Journal of Data, Information and Management (2020) 2:67–74

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42488-020-00023-1

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

AI in operations management: applications, challenges

and opportunities
Ali K. Dogru1 · Burcu B. Keskin2

Received: 25 September 2019 / Accepted: 29 January 2020 / Published online: 21 February 2020
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Abstract
We have witnessed unparalleled progress in artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) applications in the
last two decades. The AI technologies have accelerated advancements in robotics and automation, which have significant
implications on almost every aspect of businesses, and especially supply chain operations. Supply chains have widely
adopted smart technologies that enable real-time automated data collection, analysis, and prediction. In this study, we review
recent applications of AI in operations management (OM) and supply chain management (SCM). Specifically, we consider
the innovations in healthcare, manufacturing, and retail operations, since collectively, these three areas represent a majority
of the AI innovations in business as well as growing problem areas. We discuss primary challenges and opportunities for
utilizing AI in those industries. We also discuss trending research topics with significant value potential in these areas.

Keywords Artificial Intelligence (AI) · Machine Learning (ML) · Robotics · Automation · Operations Management
(OM) · Supply Chain Management (SCM)

1 Introduction Turing (1950), is considered to be the first philosophical

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a broad scientific discipline at
the intersection of computer sciences, statistics, operations
management, mathematics, humanities, social sciences, and
philosophy. AI aims to develop nonbiological systems,
such as machines and computers, to perform tasks that
typically require human intelligence. Machine learning
(ML), on the other hand, is a sub-discipline of AI that
focuses on applications of statistical learning. ML aims
to develop algorithms that are capable of automatically
learning associations in large amounts of data in real-time
and improving with experience without being explicitly
programmed. The AI research dates back to the 1940s when
scientists started discussing the possibility of creating a
thinking machine. The Turing test, which was proposed by
 Ali K. Dogru
ali.dogru@usm.edu
1
College of Business and Economic Development,
School of Management, University of Southern
Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
2 Culverhouse College of Business Administration,
ISM Department, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa,
AL 35487, USA
severe argument to judge AI. According to this test, if
a human observer cannot distinguish a conversation with
a machine from a conversation with a human, then the
machine is assumed to be intelligent. The first applications
have focused on developing computer programs that
can compete with human players at structural games,
such as checkers, chess, and Go. For instance, Arthur
Samuel’s checker’s program in 1959 was intelligent enough
to challenge an amateur human gamer (Samuel 1959).
However, the term AI is first coined by John McCarthy,
during the Dartmouth Conference of 1956, which marks the
birth of AI as a scientific discipline (McCarthy et al. 2006).
Since then, AI research has attracted significant attention,
particularly after three milestones. The first was Deep Blue
by IBM, the first chess engine that could beat a human world
chess champion, Garry Kasparov, in 1997 (Campbell et al.
2002). The second milestone was AlphaGo by Deepmind,
an AI Go engine that beaten a professional human Go
player in 1915 (Silver et al. 2018). The third milestone
was AlphaZero by Deepmind; an AI chess engine that
achieved a superhuman level of play after playing against
itself for only 24 hours and then defeating the best brute
force dynamic programming chess engines in 2017 (Silver
et al. 2018). These turning points have served as catalysts to
unprecedented advancements in artificial intelligence (AI),
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and its machine learning (ML) applications in the last two
decades, attracting considerable investment for R&D of AI
technologies by high-tech companies. For example, in 2016,
companies invested $26 to $39 billion in AI, which is more
than three times as much as in 2013 (Bughin et al. 2017).
Supply chains have largely benefited from these growing
interest and investments in AI technologies. The advanced
information systems, such as cloud storage, internet of
things, wireless technologies, and affordable sensors, acted
as enablers of the evolution of business operations. Now, it
is possible that business processes and supply chains, even
across multiple firms and different geographies, are seam-
lessly connected. Smart devices, point of sale data, mobile
applications (apps), and sensors have enabled businesses
to gather demographic, geographic, and behavioral con-
sumer data in real-time, which is critical for product/service
development and capacity planning. AI applications have
improved the productivity of operations via robotics and
automation and have allowed marketing to better understand
and predict customer demand. Responsiveness has gained
importance in the supply chain world as customers have pro-
gressively demanded customized products and personalized
services at short notice and at reduced lead times.
