How To Use SPSS PDF

A Step-by-Step Guide
to Analysis and Interpretotion
Brian C. Cronk
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Notice
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r s B N l -8 8 4 s8 5 -79 -5
Tableof Contents
Introduction
to theFifth Edition v
What'sNew?
v
Audience v
Organization v
SPSSVersions vi
Availabilityof SPSS
vi
Conventions vi
Screenshots vi
PracticeExercises
vii
Acknowledgments'/
vii
ChapterI GettingStarted I
Ll StartingSPSS I
t.2 EnteringData I
1.3 DefiningVariables 2
1.4 LoadingandSavingDataFiles 5
1.5 RunningYour FirstAnalysis 6
1.6 ExaminingandPrintingOutputFiles
1.7 Modi$ing DataFiles 8
Chapter2 EnteringandModifyingData ll
2.1 VariablesandDataRepresentation ll
') ') Transformation
andSelection
of Data t2
Chapter3 Descriptive
Statistics l7
3.1 Frequency andpercentileRanksfor a singlevariable
Distributions t7
3.2 Frequency andpercentileRanksfor Multille variables
Distributions 20
3.3 Measuresof CentralTendencyandMeasuresof Dispersion
for a SingleGroup 2l
3.4 Measures of CentralTendency
andMeasures of Dispersion
for MultipleGroups 24
3.5 StandardScores )7
Chapter4 GraphingData 29
4.1 GraphingBasics 29
4.2 TheNew SPSSChartBuilder 29
4.3 Bar Charts,Pie Charts,andHistograms 3l
4.4 Scatterplots 33
4.5 AdvancedBarCharts 36
4.6 EditingSPSSGraphs 39
Chapter5 Predictionand Association 4l
5.1 PearsonCorrelation Coeffi cient 4l
5.2 SpearmanCorrelation Coeffi cient 43
5.3 Simple Linear Regression 45
5.4 Multiple Linear Regression 49
u,
Chapter6 Parametric
InferentialStatistics 53
6.1 Reviewof BasicHypothesis Testing 53
6.2 Single-Sample t Test ))
6.3 Independent-Samples I Test 58
6.4 Paired-Samples t Test 6l
6.5 One-WayANOVA 65
6.6 FactorialANOVA 69
6.7 Repeated-Measures ANOVA 72
6.8 Mixed-Design ANOVA 75
6.9 Analysisof Covariance 79
6.10 MultivariateAnalysisof Variance(MANOVA) 8l
Chapter7 Nonparametric
InferentialStatistics 85
7.1 Chi-SquareGoodness of Fit 85
7.2 Chi-SquareTestof Independence 87
7.3 Mann-Whitney UTest .90
7.4 WilcoxonTest 93
7.5 Kruskal-Wallis,F/Test 95
7.6 FriedmanTest 97
Chapter8 TestConstruction 99
8.1 Item-TotalAnalysis 99
8.2 Cronbach'sAlpha 100
8.3 Test-RetestReliability l0l
8.4 Criterion-Related
Validiw t02
AppendixA Effect Size 103
AppendixB PracticeExerciseDataSets r 09
PracticeDataSet I 109
PracticeDataSet2 ll0
PracticeDataSet3 ll0
AppendixC Glossary lt3
AppendixD SampleDataFilesUsedin Text tt7

