a. true
b. false
3. Review the types of information that should be included in proper
inland waters passage plans. (Pages 308-9)
4. Passage plans and routes should never be put on charts in ink because
that would make the chart less useful for future voyages. (Page 309)
a. true
b. false
5. Competent masters do not prepare and carry pocket course cards
because they memorize charts and passage plans from sea to the dock.
(Pages 309-10)

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a. true
b. false
6. A l l bridges should be standardized with identical layouts and equipment.
(Page 312)
a. true
b. false
7. T h e r e should be a clear view forward from large, unobstructed centerline
windows. (Page 313-14)
a. true
b. false
8. T h e quartermaster's station should be as close to the forward wheelhouse
windows as possible. (Pages 314)
a. true
b. false
9. Instruments should be clustered by use and placed where the user
(mate, master, pilot, or quartermaster) can use them without being
diverted from other work. (Page 312-13)
a. true
b. false
10. A conning station should be organized with equipment mounted on a
bulkhead, console, or to keep windows clear. (Pages 314-16)
a. true
b. false
11. Instruments and equipment should be kept off bridge wings. (Page
316-17)
a. true
b. false
12. Which of the following statements are true regarding the effect of bridge
location on shiphandling? (Pages 329-30)
I. points of reference appear closer as bridge height is increased.
II. your ship appears to be moving more slowly as height of eye increases.
III. turning rate is more difficult to detect when looking ahead from a
bridge located close to the bow.
IV. visibility is improved when the bridge is higher and closer to the
bow.
a. I and II only
b. I and IV only
c. all of the above
d. none of the above

371
 — REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS —

13. Any laptop system using DGPS and off-the-shelf software and charts
can be used to navigate in ice, fog, rain, and other conditions that would
have closed ports in the past. (Pages 321-22)
a. true
b. false .
14. DGPS laptop pilot navigation systems have the same line of sight
limitations as radar, so traffic cannot be seen beyond obstructions or
beyond the radar horizon. (Page 325)
a. true
b. false
15. DGPS pilot systems are limited by (Page 321)
I. line of sight target detection
II. chart accuracy
III. communication with other vessels
IV. ability to present accurate information on "other ship" course, speed,
and location
a. I above
b. II above
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
16. Modern laptop-based DGPS navigation systems are extremely accurate
and reliable, allowing pilots to navigate safely in any condition, regardless
of the accuracy or reliability of the ship's navigation equipment. (Pages
320)
a. true
b. false
17. There are several distinct advantages to having active traffic management
using two-way DGPS-based systems versus information from a shore-
based passive traffic management system. These advantages include
(Pages 328-29)
a. information is real time.
b. information is unfiltered and uninterrupted.
c. information is not line of sight.
d. all of the above.
18. There are significant differences between shiphandling in daylight and
at night. Which of the following are true? (Pages 331-32)
I. loss of depth perception at night makes it more difficult to estimate
distance.
II. speed cannot be determined at night by looking ahead.
III. speed cannot be determined at night by looking abeam or abaft the
beam.
372
 — CHAPTER 12. VESSEL OPERATIONS —

IV. lights and aids appear farther away on clear nights.

a. I and II only
b. Ill and IV only
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
19. Which of the following is/are true regarding record keeping? (Pages
333-34)
I. logs and records are important aspects of proper vessel operation.
II. logs and record keeping often conflict with shiphandling, and
redundant paperwork must be eliminated.
a. I only
b. II only
c. both I and II
d. neither I nor II

373
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Petroleum Institute. Guidelines for Developing Bridge Management

Teams, 1991.
Armstrong, Malcolm C. Pilot Ladder Safety. Woollahra, N.S.W., Australia:
International Maritime Press, 1979.
Barrass, C. B. "Ship Squat and Its Calculation." Safety at Sea magazine,
February 1978.
Brady, Edward M. Tugs, Towboats, and Towing. Centreville, MD: Cornell
Maritime Press, 1967.
Cahill, R. A. "The Avoidance of Close Quarters in Clear Weather." Journal of the
Royal Institute of Navigation, 1982.
Cameron, Ian. The Impossible Dream, the Building of the Panama Canal. New
York: William Morrow & Company, Inc., 1972.
Crenshaw, R. S., Jr. Naval Shiphandling. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press,
1975.
Daggett, Larry and Christopher Hewlett, et al. Dynamic Squat and Under Keel
Clearance of Ships in Confined Channels. Vicksburg, MS, 2003.
Daggett, Larry and Christopher Hewlett. Study of Ship Squat in the Panama
Canal. Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc. for the Panama Canal
Commission, Vicksburg, MS, 1998.
Department of Transportation. Investigation of Effects of Ship's Speed and
Directional Stability on Vessel Control in Restricted Waters. Maritime
Administration, Washington, DC, 1982.
EMRI. Steering Control Systems and Azipod Operations. Herlev, Denmark,
1998.
Gray, W. 0. ESSO OSAKA Maneuvering Trials—Shallow Water Maneuvering of
VLCCs. Tarpon Springs, FL: American Petroleum Institute, 1978.
Hayler, William B., ed. Merchant Marine Officer's Handbook, 5th ed. Centreville,
MD: Cornell Maritime Press, 1989.
Hope, Brian H. El Paso Consolidated Maneuvering Trials. Cove Point, MD: El
Paso Marine Company, 1978.
International Maritime Organization (IMO). Standards for Training and
Watchkeeping. London, 1978.
Ives, Capt. Paul. Azipod Operations Course. RTM STAR Center, Dania Beach,
FL, 2002.
La Dage, John H. Modern Ships. Cambridge, MD: Cornell Maritime Press, 1965.
MacElrevey, Daniel H. El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials. Cove Point, MD: El
Paso Marine Company, 1978.
M a s t e r ' s Guide to Shiphandling. Cove Point, MD: El Paso Marine
Company, 1978.
Marine Safety International. Ship Performance Data for VLCCs. New York,
1978.
Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies and American President
Lines. Bridge Team Management Course, 1992.

374
 — BIBLIOGRAPHY —

Marton, G. S. Tanker Operations, 3d ed. Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime

Press, 1992.
McCullough, David. The Path Between the Seas. New York: Simon & Schuster,
1977.
Meurn, Robert J. Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer. Centreville,
MD: Cornell Maritime Press, 1990.
National Research Council Marine Board. Minding the Helm: Marine Navigation
and Piloting. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1994.
. Proceedings: Symposium on Piloting and VTS Systems. Washington, DC:
National Academy of Sciences, 1980.
. Ship Bridge Simulator Training. Washington, DC: National Academy of
Sciences, 1995.
Oil Companies International Marine Forum. "Proceedings of the Safe Navigation
Symposium." Washington, DC, 1978.
. Ship to Ship Transfer Guide (Petroleum). London: Witherby & Co., 1978.
. Standards for Equipment Employed in Mooring of Ships at Single Point
Moorings. London: Witherby & Co., 1978.
Panama Canal Commission. Panama Canal Pilot's Handbook. Balboa, Panama,
1980.
Parks, Alex L. and Edward V. Cattell Jr. Law of Tug, Tow, and Pilotage, 3d ed.
Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press, 1994.
Professional Mariner. Piloting and VTS, Vessel Tracking System by Delaware
Pilots. March 1996.
Quick, George A. "Pilotage." Proceedings—Maritime Transportation Research
Board. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1980.
Reid, George H. Shiphandling with Tugs. Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime
Press, 1986.
Resolution of the American Pilots' Association. Role of the Pilot and the Mas-
ter-Pilot Information Exchange. American Pilots' Association, 1997.
RTM STAR Center. Alaska State Marine Pilot Training and Evaluation Manual.
Dania Beach, FL, 2000.
Ship Performance Data for VLCCs [Training Manual]. La Guardia, NY: Marine-
Safety International, 1981.
Swift, A. H. Bridge Team Management, A Practical Guide. The Nautical Insti-
tute, 1993.
United Kingdom Board of Trade. "Navigation Safety/ Guide to Planning &
Conduct of Passages," MN854.
Vantine, Wilbur H. "Good Bridge Design from a Master Mariner's Point of
View." Ship Operation Automation, ed. by Pitkin, Roche, and Williams. New
York: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1976.
Werner, Norman A. "A View from the Bridge." The Panama Canal Review,
Spring, 1976.