In this study, we review recent applications of AI in
operations management (OM) / supply chain management
(SCM). Specifically, we consider the innovations in
healthcare, manufacturing, and retail operations, since
collectively, these three areas represent a majority of the
business innovations as well as problem areas. Analyzing
more than 400 use cases across 19 industries, a recent
McKinsey report estimates the potential value of AI as $3.5
to $5.8 trillion, of which $0.2-$0.3 billion in healthcare
services, $0.7 to $1.0 billion in manufacturing (automotive
assembly, advanced electronics & semiconductors, and high
technology combined), and $0.4-$0.8 billion in retail (Chui
et al. 2018). It is estimated that ML applications may
significantly reduce healthcare expenditures (up to $300
billion per year), increase online sales (by up to % 30),
reduce inventory (by up to %50), decrease delivery times
(by up to %30), and improve efficiency of production
(by up to %10) (Bughin et al. 2017). Nevertheless, the
current adoption of AI technologies varies by industry
remarkably. While the automotive industry and high-tech
companies take the lead in AI adoption, adoption rates
by retail and healthcare sectors, where AI may provide
the most significant value, are relatively moderate and
low, respectively (Bughin et al. 2017). Each sector has
its dynamics and concerns regarding the adoption of AI.
In this study, we discuss sector-specific challenges and
opportunities for adopting AI-enabled technologies. We also
discuss recent research trends with high value potentials in
these areas.
J. of Data, Inf. and Manag. (2020) 2:67–74
2 AI in healthcare operations
Healthcare is one of the areas that AI has a high value poten-
tial. Various applications have been developed for online
platforms to increase the efficiency of clinical operations,
such as appointment/surgery scheduling, diagnostic image
analysis, and prognosis and prediction of specific ailments
(Panch et al. 2018). For instance, IBM AI uses mammogra-
phy images and medical records, including iron deficiency,
thyroid function, biopsies, lab tests and codes from other
diagnoses, to predict breast cancer a year in advance with
87% accuracy that is comparable to a human radiologist
(Chorev 2019). Sugar.IQ, a diabetes management app that is
powered by ML algorithms, analyzes blood glucose levels,
insulin data, hypoglycemia episodes, and food logs to give
personalized insights and predictions on blood sugar events
of users (Latts 2019).
One promising AI application is Migraine.AI, a person-
alized migraine management application that predicts what
causes a user’s migraine and optimizes their medication
window (MigraineAI 2019). The application provides these
customized predictions by integrating medical and genetic
profiles of patients, environmental triggers, and various
patient behaviors, including medication usage and sleep pat-
terns. It only uses smartphone sensors to passively monitor
and process real-time data, which consists of 400 distinct
data points. Currently, Migraine.AI research team is run-
ning clinical trials partnering with prestigious institutions
such as Oxford University, Garmin, and Georgetown Uni-
versity. In March 2019, Berkeley HAAS Business School
chose Migraine.AI as the most impactful healthcare start-up
of 2019.
Our interview with Ozcan Cikmaz, the CEO of the start-
up, points to four major challenges in using AI in healthcare.
First, ML algorithms require an extensive amount of
personal data for performance and customization of health
services. However, collecting, storing, and protecting vast
amounts of identifiable personal data poses a serious
challenge. Cikmaz notes that besides acquiring data from
human subjects, technology companies have to invest a
considerable amount of capital to ensure proper storage
and security of personal data. The second difficulty is
related to creating an efficient user interface. Practical
applications need to minimize the data collection time by
asking the smallest number of questions to capture as
much useful information as possible. Furthermore, a user
should be able to access any point in the application via
the smallest number of clicks. Migraine.AI, for instance,
asks a patient only one-minute of their daily time to collect
information and does not even require patients to type
their answers. Cikmaz highlights that there are currently
mobile applications in the market that require as much
J. of Data, Inf. and Manag. (2020) 2:67–74
as 30 minutes to retrieve user data. Third, he emphasizes
that even though AI is quite technical and originate from
computer sciences and statistics, implementation of AI
for practical purposes require a broader collaborative and
interdisciplinary teamwork. He believes that OM/OR plays
a crucial role in this regard. The fourth challenge is
related to customization and potential bias. It is essential
to represent diversity well in the data sets on which the
ML algorithms are trained because ML algorithms are only
as good as the data set they are trained on Panch et al.
(2018). Any bias against an underrepresented group in a
data set will result in a biased automated decision. For
example, an appointment scheduling software can make
racially-biased scheduling decisions, if objective function
of the algorithm is not tailored to reduce disparities among
different racial groups (Travers 2019). Preventing those
biases is particularly important for AI applications in
healthcare. Cikmaz states that most migraine management
applications fail simply because they do not factor in the
unique characteristics of women. He notes that applications
need to be tailored according to the nuances of female
physiology to improve personal recommendations and
prevent against algorithmic biases.