COINS.sav n7
GRADES.sav l l7
HEIGHT.sav l l7
QUESTIONS.sav n7
RACE.sav l18
SAMPLE.sav l18
SAT.sav lt8
OtherFiles lt8
AppendixE Informationfor Usersof EarlierVersionsof SPSS l19
AppendixF GraphingDatawith SPSS13.0and 14.0 t2l
tv
ChapterI
GettingStarted
Section1.1 StartingSPSS
Startup proceduresfor SPSS will differ
slightly, dependingon the exact configurationof
the machine on which it is installed.On most
ffi$ t't**** computers,you can start SPSS by clicking on
c rrnoitllttt
ffi Start, then clicking on Programs, then on SPSS.
(- lhoari{irgqrory
On many installations,there will be an SPSSicon
r,Crcrt*rsrcq.,y urhgDd.b6.Wbrd on the desktopthat you can double-click to start
(i lpanrnaridirgdataura the program.
When SPSS is started,you may be pre-
sentedwith the dialog box to the left, depending
on the optionsyour systemadministratorselected
for your version of the program. If you have the
dialog box, click Type in data and OK, which
will presenta blank data window.'
If you were not presentedwith the dialog
box to the left, SPSSshould open automatically
with a blank data window.
f- Dml*ro* fe tf*E h lholifrra
The data window and the output win-
dow provide the basic interface for SPSS. A
blank data window is shownbelow.
Section1.2 EnteringData
One of the keys to success
with SPSSis knowing how it stores
.:g H*n-g:fH"gxr__}rry".**
r! *9*_r1_*9lt
and uses your data. To illustrate the rtlxlel&l *'.1
rtl ale| lgj'Slfil Hl*lml sl el*l I
basics of data entry with SPSS,we
will useExample1.2.1.
Example 1.2.1
A surveywas given to several
students from four different
classes (Tues/Thurs mom-
ings, Tues/Thurs afternoons,
Mon/Wed/Fri mornings, and
Mon/Wed/Fri afternoons).
The students were asked
' Items that appearin the glossaryare presentedin bold. Italics areusedto indicatemenu items.
ChapterI GeningStarted
whether or not they were "morning people" and whether or not they worked. This
survey also asked for their final grade in the class (100% being the highest gade
possible).The responsesheetsfrom two studentsarepresentedbelow:
Response SheetI
ID: 4593
Dayof class: MWF X TTh
Classtime: Morning X Aftemoon
Are you a morningperson? Yes X No
Finalgradein class: 8s%
Do youwork outsideschool? Full-time Part{ime
XNo
ResponseSheet2
ID: l90l
Dayof class: x MwF _ TTh
Classtime: X Morning - Afternoon
Are you a morningperson? X Yes - No
Finalgradein class: 83%
Do vou work outsideschool? Full-time X Part-time
No
Our goal is to enterthe data from the two studentsinto SPSSfor use in future
analyses. The first stepis to determinethe variablesthatneedto be entered.Any informa-
tion that can vary amongparticipantsis a variablethat needsto be considered. Example
1.2.2liststhevariables we will use.
Example1.2.2
ID
Dayof class
Classtime
Morningperson
Finalgrade
Whetheror not the studentworksoutsideschool
In the SPSSdata window,columnsrepresent variablesandrowsrepresentpartici-
pants.Therefore,we will be creatinga datafile with six columns(variables)
andtwo rows
(students/participants).
Section1.3 Defining Variables

Beforewe can enterany data,we must first entersomebasicinformationabout
variablesmustfirst be givennamesthat:
eachvariableinto SPSS.For instance,
o beginwith a letter;
o do not containa space.
Chapter I Getting Started
Thus, the variable name "Q7" is acceptable,while the variable name "7Q" is not.
Similarly, the variable name "PRE_TEST" is acceptable, but the variable name
"PRE TEST" is not. Capitalizationdoes not matter, but variable namesare capitalizedin
this text to make it clear when we are referring to a variable name, even if the variable
name is not necessarilycapitalizedin screenshots.
To define a variable.click on the Variable View tab at
thebottomofthema inscre e n .Th is wills h o wy o u t h e V a ri-@
able View window. To return to the Data View window. click
on the Data View tab.
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elrl
.lt-*l*lr"$,c"x.l
From the Variable View screen,SPSSallows you to createand edit all of the vari-
ables in your data file. Each column representssome property of a variable, and each row
representsa variable. All variablesmust be given a name. To do that, click on the first
empty cell in the Name column and type a valid SPSSvariable name. The program will
then fill in default valuesfor most of the other properties.
One usefulfunctionof SPSSis the ability to definevariableand value labels.Vari-
able labels allow you to associatea descriptionwith each variable.Thesedescriptionscan
describethe variablesthemselvesor the valuesof the variables.
Value labelsallow you to associatea descriptionwith eachvalue of a variable.For
example,for most procedures,SPSSrequiresnumerical values.Thus, for data such as the
day of the class (i.e., Mon/Wed/Fri and Tues/Thurs),we need to first code the values as
numbers.We can assignthe number I to Mon/Wed/Friand the number2to Tues/Thurs.
To help us keep track of the numberswe have assignedto the values,we use value labels.
To assignvalue labels,click in the cell you want to assignvaluesto in the Values
column. This will bring up a small gray button (seeanow, below at left). Click on that but-
ton to bring up the Value Labelsdialog box.
When you enter a iv*rl** ---
v& 12 -Jil
value label, you must click L.b.f ll6rhl| s*l
Add after eachentry. This will !!+ |
J::::*.-,.Tl mOVe the value and itS
associated label into the bottom section of
the window. When all labels have been
added, click OK to return to the Variable
View window.
ChapterI Gening Starred
In additionto namingand labelingthe variable,you havethe option of definingthe