375
 INDEX
"A" frame, 252
Accelerating turn, 11,178
Acceleration, underkeel clearance, 90,
92,93,96,97-98
Access: bridge windows, 314; impor-
tance of, 314
Accuracy, simulator model, 268-70
Acquiescence, of master to pilot, 298
Advance, 44,75,76,118,179
Advising pilot, master's duties, 40-43,
296, discussed, 294-297
Aids to navigation: uses, 76-78,172,
293; simulating, 272
Alaskan Pilots, evaluation and
licensing, 290
American flag, pilot requirements, 295
Anchor chain, 174; amount of, 174
Anchor underfoot, backing, 203-4
Anchoring: mentioned, 15; in steps,
166; planning, 167-68; in deep
water, 170-71; final heading,
174-76; wind/current abeam, 168,
175-76, 177; wind/current astern,
175-76, 177; basic, 176; approach
to, 176-77; determining speed,
179; mooring and anchoring,
185-89; with stern anchor,
188-91; alongside bank, 202-3;
lightering, 224-25; model—based
simulators, 266,275
Anchors: standing by, 7; preparing, 23;
pilot information for, 40; to hold
ship, 118, 198; to steer, 199, 227;
at wharf, 126; in wind, 132,
168-70; undocking, 139; to turn,
148; to turn short, 154,170,171,
176, 199; walking out, 171; easing
chain, 176; placing, 180-81;
digging in, 182-83; swinging
room, 183-85; laying out, 182-83;
amount of chain, 194-96; brake,
176, 194; for shiphandling,
191-194; steadying bow, 198;
selecting, 172, 193-94; stopping
376
ship, 195; holding ship, 118, 198;
restricted visibility, 198; steady-
ing effect, 199-200; strong wind,
168; fetching up, 194, 198;
meeting ships, 199; stopping
sheer, 200; in a bend, 200; narrow
channel, 199; in canals, 209;
approaching mooring, 225-26; 5—
point moorings, 226-30; backing,
203-4, 228-30; Mediterranean
moor, 232-33; simulating, 266,
272; shiphandling simulated, 266,
272
Angle of approach: port side to,
122-23, 133; starboard side to,
122-23, 133; discussed, 122-24;
affected by wind, 129-32; twin—
screw ship, 242
Answer back system, 317
Approach: speed, 118-21; port side to,
122-23; starboard side to, 122-23;
bow in slip, 123; stern in slip,
124-25; lightering, 222-24;
5— point moorings, 229; at sea
replenishment, 252-54
Approaching berth, discussed, 124-25
Approaching wharf: current ahead,
126; current astern, 127
Areas of immersed sections curve, 73
ARPA: training, simulator, 270; for
pilots, 283; mentioned, 38,82,
261,270,288
Arrival: preparation for, 7, 22-25;
timing, 118
Arriving early, importance, 118
Assistant mooring master, qualifica-
tions, 219
Astern: movement with anchor, 203-4;
simulated maneuvers, 281
Audible gyro, importance, 82; Auto—
logging, 333-34
Automatic Identification System, 38,
82,261,328
 — INDEX —
Azipod, 8, 52, 239; commands, 63-64;
discussed, 52-70; bridge resource
management, 67-69. See also
Directional propulsion systems
Backing and filling: described, 11-13;
tests, 11-13; to make lee, 28; to
anchor, 170,171,179
Backing: discussed, 13-15; setting up
for backing, 14, 133; from slip,
144-48; hazards, 150; to anchor,
181-83; strong wind, 35-36
Backing engine, effects simulated, 271,
280-81
Backing "into the wind," 15,35-36,
168,169-70
Backing line, 103
Backing tug, effects, 107
Ballast condition, 140
Ballasting: forward. 140; lightering,
225
Bank cushion, 21, 47; simulated, 272;
as feature, 273; training, 281
Bank effects: backing, 14; twin-
screw, 241; sheering, 47-48;
simulating, 272; as feature, 273;
training, 281 Bank suction: vs.
bank cushion, 21-22; discussed,
21-22, 47-48; passing and
meeting, 48; simulated, 272; as
feature, 272; training, 281
Barrass, PhD, C. B., 88,89,90,95
Base course, at sea replenishment, 252
Basin, turning in, 152-54
Beam limit, meeting in channels, 78
Bell book, 40,333
Bell logger, 333-34
Bend, turn in using anchor, 201
Bernoulli effect: 47, 86; discussed
86-87
Berthing, twin-screw, 239-41; landing
twin-screw, 242; exposed propel-
ler, 242; excess angle, 242
Bight, use undocking, 141
Block coefficient: directional stability,
20, 71; squat, 87-88, 94-95; effect
on steering, 71, 90-91; trim, 91;
discussed 85-87
377
Blockage factor: defined, 87; effects,
85-88, 95; formula, 86; handling
characteristics, 90
Bottom contours: affecting backing,
14-15; discussed, 20-21,47-48
Bow, in mud turning, 154
Bow stresses, VLCC, 248
Bow thruster: advantages, 15; dis-
cussed, 15-16, 144; compared to
tug, 15; table for, 15; vs. ship's
speed, 16; in anchoring, 165;
Mediterranean moor, 233; twin-
screw ships, 237-39; moving ships
laterally, 237-39
Bow tug: stern in approach, 124, 125;
undocking, 143, 143-47; substitut-
ing anchor, 192,196-98
Brake, anchor, 176,194,195
Brake band, 194
Break up, lightering, 226
Breast lines, 126, 138, 141; lightering,
226
Bridge: manning, 160; team, 160,
299-302; work, 159-60; simulat-
ed, 270-71; as feature, 270, 272;
importance, 272; organization,
281; procedures, 278; supporting
master/pilot, 299, 301; aft visibili-
ty, 330
Bridge console, 312-14
Bridge control, single person, 67-69
Bridge design: discussed, 312-17;
visibility, 313-14, 317; affecting
bridge work, 312; consultation for,
317; VMax, 245
Bridge equipment, 81-2,160,313-17
Bridge forward, 330; anchoring, 180
Bridge height, 329-31
Bridge markers, 135
Bridge procedures, 264, 281, 286-87;
for pilots, 283-86
Bridge Resource Management: and
Azipods, 67-69, 300; for shiphan-
dlers, 299-305; shipmaster,
302-4; watch conditions, 303.
Common terms: shared mental
model, 304; error chain, 300;
 — INDEX —
perceived world, 300; error
recognition, 300; bridge team:
duties, 302; members, 303; team
size, 302-3; purpose, 299; training
for pilots, 284-5; effect on master/
pilot relationship, 301; team vs.
committee, 299, 300; pilot aboard,
301,304
Bridge team: and Azipods, 67; vs.
committees, 299; piloting, 68,
301-4; watch conditions, 302-3
Bridge wing controls, 314,316
Briefing, simulator instruction, 264,
278,286-87
Bulbous bow, 23,174,193,194
Buoys: use of in shiphandling, 75-78;
turning on, 75-78; strong cur-
rents, 77-78
"By the head": affecting steering,
71-73; vs. directional stability, 19,
71-73
Camels, 123,131 Canals, crew duties,
208-9
CAORF, simulator facility, 264,283
Centerline markers, 330
Chain: handling, 176; laying out,
182-83; clearing turns, 187-88
Chain stoppers at SPM, 218-19
Changing fuel to maneuver, 162
Channel: holding position in, 118;
using buoys, 75-78; configuration
affecting squat, 86-87, 92, 94-95;
configuration, affecting underkeel
clearance, 95; width, meeting
ships, 78-80
Charts: discussed, 161; as passage
plan, 161-2, 308-9; electronic,
310-11