3 AI in manufacturing operations
The digitization of manufacturing initiated a significant
transformation in manufacturing operations. This transition
is so compelling that it is being called Industry 4.0. The
fourth industrial revolution starts with the adoption of
computers and automation in the third industrial revolution
and enhances it with smart and autonomous systems fueled
by data and ML. In a sense, Industry 4.0 optimizes the
use of data, computers, algorithms, and automation. For
example, Big River Steel LLC in Arkansas is using AI that
is powered by deep learning and neural networks to create
a “self-learning mill” to spot problems during production,
ensure quality and conserve energy (Murawski 2019). The
data to train the algorithms are captured by thousands
of sensors. The AI system collects data on equipment
conditions such as pressure and temperature. It also tracks
scrap-metal conditions, customer delivery schedules, and
electricity costs. The technology helps the mill produce
different grades of steel with lower operating costs, a
competitive boost.
Some of the technologies that make Industry 4.0 a
reality are autonomous robots, industrial Internet of Things,
additive manufacturing (3D-printing), cloud computing,
augmented reality, digital twins, and blockchain. We expand
on two of these technologies with examples: digital twins
and blockchain. Digital twins are software models of
69
sensor-enabled physical assets and designed to monitor
performance and help reduce costly unplanned equipment
outages. The convergence of advanced technologies such
as sensors, cloud services, big data, and machine learning
has brought this idea to fruition. For example, Chevron
Corp. and Unilever PLC both use digital twin technology
for predictive maintenance (Castellanos 2019; Smith 2019).
In Unilever’s plants, the devices send real-time information
on temperature, motor speed, and other production variables
into the cloud. Algorithms take in the data and use advanced
analytics to map out the best operational conditions.
Workers on-site track product quality with handheld
devices, modeling solutions to problems, and sharing data
with colleagues in other locations. On the other hand, the
blockchain can be used across the whole manufacturing
industry to address all different types of projects and
stakeholders. For instance, a particular use of blockchain
is highlighted by Olsen and Tomlin (2019). In a possible
future scenario, each kiwifruit is automatically tagged with
a micro-RFID by the producer in New Zealand during the
picking process, which then helps the retailer in China
to track the full history of kiwis’ journey within the
supply chain including the picking time, loading, travel and
unloading times, temperature changes the kiwis exposed
to during transportation, with the blockchain technology.
Olsen and Tomlin (2019) also note that this blockchain
technology allows for smart contracts, which dynamically
adapts to the changes in external events (i.e., transporter’s
payments depends on temperature extremes that kiwi fruits
are exposed to during the trip).
Schmitz et al. (2019) point out five major roadblocks that
the manufacturing sector needs to overcome to benefit from
Industry 4.0 technologies fully. First, the leading companies
even in the frontier of Industry 4.0 are grappling with how
to upskill their current workforce to take on new work
responsibilities made possible by Internet 4.0 and to recruit
new employees with the right skills. Adopting technical
expertise takes time and money. Second, companies are
unwilling to make a vast amount of financial investments
for Industry 4.0 technologies due to perceived high cost
and risk of scaling. Third, the return of investments in
Industry 4.0 technologies is relatively long. The report
suggests taking the minimum viable product approach by
implementing small to minimize the upfront cost of scaling.
Fourth, small scale pilot implementations of concept
Industry 4.0 technologies usually manifest unclear business
value since managers fail to estimate the potential impact
of the pilot on the manufacturing processes and define
success criteria accurately. Finally, due to a lack of focus,
companies often struggle to determine which case of a pilot
technology to prioritize. The report recommends value-
backed prioritization to keep the pilot programs focused.
70
4 AI in retail operations
AI is also widely used in retail operations. Web-based
shopping enables online retailers to collect vast amounts
of data regarding shopping habits, basket composition, and
even browsing patterns. These data provide information
regarding future offerings, promotions, and help retailers
manage their supply chain operations, inventory fulfillment,
and distribution systems. Walmart, for instance, uses an
ML algorithm with image recognition capabilities called
“Eden” to classify produces according to their freshness
and to predict when they will go bad (Weber and Schütte
2019). Home Depot uses deep learning to predict stock-out
probabilities of inventory items and to automate inventory
replenishment decisions, whereas the Kroger Company uses
deep learning to find the shortest path to navigate in
a warehouse to complete a customer order (Weber and
Schütte 2019).