variabletype. To do so, simply click on the Type, Width,or Decimals columns in the Vari-
able View window. The default value is a numeric field that is eight digits wide with two
decimalplacesdisplayed.If your dataare more than eight digits to the left of the decimal
place,they will be displayedin scientificnotation(e.g.,the number2,000,000,000 will be
displayedas 2.00E+09).'SPSSmaintainsaccuracybeyondtwo decimalplaces,but all out-
put will be roundedto two decimal placesunlessotherwiseindicatedin the Decimals col-
umn.
In our example,we will be usingnumericvariableswith all of the defaultvalues.
Practice Exercise
Createa data file for the six variablesand two samplestudentspresentedin Exam-
ple 1.2.1.Name your variables:ID, DAY, TIME, MORNING, GRADE, and WORK. You
should code DAY as I : Mon/Wed/Fri,2 = Tues/Thurs.Code TIME as I : morning, 2 :
afternoon.CodeMORNING as 0 = No, I : Yes. Code WORK as 0: No, I : Part-Time,2
: Full-Time. Be sure you enter value labels for the different variables.Note that because
value labelsare not appropriatefor ID and GRADE, theseare not coded.When done,your
Variable View window should look like the screenshotbelow:
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r9"o'ldq${:ilpt"?- "*- .? --
{!,_q,
ru.g
Click on the Data View tab to open the data-entryscreen.Enter data horizontally,
beginningwith the first student'sID number.Enter the code for eachvariable in the appro-
priate column; to enterthe GRADE variablevalue,enterthe student'sclassgrade.
F.E*UaUar Qgtr Irrddn An hna gnphr Ufrrs Hhdow E*

*lgl dJl blbl
slglglqjglej ulFId't
Al 'r i-l-Etetmt
lr*lEl&lr6lgl
ot olrt'
otttr
2
Dependingupon your versionof SPSS,it may be displayedas 2.08 + 009.
Thepreviousdata window canbe changedto look insteadlike the screenshot

- be-
l*.bv clickingon the ValueLabelsicon(seeanow).In this case,the cellsdisplayvalue
labelsratherthanthe corresponding codes.If datais enteredin this mode,it is not neces-
saryto entercodes,asclickingthebuttonwhichappearsin eachcell asthe
cell is selected
will presenta drop-downlist of thepredefined lablis. You may useeithermethod,accord-
ing to yourpreference.
: [[o|vrwl vrkQ!9try /
)1
*rn*to*u*J----.--
Instead of clicking the Value Labels icon, you may tu
l{il Ddr lrm#m Anrfrrr Cr6l! ,t
,t1
optionallytogglebetweenviews by clicking valueLaiels under r
the Viewmenu. ti
il
'i. I
r lii
Section1.4 Loading and SavingData Files
|:
Onceyou haveenteredyour data,you will need
to saveit with a uniquenamefor later useso that you
canretrieveit whennecessary.
Loadingand savingSpSSdatafiles worksin the
sameway as most Windows-based software.Underthe
File menu, there are Open, Save, and Save As
commands.SPSSdata files have a .,.sav" extension.
which is addedby defaultto the end of the filename.
ThistellsWindowsthatthefile is anSpSSdatafile.
H-
Save Your Data
When you save your data file (by clicking File, then clicking Save
or SaveAs to
specify a unique name),pay specialattentionto where you saveit. trrtist
systemsdefault to
the.location<c:\programfiles\spss>.You will probably want to
saveyour data on a floppy
disk, cD-R, or removableUSB drive so that you can taie the file withvou.
Load YourData
When you load your data (by clicking File, then
clicking Open, thenData, or by clicking the open file folder
icon), you get a similar window. This window lists all files
with the ".sav" extension.If you have trouble locating your
D{l lriifqffi
saved file, make sure you are
looking in the right directory.
Practice Exercise
To be surethat you havemasteredsav-
ing and openingdata files, nameyour sample FilE Edt $ew Data Transform Annhze @al
datafile "SAMPLE" andsaveit to a removable
storagemedium. Once it is saved,SPSSwill display the name of the file at the top of the
data window. It is wise to save your work frequently,in caseof computer crashes.Note
that filenamesmay be upper- or lowercase.In this text, uppercaseis usedfor clarity.
After you have saved your data, exit SPSS (by clicking File, then Exit). Restart
SPSSand load your databy selectingthe "SAMPLE.sav"file you just created.
Section1.5 RunningYour First Analysis