Checking swing, 19,74
Chief mate training, 160, 256-8\
Chocks, for use at SPM, 219
Clear view, at work area, 313-15
Clear water, backing towards, 150
Clearance, underkeel: discussed,
91-100; summarized findings,
95-96; safe speed for, 95-96;
effects of stability on, 95, 96-97;
378
and acceleration, 95, 97; when
meeting and passing, 95, 98-100;
when overtaking, 95,100 "Click-
ing" gyro, use of, 82
Close quarters, 159; speed in situation,
158; with VLCC, 248; simulated,
270
Coastwise pilotage requirements, 295
COLREGS, affecting VLCCs, 248
Combined beam in narrow channels,
78
Come ahead line, 103 Coming ahead
from slip, 148-9
Commands: Azipod, 63-64; standard-
ized, 54,57,59,61,63-65
Communications: discussed, 36-39,
219, 222, 255; steering gear flat,
23; with tug, 105-6; at SPM, 219;
lightering, 222; with helicopter,
255; simulator training, 281
Communications Tracking and
Navigation System, 38,318-21
Compulsory pilot: discussed, 292-99;
relationship to master, 291-93
Computer—based simulators: types
discussed, 269-70; model develop-
ment, 270-74; advantages,
274-75; disadvantages, 275;
features, 269-70; compared,
274-75; preferences pilot vs. deck
officer, 275; validation, 277-78;
instructor, 277-78; deck officer
curriculum, 279-82; depth
perception, 282; enhancing pilot
training, 282, 286; testing with
289-90
Computer control: for Azipods, 66;
discussed, 66-67
Concurrent tasks, 265, 270; testing,
289
Conn, 39,45,157,257
Conning station: layout, 316; locating,
314-16
Console controls, Azipods: pilot-master
relationship, 69-70; bridge
resource management, 67-69; and
standard bridge commands, 70
 - INDEX -
Consoles: placement, 313-16; clear of
windows, 313, 314, 316
Containerships, 25, 32, 34, 87, 98-99,
248, 312, 329
Controlling emotions, 115-17 Cost,
paying for pilot training, 274, 282,
286
Council of American Master Mariners,
317
Course card, 7, 161-62, 172, 309-10
Course changes, 25, 159, 257 Course
material for simulators, 280-86
Courses inked, 161-62, 308
Cross-sectional area, 19, 73, 87, 88,
89, 90
Cross swell: making a lee in, 27;
lightering, 222
Current: actual vs. predicted, 49;
turning in, 77; mentioned, 117,
121-23, 129-30, 142-43, 144, 154,
168-69; from astern, 126-27, 177,
201; as tool, 129-31, 168-69;
compared to wind strength, 130,
168-69; undocking, 142-44; final
heading, 174; affecting maneuver-
ing, 168-69; when moored, 137;
planning for, 168-69, 171;
simulating, 272; as criteria, 273;
instruction, 281
Current tables, 117
Curriculum: simulators, 264; deck
officers, 280-81; scenarios, 273,
279; pilots, 282-83
Curve of immersed sections, 73
Cushion effects, 21, 47, 78, 134, 224;
twin-screw, 241, 242 Daggett,
PhD, Larry L.: work of, 85
"Danger area" during at sea replenish-
ment, 253. See also Ship-to-ship
lightering
Darkness affecting piloting, 331-33
Data: sheet, 9; model tests, 45; card,
139
Day vs. night, 331-33 Deaton, Capt.
William, 220
Debriefing: simulator instruction, 264,
276, 278, 279, 287; importance,
264, 287
379
Deck log, 333-34
Demonstrating: proficiency, 261, 262,
265; pilots, 260, 261-62, 286
Departing: from between ships, 143,
149; from port, 156-62; from
moorings, 231; Mediterranean
moor, 235; at sea replenishment,
254
Depth of water: effects, 8-9, 17-18, 20,
22, 170, 178; vs. speed, 157-58;
affecting maneuvering, 17-18,
20-22, 85-100; and anchoring,
170-71
Depth perception, 282, 331-32
DGPS: to measure squat 89; underkeel
clearance tests, 93-96
DGPS-based navigation systems:
317-25; accuracy, 321; capabili-
ties, 323; for shiphandling,
324-26; for traffic management,
326-29. See also Laptop naviga-
tion systems
Diameter of turning basin, 153-54
Diesel engine, handling twin-screw,
239-41
Diesel oil for maneuvering, 40, 162
Diesel propulsion: backing, 26;
maneuvering, 40; affecting
steering 49; dead slow ahead, 143,
145; mentioned, 143, 145, 162
Digital fathometer, 81, 83, 316
Dingier, Capt. Carl R., 226
Direction of rotation: propeller, 51,
120, 122, 150; variable-pitch
propeller, 51-52, 151; directional
control, stern anchor, 188
Directional propulsion systems: types,
52; advantages, 53; concerns,
53-54; design, 55-56; controls,
56-58, engine modes, 59-60; At
Sea mode, 59; Harbor (Maneuver-
ing mode), 60; At-Sea pod
configuration, 61; Harbor pod
configuration, 62; Docking pod
configuration, 62-63; standard-
ized commands, 63-64, 70;
computer control, 64; one ship
length rule, 66; and BRM, 67-69;
 - INDEX -
and master/pilot relationship,
69-70
Directional stability: defined, 18;
shallow water effects, 18; men-
tioned, 19, 20, 73, 140, 238, 240,
243, 245; trim effects, 20, 71-73,
140; instability used to advantage,
74; instability discussed, 73-74,
83, 232; for VLCCs, 72, 239-41,
246; for VMax ships, 243-45;
twin-screw, 238; simulated, 271
Disagreement, master and pilot, 298
Displacement, 86; affecting shiphan-
dling, 248
Distance estimated at night, 331-32
Distance line, 253
Docking: shaping up for, 14, 122;
bow-in, 123; current from astern,
126-27; stemming tide, 126; piling
clusters used, 123 port side to,
122, 125, 126, 134; starboard side
to, 122, 124, 133, 134; stern in,
124-26; with anchor, 193-94,
196-98; wind and current,
129-32; twin-screw ship, 239-42;
twin-screw cushion, 242; angle to
berth, 122-23, 127, 242; simulat-
ed, 271
Docking plans, 117
"Don't touch syndrome," 258
Doppler speed log, 82, 83, 119, 120,
182, 216, 250, 261, 316, 323
Draft: discussed, 19; affecting direc-
tional stability, 19-20; vs. depth,
85
Drag: discussed, 20, 70-72, 140;
affecting directional stability, 20,
70-72
Drills for man overboard, 235-37
Dynamic friction, anchor brake, 194
Eddy currents: discussed, 49, 126, 127,
137-38, 203; in bend, 49; going
alongside, 127, 137, 138
Effective maneuver defined, 17
Electronic Chart Display and Informa-
tion System: discussed, 310-311;
advantages, 310, 311; issues, 311;
380
onboard pilot training, 261
Electronic charts, 321, 323, 326
Emergencies: discussed, 23, 194,
199-202; breaking up lightering,
225; evacuation by helicopter,
254-55; simulated, 265, 266, 270,
272, 275, 281, 283; training bridge
team, 304
Engine: overuse, 65; starting twin-
screw, 238
Engine astern to stop, 13-14, 24
Engine failure: discussed, 150,
200-202; use of stern anchor, 201
Engine opposing tug forces, 142-43,
144, 149
Engine response, simulated, 271
Engine revolutions: uses, 44, 52,
132, 134; vs. ship's speed, 132;
steering effects, 44, 52
Engineer for steering gear, 23
Engines used, tug on hawser, 110-11