Some traditional retailers are offering home grocery
delivery to compete with online retailers. E-groceries, such
as AmazonFresh, Instacart, Peapod, and Tesco, deliver
grocery items at the door of their online customers. Creating
an efficient e-grocery distribution plan requires multiple
hard optimization problems to be solved jointly, including a
stochastic appointment scheduling problem with customer
preferences, a capacitated vehicle routing problem with
time windows (CVRPTW) and an associated inventory
management problem. This problem structure is not only
limited to e-groceries but also applies to other last-mile
services as well, such as home health care delivery,
appliance delivery, and installation services, and other
attended home services including gas, electricity, and water
(Bruck et al. 2018). Though one of the most expensive,
polluting, and least efficient supply chain operations,
attended home services provide numerous advantages to
consumers such as a wide selection of products, price
comparison among e-groceries, and easy access to goods
which are not produced locally (Ehmke and Mattfeld 2012).
Customers also save time and fuel by not driving to the retail
store.
The last-mile delivery of grocery items is particularly
challenging because of three main reasons. First, home
delivery service requires the attendance of the customer
at the time of delivery. If a customer is not present, a
new delivery needs to be scheduled, which may potentially
disrupt a previously scheduled delivery. Appointment
scheduling literature shows that customers are more likely
to attend when their preferences are considered (Schectman
et al. 2008; Gupta and Wang 2008; Bowser et al.
2010; Feldman et al. 2014; Dogru and Melouk 2019).
However, considering customer choices further complicates
J. of Data, Inf. and Manag. (2020) 2:67–74
an already complicated stochastic appointment scheduling
problem by increasing uncertainty. Some studies aim to
mitigate inherent high uncertainty in customer preferences
by developing data-driven models and methodologies.
For instance, Pan et al. (2017) use power consumption
behavior of customers to predict customer attendance and
Klein et al. (2017) proposes a differentiated time slot
pricing scheme to strategically direct customer choices to
help find more efficient distribution plans. Second, the
perishability of grocery items adds to the complexity of
the problem, imposing further restrictions on inventory
availability, transportation, and appointment scheduling
problems. Serving overtime, for instance, is not possible
(i.e., a vehicle cannot deliver after a cutoff time). Moreover,
non-attendance of the customer at the time of the delivery
results in the broken cold chain for certain groceries.
Third, last-mile delivery is an urban phenomenon; therefore,
various complicating factors need to be considered while
solving the CVRPTW, including rush hours and traffic
intensity in certain districts. ML algorithms may play a
key role in overcoming these difficulties. For example, AI
can be used to better estimate time and location-dependent
travel time in urban areas and ML algorithms can be used
to cluster customers based on their geographic location,
shopping habits (i.e., frequency and quantity), day and
time preferences regarding the delivery, which may help
facilitate finding solutions for hard appointment scheduling
and vehicle routing problems.
The e-grocery distribution problem becomes more inter-
esting when the delivery is implemented by an autonomous
vehicle. For example, George Mason University uses
autonomous robots on wheels to deliver food to students on-
demand (Holley 2019). We already know that Google and
Tesla have been running tests for their self-driving cars for
a while. Recently, UPS also joined the wagon by invest-
ing on TuSimple, a self-driving trucking start-up, to run
tests on long-haul trucks that operate autonomously with
a human operator on board to monitor and intervene if
necessary (Vartabedian 2019). Similarly, FedEx currently
tests a platooning technology, an assistant self-driving tech-
nology that enables trucks to follow each other closely to
save fuel (Vartabedian 2019). In this context, autonomous
vehicles are likely to change a typical CVRPTW problem
formulation. Constraints that impose restrictions on driver’s
working hours and breaks, for instance, need to be adapted
or completely removed. Potentially, new routes need to be
defined for secure autonomous vehicle delivery. Even more
interestingly, if drones are to be used for delivery, routes
need to be redefined in a three-dimensional space, consid-
ering heights of buildings, power lines, and numerous air
traffic restrictions.
J. of Data, Inf. and Manag. (2020) 2:67–74
5 Challenges and opportunities
5.1 Displacement effect vs. reinstatement effect
AI, automation, and robotics have significant impacts on
human resources in supply chains. Acemoglu and Restrepo
(2018) state that these new technologies increasingly
replace labor, creating a strong “displacement effect” in the
economy. They argue that if the displacement effect is not
balanced with a more powerful countervailing force called
“reinstatement effect” (creation of new tasks for labor),
productivity gains in the economy will not be sustainable
and balanced economic growth will not be achieved.