Any time you open a data window, you can mn any of the analysesavailable.To
get started,we will calculatethe students'averagegrade.(With only two students,you can
easily checkyour answerby hand,but imaginea data file with 10,000studentrecords.)
The majority of the available statistical tests are under the Analyze menu. This
menu displaysall the optionsavailablefor your versionof the SPSSprogram (the menusin
this book were createdwith SPSSStudentVersion 15.0).Otherversionsmay haveslightly
different setsof options.
j rttrtJJ
I nnafzc Gretrs UUtias gdFrdov*Help
File Edlt Vbw Data Transform
r ktlml lff al
El tlorl rl(llnl
Cottpsr Milns ) ol
lVisible:6
GanoralHnnarf&dd ) i Eipbrc,,.
Corr*lrtr ,) CrogstSr,..
't901.00 Re$$r$on ) Rdio,.,
Classfy ir l. P-Pflok,.,
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Scab )
Norparimetrlclcrtt l
Tirna5arl6t )
Q.rlty Corfrd )
, I tj\g*r*qgudrr,*ts"uss-Rff(trve,.,
To calculatea mean (average),we are asking the computerto summarizeour data

set. Therefore,we run the commandby clicking Analyze, then Descriptive Statistics,then
Descriptives.
This brings up the Descriptives dialog
box. Note that the left side of the box containsa OAY
list of all the variablesin our data file. On the right
.Sr ql
is an area labeled Variable(s), where we can 3s,l
specifythe variableswe would like to use in this
particularanalysis. f- 9mloddrov*p*vri*lq A*r*.. I
We want to compute the mean for the l:rt.Ij
variable called GRADE. Thus, we need to select in

the variable name in the left window (by clicking
on it). To transfer it to the right window, click on ;F* |
-t:g.J
m
the right arrow between the two windows. The
arrow always points to the window opposite the f- Smdadr{rdvdarvai& -!tJ
highlighted item and can be used to transfer PR:l
selectedvariablesin either direction.Note that double-clickingon the variable name will
also transfer the variable to the opposite window. Standard Windows conventions of
"Shift" clicking or "Ctrl" clicking to selectmultiplevariablescan be usedas well.
When we click on the OK button, the analysiswill be conducted,and we will be
readyto examineour output.
Section1.6 Examiningand PrintingOutput Files

After an analysis is performed, the output is
placed in the output window, and the output window
becomesthe active window. If this is the first analysis
you have conducted since starting SPSS, then a new
output window will be created.If you have run previous analyses
and savedthem,your
outputis addedto theendof yourpreviousoutput.
To switchbackandforthbetweenthedata window andtheoutput window,select
thedesiredwindowfrom the Windowmenubar(seearrow,below).
The output window is split into two sections.
The left sectionis an outlineof the
output(SPSS refersto this asthe "outlineview").Theright sectionis theoutputitself.
I -d * lnl-Xj
irllliliirrillliirrr
H. Ee lbw A*t lra'dorm Craphr ,Ufr!3 Uhdo'N Udp
-qg*g!r*!e!|ro_
slsl*gl elsl*letssJ
sl#_#rl o
+ l *l + l - l &hj l :l ql el ,
ornt * Descrlptlves
El Pccc**tvs*
r'fi Trb
6r** f]aiagarll l: \ lrrs datc\ra&ple.lav
lS Adi\€D*ard
ffi Dcscrtfhcsdkdics
lle*crhlurr Sl.*liilca
N Mlnlmum Hadmum Xsrn Std. Dwiation

ufinuc I 83.00 85.00 81,0000 1.41421
valldN (|lstrylsa) 2
ffiffi?iffi rr---*.* r*4

The sectionon the left of the output window provides an outline of the entire out-
put window. All of the analysesare listed in the order in which they were conducted.Note
that this outline can be used to quickly locate a sectionof the output. Simply click on the
sectionyou would like to see,and the right window will jump to the appropriateplace.
Clicking on a statisticalprocedurealso selectsall of the output for that command.