Enrollment, pilot requirements, 295.
See also Compulsory pilot
Equipment: grouping, 312-13; simulat-
ed failures, 280
Equivalency, 291; simulation vs. sea
time, 291
Error chain: and Azipods, 69; BRM for
pilots, 300
Errors in judgment, 305
Eryuzlu and Hauser: squat formula,
90; mentioned, 88, 90
Esso Osaka tests, 22, 247 Evaluation,
simulator, 270; by simulator, 276,
289-90; pilot performance, 284-86,
290; evaluator qualifications,
290-91
Excessive speed, 118
External effects, simulation, 270-74.
See also Simulator Facing aft,
while working, 152; making up
tug, 112-115
Fair current, 49-50
Fathometer, 81, 83, 316. See also
Digital fathometer
Feedback: and bridge resource
management, 284,68; regarding
Azipod control, 68
 - INDEX -
Fidelity, simulator model, 273
Final heading: discussed, 174-76;
wind and currents, 174; advantag-
es 174; bulbous bow, 174; deter-
mining, 175; alternatives, 175-76;
reciprocal, 176; anchoring off,
175-76
Finesse, when docking, 136
Fire and emergency drills, 259. See
also Drills for man overboard
Flare affecting tug's maneuvers, 105
Flow over rudder, 47, 80, 199
Flow, rudder effect, 238, 241
Forum, 279, 283
Forward sections: affecting directional
stability, 19-20. See also Direc-
tional stability
Forward tug dismissal, 155
Freeboard vs. wind, 31-32, 34-36,
129-32, 169
Freshets, 49, 307
Full sections: affecting directional
stability, 19-20. See also Direc-
tional stability
Full task simulator, 270
Future of simulation, 287-89
Gaillard Cut, 48, 89, 95, 111, 213, 321
Gear for 5-point moorings, 228
Going alongside, 137
Going astern, maintaining control,
133-34
Gross negligence, 305
"Gunsight effect," 330
Gyrocompass, 81, 119, 314, 316, 326
Hand signals, 115, 116
"Hands-on" drills, 258, 259, 260;
simulated, 264, 279, 282-83
Harmonic vibrations, 158
Hawser: uses, 111; for tugs, 110-11
Head currents, 49; docking, 126;
undocking, 142-44
Heading for helicopter operations, 254
Headway for steering, 51
Heaving off berth, 145, 194
Heavy oil vs. maneuvering, 40, 162
Height of eye effects, 329-31
Helicopter maneuvering plot, 254
381
Helicopter Operations, 254-55
Helm orders, 115, 116
Helm station: discussed, 314; equip-
ment, 314; location, 314
Helmsman: experience, 73; using rate
of turn indicator, 83; duties, 314
Hewlett, PE, J. Christopher: work of,
85
High power ships: accelerating, 96;
twin-screw, 236-37
Holding: alongside pier, 15, 137-38; in
channel, 100, 118; with tugs, 118;
with anchor, 118, 188, 198-99
Huuska and Tuck: squat formula, 89;
mentioned, 88, 89
Hydraulic cushion: discussed, 126,
137; lightering, 224
Hydrodynamic effects: model-based
simulators, 266; computer
simulators, 269-73; pilot training,
283
Hydrodynamicist, simulators, 270 Ice
on pilot ladder, 29
Identification by VHF, 37-38. See also
VHF
Imminent danger: relieving pilot,
296-297; in extremis, 297
Inboard anchor, 192-93
Inboard propeller, 239; walking ship,
238, 239; checking lateral motion,
239-40
Information in pilot waters, 40-43,
306-7, 308
Inked courses for charts, 161-62, 309
Instructor: simulator, 264, 277-79; as
component of simulation, 277;
importance, 264, 277; team
concept, 277-78; qualifications,
277; training, 277-78; involve-
ment, 278-79; in debriefing, 279,
287
Instrumentation: discussed, 81-84;
seaman's eye 81; gyro, 81; DGPS,
81; radar, 82; rate of turn indica-
tor, 82-84; limiting bridge
visibility, 313; for VLCCs, 249; in
bridge design, 313-17. See also
Bridge equipment
 — INDEX —
International Maritime Organization
(IMO), 28,40,290,312
International Maritime Pilots' Associ-
ation, 312
Intership action: meeting, 77-80,
98-99; simulated, 264,268-70,
277
Intership effects: model simulators,
266, 270, 271; simulator training,
280-81
Irwin, Capt. Marshall, 220 Ives, Capt.
Paul, 52
Jackstaff as steering aid, 330
Keel clearance, affecting steering,
17-18
Kicking engine: to steer to wind, 35; to
steer at slow speed, 118; twin
screw, 238
Ladder, for pilot, 28-30; IMPA
requirements, 31-33
Landing alongside: discussed, 133-34,
136-37; landing flat, 136-37
Laptop navigation systems: discussed,
317-24; common features, 319;
design requirements, 318,319.
For navigation: charts accuracy
for, 321-22; capabilities, 323;
independent of ship's equipment,
323-24; CTANS, 319-20; for
pilots, 321-24; real time, 323. For
shiphandling: making turns,
324-25, meeting points, 326; for
traffic management, 326-29. See
also DGPS-based navigation
systems
Large ships, simulator pilot training,
80,283
Lash up: defined, 111-12; uses,
112-14; to reduce tug use, 114
Late turns discussed, 74
Lateral motion: bank effect, 21, 47;
narrow channels, 47; mentioned,
21, 47, 82, 125, 130; discussed, 21,
47, 125, 131, 132; causes, 132;
detecting, 82, 132-33; twin-screw
ships, 238-39; high-power ships,
240; checking, 78,130-35,239-40
382
Leback, Capt. Warren G., 188 Lee
anchor, 192-94
Lee for pilot, 26-28
Leeway during approach, 122,123,
133
Left turn: discussed, 10-11; disadvan-
tage when maneuvering, 11
Length affecting directional stability,
20
Length/beam ratio, 20, 243; and VMax
ships, 243-47; directional stabili-
ty, 243; turning circle, 243;
handling characteristics, 20;
VMax vessels, 245
Letting go anchor for docking, 131-32,
193-95,196-98
Liability: in Panama Canal locks, 295;
outside Panama Canal locks,
295-96; pilot, 295,297,305
Lifting quarter of twin-screw ship,
242
Light ship departing moorings, 231
Lightering: discussed, 220-26;
mooring lines, 224
Limits: for speed, 90; for mooring at
SPM, 220; lightering, 222,225
Lines, fouling twin-screws, 242,247
Local knowledge: importance, 117,
159, 306-7; defined, 293
Lock wall suction, 212-13
Lockage: density current, 206-7;
approach, 207-8; discussed,
207-13; techniques, 209-11;
piston effect, 210; wall effects,
207-12; filling, 211; departing,
211-13; flush out, 211 Lookout in
pilotage waters, 296
LOOP terminal, 214
Loss of engine: stopping ship, 25,26,
200-202
Low length-to-beam ratio ships: and
directional stability, 20, 243;
handling, 245; VMax ships,
243-46
Making fast, 137-38
Making lee, for pilot boarding 26-28;
for lifeboats, 237
 - INDEX -
Man overboard, 235-37
Maneuvering: most effective, 17, 65;
pilot station, 26-28; information,
38, 40-42; in channel, 74-77, 100;
Azipod, 54-55, 59-63; excessive
power, 55; computer-controlled,
64-67; fuel, 162; simulated traffic,
280; night vs. daylight, 331
Maneuvering characteristics: impor-
tance of, 43-44, 165, 257; learn-
ing, 8, 165; changes in, 13,18-20,