Sustainable economic growth requires a prosperous middle
class with relatively high and steady incomes. High
unemployment leads to a decrease in consumption, which
in turn hits supply chains that produce goods and provide
services for the middle class. Then, what new tasks can
supply chains create to maintain labor?
Even though AI technologies are likely to go on to
replace some tasks that have been previously implemented
purely by human or by human-computer collaboration, such
as pattern recognition, forecasting, logistics and decision
making (Nilsson 2009), (Acemoglu and Restrepo 2018)
emphasize that there are many inherently human tasks that
are difficult to automate, including “complex reasoning,
judgment, analogy-based learning, abstract problem solv-
ing, and a mixture of physical activity, empathy, and com-
munication.” For example, Daugherty and Wilson (2017)
identify some new tasks for AI companies. These new job
titles include
• “trainers” who train the AI algorithms for better
performance,
• “explainers” who explains the AI decision to non-
technical professionals, and
• “sustainers” who monitor performance and make AI
sustainable.
Similarly, recent advancements in AI in diagnostic radiol-
ogy image analysis likely have a displacement effect on
radiologists. Panch et al. (2018) argue that health systems
need to revise the distribution of radiology teams in light of
these AI progresses in the discipline. Jha and Topol (2016)
suggest that radiology and pathology should be consoli-
dated as one specialty named as “information specialist,”
whose primary responsibility will be to oversee and ana-
lyze the outputs of AI technologies. Furthermore, Rajpurkar
et al. (2017) state that AI technologies may help human
radiologists to focus their limited attention to higher value-
added areas by reading the image and highlighting essential
areas to the radiologist. To fully benefit from the advantages
of using AI, healthcare institutions must determine those
71
critical areas where human judgment is essential. For exam-
ple, it is well-documented that there is a physician shortage
of primary care services, particularly in rural areas. It is
also believed that the demand for services such as caring for
the elderly is likely to increase, especially in countries with
aging populations where life expectancy increases, whereas
fertility rates decrease (Panch et al. 2018). These empirical
findings may help health institutions restructure HR plan-
ning, education, and employment to mitigate the negative
impacts of displacement effect.
5.2 Accountability and trust
Despite their immense benefits, AI applications currently
operate in the grey legal area that has not been regulated
well. Inadequate regulation creates an asymmetric environ-
ment, in which profit-oriented business organizations are
incentivized to accelerate deployment of AI technologies
while spending minimal time for tests that are vital to pro-
tect consumers from numerous harms and biases (Whittaker
et al. 2018). Moreover, inadequate regulation makes it dif-
ficult to find a legal entity on the provider end to keep
responsible, if a consumer is harmed by an automated tech-
nology. Whom should we keep accountable, for instance,
if an autonomous vehicle is involved in a car accident,
or a patient is misdiagnosed by AI receiving unnecessary
chemotherapy treatment? In this context, AI Now Institute
has released three reports since 2016, compiling a long
list of negative impacts of AI on consumers. These reports
make many ethical and practical recommendations to reg-
ulate technology companies and other entities that produce
and use AI technologies better. The reports emphasize the
importance of sector-specific regulation and transparency
and accountability of the full stack supply chain of AI
technologies (Whittaker et al. 2018).
Most ML algorithms, mainly based on neural networks,
operate as black boxes, which make millions of iterative
calculations on big data sets to optimize model parameters
that eventually classify or predict based on a defined
objective function (Daugherty and Wilson 2017; Panch et al.
2018). Even though the algorithm performance can be tested
and validated, data scientists often cannot provide detailed
explanations of the inner workings of machine learning
(Daugherty and Wilson 2017). To address this issue, the
EU Parliament adopted General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR) in 2016, granting the consumers the right to
request an explanation on a decision made by an automated
system (EUGDPR 2016; Panch et al. 2018). This step is
particularly essential to regulate technology companies that
develop applications directly linked to the well-being of
their consumers. Its extraterritorial applicability aims to
regulate companies that use EU citizen’s data regardless of
72
where the company is located, fining the breaching entities
up to 4% of annual global turnover or 20 Million Euros
(whichever is greater) (EUGDPR 2016).