By pressingtheDeletekey, that outputcan be deletedfrom the output window. This is a
quick way to be sure that the output window containsonly the desiredoutput. Output can
also be selectedand pastedinto a word processorby clicking Edit, then Copy Objecls to
copy the output.You can then switch to your word processorand click Edit, thenPaste.
To print your output, simply click File, then Print, or click on the printer icon on
the toolbar. You will have the option of printing all of your output or just the currently se-
lected section. Be careful when printing! Each time you mn a command, the output is
addedto the end of your previous output. Thus, you could be printing a very large output
file containinginformation you may not want or need.
One way to ensurethat your output window containsonly the resultsof the current
commandis to createa new output window just before running the command.To do this,
click File, then New, then Outpul. All your subsequentcommandswill go into your new
output window.
Practice Exercise
Load the sampledata file you createdearlier (SAMPLE.sav). Run the Descriptives
command for the variable GRADE and print the output. Your output should look like the
exampleon page7. Next, selectthe data window and print it.
Section1.7 ModifyingData Files

Once you have createda data file, it is really quite simple to add additional cases
(rows/participants)
or additionalvariables(columns).ConsiderExample1.7.1.
Example1.7.1
Two morestudents
provideyou with surveys.
Theirinformationis:
ResponseSheet3
ID: 8734
Day of class: MWF X TTh
Classtime: Morning Afternoon
Are you a morningperson? Yes XNo
Final gradein class: 80%
Do you work outsideschool? Full-time Part-time
No
ResponseSheet4
ID: 1909
Day of class: X MWF TTH
Classtime: X Morning Afternoon
Are you a morning person? X Yes No
Final gradein class: 73%
Do you work outsideschool? Full+ime X Part-time
No
To add thesedata, simply place two additionalrows in the Data View window (af-
ter loading your sampledata).Notice that as new participantsare added,the row numbers
becomebold. when done,the screenshouldlook like the screenshothere.
j .l lrrl vl
'..,
nh E*__$*'_P$f_I'Sgr &1{1zc Omhr t$*ues $ilndonHug_
Tffiffi
ID DAY TIME MORNING GRADE WORK var \^
1 4593.00 Tueffhu aternoon No 85.00 No
2 1gnl.B0MonMed/ m0rnrng Yes 83.00 Part-Time
3 8734.00 Tue/Thu mornrng No 80,00 No
1909.00MonAfVed/ mornrng Yeg 73.00 Part-Time
)
. mfuUiewffi rb$ Vbw / l{ l

-
rll
-,,,---Jd*
I
Procus*rlsready '.-
15P55 I i ,4
New variables can also be added.For example, if the first two participantswere
given specialtraining on time management,and the two new participantswere not, the data
file can be changedto reflect this additionalinformation.The new variable could be called
TRAINING (whether or not the participant receivedtraining), and it would be coded so
that 0 : No and I : Yes. Thus, the first two participantswould be assigneda "1" and the
Iast two participantsa "0." To do this, switch to the Variable View window, then add the
TRAINING variable to the bottom of the list. Then switch back to the Data View window
to updatethe data.
f+rilf,t - tt Inl vl
Sa E& Uew Qpta lransform &rpFzc gaphs Lffitcs t/itFdd^,SE__--
14:TRAINING l0 i of
lvGbt€r
t0 NAY TIME MORNING GRADE woRK I mruruwe 1r
1 4593.0f1 Tueffhu aterncon No 85.0u No l Yes
I 1901.OCIManA/Ved/ m0rnrng Yes ffi.0n iiart?mel- yes
3 8734"00 Tueffhu momtng No 80.n0 Noi No
4 1909.00M onrlVed/ morning Yes 73.00 Part-TimeI No '
s
I
(l) .r View { Vari$c Vlew
. l-.1 =J " rll'l
isPssW ,i
Adding data and adding variablesare just logical extensionsof the procedureswe
used to originally createthe data file. Save this new data file. We will be using it again
later in the book.
Practice Exercise
Follow the exampleabove(whereTRAINING is the new variable).Make the
modifications
to your SAMPLE.savdatafile andsaveit.
l0
Chapter2
EnteringandModifying Data
In Chapter 1, we learnedhow to createa simple data file, save it, perform a basic
analysis,and examine the output. In this section,we will go into more detail about vari-
ablesand data.
Section2.1 Variablesand DataRepresentation