170-71; wind effects, 31-36,
129-32; departing anchorage,
171-72
Maneuvering plot for helicopter
operation, 254
Maneuvering ship, replenishment at
sea, 252-53
Manning bridge, 159-60, 302-303;
anchor, 172
Manropes, 30
Manual controls, use, 66
Master: trial maneuvers, 7-9; relation-
ship to pilot, defined, 292, 294;
relationship to pilot in practice,
69-70, 292, 294-96, 298; exercis-
ing responsibility, 296; disputing
pilot's actions, 296-97,298
Master's trials: simulator, 280 Mate's
duties: on watch, 159-60, 333-34;
anchoring, 172,182
Maximum submerged area, 72-73
McMillin, Capt. Earl R., 52,232
Measuring: performance by simula-
tion, 264, 275-76, 289-90;
equipment, 279, 282-84; testing,
289-291
Mediterranean moor: discussed,
231-35; anchors, 232; mate's
duties, 232; departing, 235
Meeting ships in channel: discussed
57-58, 59; 77-80; underkeel
clearance, 98-100; planning with
pilot DGPS laptop, 326
Meeting, simulated in a channel, 266,
270-73,280
383
Mental model: bridge resource
management, 68, 304; regarding
Azipod control, 68-69
Messengers: for tug lines, 155
Midships section affecting shiphan-
dling, 86, 87-88; and squat, 87-88
Model-based simulators: discussed,
265-67, 270-74; advantages, 274;
hydrodynamic effects, 266; anchor
work, 266; model accuracy,
270-74; limita- tions, 274-75;
disadvantages, 274, 274-75;
compared to computer simulation,
274-75; preferences, pilot vs. deck
officer, 275
Modes: Azipod, 59,60-63
Mooring: discussed, 185-87; running
moor, 185; flying moor, 185;
methods, 185-87; spread anchors,
187; standing moor, 187; clearing
chain, 187; five- and seven-point,
224-28
Mooring bitts at SPM, 215-16
Mooring lines: discussed, 117,136-37,
141; lightering, 219-22; 5-point
mooring, 224-26; twin-screw ship,
239
Mooring master's duties, 212-17,
219-22; 5-point and 7-point
moorings, 226-31
Most efficient maneuvers, 17,59,66
Motion: detecting general, 28,82-85,
118-21,132-33. See also Lateral
motion
Moving: astern, 15; laterally, 132-33,
144-48, 150; with tug, 144-48;
ship sideways, twin-screw, 238-41
Mules in Panama Canal, 210,214 Nar-
row channel: backing in, 15,
discussed, 47-49, 74-78; meeting
ships, 78-80; holding position,
118; using anchor, 198-200,
201-4; simulated maneuvers,
272-74, 279-81; twin-screw, 241
Navigation: anchoring, 172-73; leading
marks, 173; simulation, 264,280
compared by simulator type, 275
 — INDEX —
Navigation training for pilots, 260-62
Navigational aids, simulator, 272
Negative directional stability. See
Directional stability Neutral
directional stability.
Night: estimating speed at, 28,
118-21; vision, 316; passage, 331
Notice to mariners, 306
Offshore anchor, 193-194
"One ship length" rule, 66
Open stern, 19
Outboard propeller, walking ship,
239-40
Overtaking, 81; vs. underkeel clear-
ance, 100
Overuse of engines, 65,136
Panama Canal: squat tests, 92-100;
underkeel clearance, 95-100;
discussed, 205, 206-13; locomo-
tives, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214;
locks entrance, 208-11; locks
departure, 211-13; expansion
project, 213-14; master/pilot
relationship, 295-96
Part task simulators, discussed,
269-70
Passage planning: discussed, 17,
161-62; for anchoring, 165,166,
167-68; for maneuvering, 168-72;
briefing officers, 172, 180; need
for, 306-7; excessive, 307; on
charts, 309; affecting record
keeping, 334
Peer review, 262,279,284,287,290
Penalties: master's errors, 305;
penalties counterproductive, 305
Performance-based testing, 289-91;
vs. written examinations, 289-91;
criteria, 289
Perspective, docking VLCC,250;
forward bridge, 330
Pilot(s): maneuvering at pilot station,
26-28; embarking, 28-31; ladder,
29-30; hoist, 30; on—board
training, 260-62; federal licens-
ing, 262; tailoring simulators, 270;
simulated boarding, 280; curricu-
384
lum, 282-83; onboard vs. simulat-
ed training, 282; simulator
enhanced training, 282; simulator
as forum, 282; responsibility,
292-95; relief by master, 294,296
Pilot laptop systems: general, 317-20;
for navigation, 320-24; design
requirements, 319; features, 319;
chart accuracy, 321-22; system
accuracy, 321; real time, 323;
communications, 323; vs. radar,
326; line of sight, 328-29; for
shiphandling, 324-26; for traffic
management, 326-29
Pilot-Master relationship: simulator
training, 284; and Azipods, 69-70;
bridge resource management, 301;
exchange of information, 40-43
Pilot responsibility: statutory, 69,
292-96; and pilot master relation-
ship, 69-70 292-296, 298; regard-
ing terrorism, 69; and Azipods,
69-70; bridge resource manage-
ment, 301
Pilot testing, 289-90
Piston effect, 85-87,90
Pivot point: discussed, 72,92,142,
148, 153, 200; turning in a
channel, 74-75; anchor affecting,
192,229
Planning ahead for wind, 35-36;
discussed, 49, 129-32, 170; Azipod
systems, 65, 68; docking, 122,
129-32; undocking, 139; anchor-
ing, 167; stern anchor, 189;
Mediterranean moor, 232
Pocket card for pilot waters, 172,
309-10
"Poor man's tug," 192,226
Port studies, using simulators, 286
Positive directional stability. See
Directional stability
Preplanning. See Passage planning
Preprinted docking forms, 117
Pressure drop causing sinkage, 86
Prioritizing tasks: practice, 265;
demonstrating ability to, 280
 - INDEX -
Procedures, watch keeping, 265, 280
Professionalism: discussed, 46-47;
defined, 46; learned trait, 46;
teaching, 46-47, 257-60; on
simulator, 280
Proficiency, demonstrating, 265
Propeller: wash, estimating speed, 28;
direction of rotation, 56, 151, 240;
design, 51-52; twin-screw,
239-42; variable-pitch, 51-52,
160; and lines, 230, 231, 233
Propulsion systems, 50-70
"Pulling water," 91
Qualifications, simulator instructor,
278
Quickwater: to determine speed, 119,
120; discussed, 134-35; position
of, 119-20; cushioning effect, 137;
lateral motion, 134; planning for,
134; when undocking, 141-42,
144; when docking, 133, 134;
when anchoring, 181, 182
Radar: 39, 80, 81, 119, 184; and bridge
design, 316; simulator instruction,
264, 270; pilots, 260-62, 283
Radio use, 36-39, 105, 138, 159, 252
Ranges used when turning, 154, 161
Rate of turn: changes in, 10, 18;
indicator use, 61-64, 225; backing
and filling, 12-13
Rate-of-turn indicator: 83, 84, 225,
314, 316; using gyro for, 81;
steering with, 225
Real-time simulation, 279
Realism, importance for simulation,
273
Record keeping: 300, 303, 333-34; vs.
shiphandling, 333; necessary, 333
Reducing headway: discussed, 23-26;
by change of heading, 17, 25;
VLCC, 25;using tugs, 106-7, 109,
118, 126; using anchors, 185, 191,