There also exist concerns against utilizing AI, particu-
larly in the healthcare sector. Patients fear that AI technolo-
gies violate their privacy, and practitioners are suspicious
about the accuracy of automated decisions. Major mistrust
regarding AI is partly due to the asymmetric environment
that victimizes the patients via data breaches and incor-
rect medical practices but fails to penalize entities that
create or use them to offer healthcare services. To ensure
trust, developers and researchers need to convince clinical
decision-makers that proposed ML algorithms are capable
of delivering targeted health outcomes by running real-
world clinical trials (Panch et al. 2018). Patients also need
to be convinced that in exchange for sharing personal data,
they will be receiving improved health services. Govern-
mental regulations like GDRP and interdisciplinary studies
and reports by research institutes like AI Now Institute
would help better protect consumers from potential hazards
and ensure that entities that develop and use AI technolo-
gies kept accountable. Ensuring accountability would also
build public trust regarding AI technologies, which in turn
would benefit supply chains that rely on AI technologies to
increase the efficiency of their operations.
5.3 Customization and information security
Increasing demand for customized products and personal-
ized services require supply chains to collect, store, and
process vast amounts of identifiable personal data, both
structured (name, geographic location data, and unique
identification number, etc.), and unstructured (posts, tweets,
pictures, and videos, etc.). Supply chains need to invest a
considerable amount of capital on information technolo-
gies to ensure proper data storage and security. Due to
transaction cost economics, supply chains usually outsource
those capabilities by contracting out with technology firms,
rather than purchasing. Unlike big companies, small tech-
nology firms usually lack expensive data infrastructures.
Since adopting large data warehouses and computational
power is expensive, these small technology firms usually
pay to big companies to obtain specific IT capabilities.
Additionally, big data requires a different approach to pro-
cess data. Since data is big, it is more efficient to send
computation on data, instead of sending data on compu-
tation. In other words, data collected by small technology
firms, which are outsourced by supply chains, are usually
stored and processed in data warehouses owned by big tech-
nology companies. Multiple layers of subcontracting create
blurred lines between the owner, collector, controller, and
J. of Data, Inf. and Manag. (2020) 2:67–74
processor of data, leaving consumers in a vulnerable posi-
tion. Subcontracting also increases the likelihood of data
breaches and enables illegal use of personal data for other
unrelated business purposes.
One way to increase control over data is to create inter-
operable information technologies. Firms and institutions
usually have inharmonious data technologies and proce-
dures. For instance, hospitals and clinics typically have
patient portals. These patient portals usually do not speak
to each other. Therefore, when patients move to new loca-
tions, they usually give their written consent and ask clinics
to share patient information via mail or email. During this
exchange, patient information may be lost or stolen by third
parties. However, as Panch et al. (2018) points out, a recent
study by Google reveals that deep learning can be applied
to combine patient data collected and stored in different for-
mats by three hospitals, without transforming them into a
common format first. There is a need for more of these types
of AI applications to ensure interoperability of database
management systems and information security.
6 Overall future outlook
AI, robotics, and automation appear to dominate industries
including machinery, automotive and consumer electronics,
as well as service sector including healthcare, retail,
education, criminal justice, housing, and banking in the
near future. These technologies will go on to provide
businesses and consumers with numerous advantageous
and opportunities such as improved efficiency, increased
customization, better quality, and shorter lead times.
However, there are also challenges to overcome. These
challenges include but not limited to re-calibration of
division of labor by creating new tasks for human,
developing secure hybrid systems that human and robots
can work simultaneously in tandem, improving regulation
to ensure accountability of automated systems and to build
trust regarding AI technologies, and developing strategies
and technologies to protect personal, institutional and
corporate data better. The unprecedented advancements in
AI that already surprise us today are likely to accelerate
shortly, as companies increasingly invest in research and
development of AI pilot programs.
Colleges and research institutions play a crucial role
in adapting to the structural changes imposed by AI and
robotics technologies. Historically, our education systems
are designed to foster area specialization. Not surprisingly,
AI has long been considered in the computer programming
and statistical learning realm. Despite its technicality, AI has
gained a broader meaning in the last two decades. Whittaker
J. of Data, Inf. and Manag. (2020) 2:67–74
et al. (2018) recommends that college AI programs must
also expand beyond science and engineering disciplines
in a way that humanities and social sciences are also
included. In this regard, colleges must take the lead in
bringing this interdisciplinary perspective to the field,
since the industry urgently needs social and technical
skills that can work in analytical teams composed of
experts from distinct disciplines harmoniously. Workplaces
have already changed: Cubicles have given way to
open spaces and relaxed social study environments, in
which workers with different expertise can work together,
exchange information, and produce creative ideas. Now, it
is time to change our mindsets and perspectives regarding
AI, automation, and robotics, starting with academic
curriculum, education, and research.
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