In SPSS,variablesare representedas columns in the data file. Participantsare rep-
resentedas rows. Thus, if we collect 4 piecesof information from 100 participants,we will
have a data file with 4 columnsand 100 rows.
Measurement Scales
There are four types of measurementscales:nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
While the measurementscalewill determinewhich statisticaltechniqueis appropriatefor a
given set of data, SPSSgenerally does not discriminate.Thus, we start this section with
this warning: If you ask it to, SPSSmay conduct an analysis that is not appropriatefor
your data.For a more completedescriptionof thesefour measurementscales,consultyour
statisticstext or the glossaryin Appendix C.
Newer versionsof SPSS allow you to indicate which types of
data you have when you define your variable. You do this using the Measure
Measurecolumn. You can indicateNominal, Ordinal, or Scale(SPSS @Nv
doesnot distinguishbetweeninterval and ratio scales). f $cale
.sriltr
Look at the sampledata file we createdin Chapter l. We calcu-
lated a mean for the variable GRADE. GRADE was measuredon a ra- r Nominal
tio scale,andthe mean is an acceptablesummarystatistic(assumingthat the distribution
is normal).
We could have had SPSScalculatea mean for the variableTIME insteadof
GRADE.If we did, we wouldgettheoutputpresented here.
The outputindicatesthat the averageTIME was 1.25.Rememberthat TIME was
coded as an ordinal variable ( I =
m or ni ngcla ss,2-a fte rnoon
trlllql eilr $l-g
class).Thus, the mean is not an *lq]eH"N-ql*l
appropriatestatisticfor an ordinal :* Sl astts
.l.:D
scale,but SPSScalculatedit any- gtb
:$sh
way. The importance of consider- .6M6.ffi
$arlrba"t S#(|
ing the type of data cannot be
LS 2.qg Lt@
overemphasized. Just because ht6x0tMn a
SPSS will compute a statistic for

you doesnot mean that you should
ll
Chapter2 Enteringand Modifying Data
use it. Later in the text, when specificstatisticalproceduresare discussed,the conditions

underwhich they are appropriatewill be addressed.
Missing Data
Often, participantsdo not provide completedata.For some students,you may have
a pretestscore but not a posttestscore.Perhapsone studentleft one question blank on a
survey,or perhapsshe did not stateher age.Missing data can weakenany analysis.Often,
a singlemissingquestioncan eliminatea sub-
ql total ject from all analyses.
If you have missing data in your data
2.00 2.Bn 4.00 set, leave that cell blank. In the example to
3.00 1.0 0 4.00 the left, the fourth subject did not complete
Question2. Note that the total score(which is
4.00 3.00 7.00 calculatedfrom both questions)is also blank
becauseof the missing data for Question 2.
2.00 SPSS representsmissing data in the data
1 .0 0 2.UB 3.00 window with a period (althoughyou should
not enter a period-just leave it blank).
Section2.2 Transformationand Selectionof Data

We oftenhavemoredatain a datafile thanwe wantto includein a specificanaly-
sis.For example,our sampledatafile containsdatafrom four participants,two of whom
receivedspecialtrainingand two of whom did not. If we wantedto conductan analysis
usingonly the two participants
who did not receivethe training,we wouldneedto specify
theappropriate subset.
Selectinga Subset
We can use the SelectCasescommandto specify
F|! Ed vl6{ , O*. lr{lrfum An*/& e+hr (
a subset of our data. The Select Cases command is
t'llitl&JE O*fFV{ldrr PrS!tU6.,.
CoptO.tafropc,tir3,.. located under the Data menu. When you select this
il :id l,j.l,/r,:irrlrr! lif l ll:L*s,,.
command,the dialog box below will appear.
Hh.o*rr,.,
Dsfti fi*blc Rc*pon$5ct5,,,
q*d-:-"-- "-"""-*--*--**-""*-^*l
6 Alce
a llgdinlctidod
,r l
ConyD*S r irCmu*dcaa ]
i*np* | i:
{^ lccdotincoarrpr
sd.rt Csat
;.,* |
-:--J
c llaffrvci*lc
You can specify which cases(partici-