195-97; using
Williamson turns, 235-37; rudder, 12;
maintaining control, 14; methods,
24; round turn maneuver, 25-26
Relative bearings: turning, 75-77, 333;
changes in, 333
385
Relative motion, 119, 260, 331, 332
Relative wind for helicopter
operation, 254. See also Helicopter
maneuvering plot
Release from liability: discussed,
297-98; signing, 297-98
Releasing pilot, 157
Relieving pilot: compulsory, 295, 296;
voluntary, 293-94, 296
Responsibility: compulsory pilot,
69-70; master/pilot, 292, 293-96
Restricted visibility, 83, 198, 248, 272,
321
Rolling: 28, 93; in narrow channels,
95; rudder-induced, 97; lightering,
222, 225
Rotation, twin-screw propellers,
239-40
Round turn: slowing ship, 25-26;
making lee, 26-28; discussed, 26;
vs. Williamson turn, 235; simula-
tor instruction, 280.
RTM STAR Center: VMax ships, 242;
testing criteria, 289, 290
Rudder, effectiveness, 11, 47, 50-51,
200, 202, 238; turning, 74;
overuse, 134; failure, 188; twin-
screw vessels, 237-42; stopping
engine, 238; flow, 238; types of,
50-52; VMax rudder configura-
tion, 243, 245; split rudders, 245
Rudder angle indicator, 316, 333. See
also Bridge equipment
Rules of the Road, 37, 81, 293, 296;
simulation, 264, 270, 275, 281,
288, 289
Rules of threes: simulation, 264;
components, 264; instruction
steps, 264; instructor as compo-
nent, 264, 277-78; curriculum,
280-83; steps of training, 264,
286; briefing and debriefing,
285-86
"Safe speed," 96; VLCC, 248, 250
Sail area, 31-32, 34, 169, 198
Sail training, 36
 — INDEX —
Scale, importance for model simula-
tors, 266
Scale model simulators: discussed,
265-66, 274-75; advantages, 266,
275; anchor work, 266; limita-
tions, 266; importance of scale,
266; capabilities, 264-66, 275;
compared to computer simulators
274-75; disadvantages, 266, 275;
preference of pilots, 275; prefer-
ence of deck officers, 275
Scenarios, simulator, 280-81; for pilot
training, 282-83
Scratch log: use, 333-34; eliminating
scrap paper 334; reducing paper-
work, 334
"Sea sense," 163,175,249,256
Seamanship, 54,59,187,316
Searoom: requirements, 168; allow-
ance, 168-69, 179, 248; restricted
171; at anchor, 179-81; determin-
ing at anchor, 183-85; swinging
room, 183-85; swinging clear,
184-85
Set: approaching berth, 109,122,123,
130-31; at wharf, 126; vs. drift
and leeway, 130-331; undocking,
142, 147; computer—controlled
systems, 65
Shallow channel, twin—screw, 241
Shallow water: discussed, 7; affecting
backing, 11; effects general,
17-18, 21; data, 44; VLCC, 22,
249; effects simulated, 270; as
feature, 273
Shed doors affecting wind, 148 Sheer,
199,200
Sheering, twin—screw, 241
Ship as training aid: for ship's officers,
257-59; for pilots, 260-63
Ship characteristics, 43-45
Shipboard management, 128-29
Shipboard training, 257-63
Ship length rule: 66-67
Ship trial data, 43-45
Shiphandling: as art, 3, 136; anchor as
tool, 191-94; skills vs. tug use,
386
105-6; importance of traditional
skills, 102; simulator instruction,
263-65; simulation, 266-67,269,
280-82; simulated anchor, 266,
274; instructional curriculum,
280-86; for deck officers, 280-82;
for pilots, 282-85; skills vs. pilot/
master relationship, 296-97;
using instrumentation, 81-85;
laptop systems and DGPS,
324-26; simulators, 263
Ship-to-ship lightering: discussed,
220-26; preparations, 220;
equipment, 220-22; fenders,
220-22; mooring lines, 222,224,
225
Shoaling: affecting shiphandling, 42,
81; and quickwater, 134-35, 142;
turning basin, 153; twin-ships,
241
Shottel tug, 52,112
Signals. See Hand signals; Whistle
signals
Simulator: innovative training aid,
264-65; computer-based, 269-74;
comparison of model and comput-
er, 274-76; tools of instruction,
275-76; briefing and debriefing
sessions, 286; validation, 277; vs.
hands—on, 291; advantages of,
264; components of instruction,
264; Rules of Threes, 264; vs.
classroom, 264-65, as a forum,
283, 286; limitations, 264,271,
285; model-based, 266-67; types
discussed, 265; computer—based,
269-74; field of view, 270; disad-
vantages, 264, 271, 274, 285;
importance of realism, 273, 280;
playback capability, 276, 284; vali-
dation, 277; instructor qualifica-
tions, 277; instructor involvement,
278-79; for deck officers, 280-82;
for pilot training, 282-86; for
testing, 289-90; Alaskan pilot
program, 290; future of, 287-89
 - INDEX -
Simultaneous tasks, 265
Single point moorings: discussed,
214-220. See also SPM
Single rudder, twin-screw, 237
Singling up, 141
Sinkage: defined, 85; discussed, 85-86,
90; component of squat, 85;
calculating, 88-90
Situational awareness: bridge resource
management, 67, 68, 300; and
Azipods,67, 68, 69
Slewing to reduce headway, 24, 25
"Smelling" bottom, 21
Solid-face wharf, twin-screw ships, 242
Southampton Institute, model-based
simulator, 267
Spade rudders, 51
Speed: measuring slow rates of, 132;
affecting bow thruster, 16;
reducing, 121; steerageway,
35-36; narrow channels, 47-48;
meeting, 78-80; overtaking, 81;
shallow water, 85-90, 95-96, 158;
vs. blockage factor, 87, 90; tug on
hawser, 111; vs. ability, 118;
approaching berth, 118-119;
determining, 119-21, 132; over
ground, 119, 121; through water,
118-21; and squat, 86-87; wind
effects, 130, 168; at departure,
157-59; anchoring, 264; measur-
ing slow rates of, 132
SPM: current meters, 215; wind
effects, 215-16, 219; current
effects, 215-16; approach, 215-17;
reducing speed, 217; chafing
chain, 218; pick up line, 218; chain
stoppers, 218; Smit brackets, 218,
219; mooring equipment, 219
Spring line, 102, 111, 123, 145, 147,
148, 226
Squat: discussed 17, 19, 42, 83; basics,
85-90; defined, 85; calculating,
88-90; vs. sinkage, 85; common
useage, 85; cause, 85; open water,
88-89; shallow water, 87-88; vs.
speed, 85-88, 90, 95-96; by the
387
head, 85, 91; by the stern, 85, 91;
vs. cargo capacity,91; blockage
factor, 86, 87, 90
Stability: directional discussed, 17-20;
impact on underkeel clearance, 97;
simulating directional, 271
Stability and trim booklet, 73 Stan-
dardized commands, 63-65
Starting engine: twin-screw, 241
Static friction of anchor brake, 194
Steaming: on anchor, 118; lightering,
225
Steering: anchors assist in, 199-200;
astern, 151-52; bow thruster,
15-17; shallow water, 17, 158;
VLCCs, 22, 247; standing by gear,
22-23, 252; from steering gear
flat, 22, 23, 252; engine stopped,
22, 26; steerageway, 25, 81, 118,
190, 202, 203, 217, 218, 217, 220,
222; trimmed by the head, 71-74;
lightering, 222; at sea replenish-
ment, 252; wind effects on, 31-37
Stemming current: in river, 49; at
wharf, 126; docking, 121; to
anchor, 185; stern anchor, 191
Stern: bank effect, 21, 47; tug, 109,
112, 125, 154; motion to port, 122,
133-34; towards danger, 150; in
approaching pier, 124-26
Stern anchor: emergency use, 201;
danger to rudder and propeller,
190; heaving up, 191; use, 189-91;
open roadstead, 189-90
Stern tug: uses, 108; standing off, 108,
125; dismissing, 154-55
Sternway: steering with, 12, 201;
handling 15; digging in, 183; wind
effects, 35, 36, 168-70; with stern
anchor, 190, 191; with anchor,
176; simulated maneuvers, 281;
reduce, 151, 152; laying out the
chain, 182-83
Stoppers at moorings, 218, 219
Stopping ship: shallow water, 13-14;
distances, 247; lashed up tug, 112;
maneuvering in channel, 100;
 - INDEX -
maintaining heading, 14-15; with
anchor, 181, 183, 200-2; on
simulator, 280; reducing headway,
24-26; as safety measure, 158;
moorings, 229-30
Suction: discussed, 47-48; lightering,
219; twin-screw ship, 241;
meeting in channel, 48, 78-80
Surging at dock, 138
"Sweeping a lee," 27-28
Swing room at anchor, 183-85
Synthetic tails/pendants, 222
Tailoring, simulator models, 270
Team: 64, 65, 67, 68, 160, 173;
instructors, 277, 295; multicultur-
al, 285
Terminology: standard for Azipod,
64-65, 69; for conning, 63-64, 70;
and BRM, 67-69
Terrorism: pilot-master relationship,
70
Testing, with simulation, 289-90;
criteria validated, 290; perfor-
mance based, 289; methodology,
289; pilot, 289-90; deck officers,
289-90; simulator, 289-90
Thinking ahead: 49 Tide and current,
49-50
Tonnage/horsepower ratio, 248
Torque, 140, 144-46
Traditional skills: importance, 54, 70;
vs. equivalency, 291
Traffic management: laptop systems
and DGPS, 322, 326-29; passive
vs. active, 380-29; filtered
information, 328
Training: onboard for ship's officer,
163-64, 256-60; helmsman, 74; for
non-traditional systems, 70;
anchors, 196; Williamson turn,
235-37; discussed, 256-60; formal
vs. informal, 256-60; sources,
256-60; onboard for pilots,
260-63; by over navigation, 261;
simulator curriculum for officers,
279-82; simulator curriculum for
388
pilots, 283-86; pilot training
surcharge, 286; for VMax, 246
Transfer, knowledge, 286
Trial data: collecting, 9; maneuvers, 8,
9-16, 71, 74, 80, 97, 165, 179
Trim: shallow water, 18; affecting
directional stability, 19, 71;
tactical diameter affected, 70;
general effects, 70-73; by the
head, 71; wind effects, 71; as
component of squat, 85; defined,
85; effect of block coefficient, 91;
simulated, 271
Triple-screw propulsion, 242
Tugs: making up, 14, 40, 103-5;
docking or undocking, 106-10;
alongside, 107-9; stern line,
103-4; on hawser, 111-12;
patented drive, 105; communicat-
ing with, 105, 112; use discussed,
106-10; bow, 108-9; stern (after
tug), 109-10; two bows, 110;
astern, 110; safety, 112; lashing
up, 112-14; helm orders, 114;
twin screw, 105; compared to bow
thruster, 15, 107; lines, 103-5; at
stem, 108-9; effects on ship, 107,
108, 109, 110; minimize use, 106;
in current, 109, 126-7; stem to
stem, 108; docking stern in,
124-26; at wharf, 126-27; pivoting
ship, 144-45; dismissing, 154-55;
to anchor, 172; with twin-screw
ships, 242; simulating, 271, 273,
280
Turbine: steering, 51; sea speed, 162;
going astern, 24, 51; engine,
handling twin-screw, 237
Turning couples, 213
Turning diameter: right turn, 10; left
turn, 10-11; backing and filling,
11, 13; shallow water, 8, 10, 200
Turning rate: at equilibrium, 19; buoy
as indicator, 75; 236
Turning to sea, 151-55 Turning,
twin-screw, 238-42
 - INDEX -
Twin-rudder, 238, 240, 243
Twin-screw ships: disadvantages,
241-42; turning, 238-41; ships
discussed, 237-43; compared with
single-screw, 238; diesel vs.
turbine, 238; single rudder, 237;
twisting, 239, 240; rudder flow,
238, 240; inboard turning vs.
outboard turning, 239
Twisting effect: backing, 14; discussed,
133, 146, 176; VLCC, 249; Vmax,
246; simulated, 271; backing from
a slip, 146; turn to starboard, 179;
twin screw, 238, 239
ULCC, 215. See also SPM
Underkeel clearance: discussed,
91-100; measuring, 92-93; analyz-
ing, 92-95; components of, 95; safe
speed, 95-96, 158; and stability,
97; acceleration and, 97-98;
meeting and passing, 98-100;
overtaking 100
Undocking: tug lashed up, 112-13;
planning, 139-40; current astern,
143; turning to sea, 151-55; "one
ship length rule," 66; berthed port
side to,145-46; slack water 144;
simulated, 271; draft and trim in
ballast, 140-41; singling up, 141;
using quickwater, 141-42; from
wharf, 142-44; backing from slip,
144-48; coming ahead from slip,
148-49; coming off parallel to
berth, 149-50
Unit crews, 129
Unmooring: stern anchor, 191 Unsta-
ble, simulated directional, 271
Unstable ship. See Directional stability
Valentine, Capt. Robert D., 312
Validation, simulator model, 277
Vantine, Capt. Wilbur H., 312
Variable pitch: discussed, 51-52, 112;
steering, 52; astern, 51; docking,
51; flow to rudder, 51-52; vs. fixed
propellers, 151; vs. turbine, 51;
left-hand turning, 151
389
VHF: use of, 27, 36-39; at arrival, 25,
37; at departure, 159-60; in
traffic, 36; call identification, 38;
with helicopter, 251; avoiding bad
situations, 36, 138, 228; relaying
intentions, 39, 159; as backup,
215; as conning station equip-
ment, 310; practices, 36-37
Vibration in shallow water, 17, 91,158
Video: simulator tool, 276, 280, 288;
training material, 257; player,
259; debriefing, 287
Visibility, simulating, 270, 272; arc of,
271, 273, 288; bridge height,
329-331, 332; diagram, 289;
VMax, 245; bridge design, 83,
306-11; reduced, 42, 43, 48, 175,
198, 248, 281, 321; and watch
conditions, 302; and passage plan,
308, 309; and record keeping, 334
VLCCs: diameter of turn, 10, 246;
shallow water, 22; reducing
headway, 25; low speeds, 217;
SPM, 215-19; sail area, 219;
ship-to-ship lightering, 220-26;
Williamson turn, 231-34; han-
dling, 22, 73, 193-94, 244-52;
stresses, 248-49; safe speed, 248;
bridge design, 312; calculated total
squat, 88-89. See also ULCC
VMax: 243-246; carry capacity, 243,
244; description, 243-44; han-
dling, 245; breakthrough design,
243; rudder/skeg design, 245
Voith-Schneider, 52, 105, 112 Voyage
planning, simulator, 281
Walking: at berth 142-43, 145; moor,
186; stern, 145, 203; twin-screw
ships, 238-41
Watchkeeping experience: simulation,
263, 264, 279-80; instruction, 263,
277-78; training, 279-80; pilot
waters, 282-86
Waterway Simulation Technology,
Inc.: work of, 92-100; measure-
ments speed vs. squat, 95-96; vs.
 - INDEX -

block coefficient, 95; measure-

ments of ships meeting, 98-99
Weather conditions: SPM, 220;
lightering, 224-26; 5-point
moorings 230-31; using anchor,
198-99
Wharf: holding ship alongside, 15, 138;
approaching, 122-23; current
ahead, 126; current astern,
126-27; going alongside, 136-37,
quickwater effects, 141-42,
undocking 142-43, 149; using
anchor 197, 232; importance of
solid face, 242;
Wheelhouse windows, 313-15, 329
Whistle signals: communicating with
tug, 105-6, 155; in simulator
training, 281; importance of, 37,
38, 39, 159, 209, bridge design,
316
Williamson turn: defined, 236;
variables, 235-36; simulator, 280
Winches, 105, 112, 141, 208, 210, 253
Wind: moving ship astern, 15; anchor-
ing, 168-70; effects discussed,
31-36, 117, 122, 129-32, 198-99,
201; "feeling," 129; "taking
charge," 130; vs. current, 130-31;
as tool, 129-32; docking, 123,
130-31; undocking, 139; leaving
berth, 146-49; lightering, 224,
226; indicators, 316 simulating,
273; simulator curriculum, 281;
using to advantage, 129-32,
168-70; affecting final heading,
168; backing from a slip, 146-48
Windlass, 171, 174, 195-196
Wires at 5-point moorings, 228
Work habits, 250, 265, 277, 287, 312,
333
X- Y plotter, for simulator, 276 "Zero
pitch" steering, 52

390
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Daniel H. MacElrevey was raised near the Delaware River, where he

developed an interest in the sea watching the ships come and go from
the port of Philadelphia. He graduated from the US Merchant Marine
Academy in 1963, and went to sea as a deck officer with Moore-McCormack
Lines aboard cargo and passenger ships trading to South and East
Africa, South America, and northern Europe. He also worked with the
same company in marine operations and stevedoring in New York.
He and his family moved to Panama in 1970, where he worked as
a Panama Canal pilot for eight years. Living in Panama provided the
opportunity for him to pursue another strong interest—ocean sailing—
and later he and his family lived aboard and cruised before he returned
to sea. He subsequently spent four years as master of LNG vessels with
El Paso Marine Company and served as mooring master for VLCCs at
the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port.
Capt. MacElrevey resumed a career in Panama and spent more
than twenty-four years piloting ships in the Canal and the ports of
Balboa and Cristobal. He has also become very involved in the use of
simulation for shiphandling training and evaluation, including service
as a member of the Committee on Ship Bridge Simulation Training
sponsored by the National Academy of Science's Marine Board in
1993-95. He was chairman of the Panama Canal Pilot Association's
technical committee while working on studies of ship behavior and
squat in narrow channels with Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc.
and developing a real-time vessel traffic and communications system
for pilots (CTANS) with the Department of Transportation's Volpe
Center. Capt. MacElrevey retired from his position as pilot and port
captain at the Panama Canal in 1998.
MacElrevey provides consulting, training, technical writing, and
shiphandling services to the marine industry through Offshore Services
Company, which he formed in 1980. Current work includes services as
consultant and expert witness for various maritime law firms and
simulator-based training for pilots and ship's officers, including a

391
contract at the RTM STAR Center in Dania, Florida, for training and
performance evaluation of Alaska state pilots.
Daniel E. MacElrevey celebrated his second birthday aboard the
SS Cristobal while en route to Panama. His early childhood was spent
living near the locks of the Panama Canal, and it was there that he
developed his fondness for ships and appreciation for the mariners who
guide them. He made his first transit of the Panama Canal with his
father at age eight. Following this trip he declared his intention to one
day be a pilot.
Dan's family left Panama in 1977, living aboard their boat for a
year before settling in Cape May, New Jersey. Dan developed his love
of life on the water during subsequent summers spent sailing on the
waters of the Delaware and Chesapeake Bays and racing small boats
in New Jersey.
He graduated from the US Merchant Marine Academy in 1990, and
went to sea with Mormac Marine Transport as a deck officer aboard
tankers engaged in the charter trade. During his time as deck officer
with Mormac, he traveled to many ports on both coasts of the United
States, to Canada, to South and Central America, the Caribbean, Europe,
northern Africa, parts of Asia, and the Mediterranean.
In 1994, Mr. MacElrevey began a three-year apprentice program
with the Pilot's Association for the Bay and River Delaware. In addition
to making trips with experienced pilots, his training included simulator-
based classes at MITAGS in Maryland and at the STAR Center in
Florida, and manned-model instruction at the Southampton Institute
in England. He is now a first-class pilot handling ships in the Delaware
Bay and River, as well as the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal.
Dan was first involved with Shiphandling for the Mariner as a
teenager, checking for spelling mistakes by reading sentences from the
text backwards, and he is tremendously honored to have worked with
his father on the fourth and fifth editions. Ships and equipment continue
to evolve, but the text remains current because shiphandlers share
their specialized skills with their peers. Dan hopes those who read this
latest edition will continue that tradition.
Daniel E. MacElrevey lives in one of the oldest pilot towns in the
United States—Lewes, Delaware—with his wife, Dana, and their two
children, Austin and Madison. Their home is a short distance from the
pilot station at the entrance to the Delaware Bay. A love of the sea and
the practice of shiphandling have passed to the next generation.

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