pants) you want to select by using the selec- l0&t
tion criteria, which appearon the right side of

the SelectCasesdialog box.
C6ttSldrDonoan!.ffi
foKl aar I c-"rl x* |
t2
By default,All caseswill be selected.The most common way to selecta subsetis

to click If condition is satisfied, then click on the button labeledfi This will bring up a
new dialog box that allowsyou to indicatewhich casesyou would like to use.
You can enter the logic
used to select the subset in the
upper section. If the logical
statement is true for a given
case, then that case will be U;J;J:.1-glL1 E{''di',*tI
selected.If the logical statement , 'J-e.l-,'JlJ.!J-El[aasi"-Eo,t----i
is false. that case will not be
,Jl _!JlJ
ilqex4q lffiIl,?,l*;*"'=
0 U IAFTAN(r"nasl
selected.For example, you can sl"J=tx
select all casesthat were coded -s*t"lBi!?Blt1trb :r
as Mon/Wed/Fri by entering the ?Ais"I c'-t I Ht I
formula DAY = I in the upper-
right part of the window. If DAY is l, thenthe statementwill be true,and SPSSwill select
the case.If DAY is anything other than l, the statementwill be false, and the casewill not
be selected.Once you have enteredthe logical statement,click Continue to return to the 1
,
I
SelectCasesdialog box. Then,click OK to returnto the data window. I

After you have selectedthe cases,the data window will changeslightly. I
l
The casesthat were not selectedwill be markedwith a diagonalline through the i{
casenumber. For example,for our sampledata, the first and third casesare not 1
,1
selected.only the secondand fourth casesare selectedfor this subset. 'l
,.,:r. 1
EffEN'EEEgl''EEE'o rt lnl vl I
!k_l** 1
:
-#gdd.i.&l t
Flib'- 'l
ID TIME
MORNING ERADE WORK TRAINING 1
/,-< 4533.m Tueffhui affsrnoon No ffi.m Na Yes Not Selected
'l
2- 1901.m MpnMed/i mornino

. -..- ^,-.-.*.*..,--
Yss 83,U1Fad-Jime Yes
J.- . - .-..,..".*-....- ': Splacled
-'4 4 *- 6h4lto TuElThu . morning No m.m No No Not Selected
ieifrfft MonA/Ved/1morning Yes ru.mPart-Time No
s
!LJ\ii. vbryJv,itayss 7 I . *-JI *] ,1,
fsPssProcaesaFrcady i
An additional variable will also be createdin your data file. The new variable is
called FILTER_$ and indicateswhethera casewas selectedor not.
If we calculatea mean
DescripthreStailstics
GRADE using the subset we
just selected,we will receive std.
N Minimum Maximum M e a n Deviation
the output at right. Notice that UKAUE 2 73.00 83.00 78.0000 7 . 0 7 1 1
we now have a mean of 78.00 Va lid N
IliclwisP'l 2
with a samplesize (M) of 2 in-
steadof 4.
l3
Be careful when you selectsubsets.The subsetremains in ffict until you run the
commandagain and selectall cases.You can tell if you have a subsetselectedbecausethe
bottom of the data window will indicatethat a filter is on. In addition, when you examine
your output, N will be less than the total number of recordsin your data set if a subsetis
selected.The diagonal lines through some caseswill also be evident when a subsetis se-
lected.Be careful not to saveyour data file with a subsetselected,as this can causeconsid-
erableconfusionlater.
Computing a New Variable

SPSScan also be used
to compute a new variable or nh E* vir$, D.tr T|{dorm
manipulateyour existing vari-
ables. To illustrate this, we
*lslel EJ-rlrj -lgltj{l -|tlf,l a*intt m eltj I
will create a new data file.
This file will contain data for
four participants and three
variables (Ql, Q2, and Q3).
The variables represent the
number of points each l* ,---- LHJ
participant received on three {#i#ffirtr!;errtt*;
different questions.Now enter
the data shown on the screen to the right. When done, save this data file as
"QUESTIONS.sav."We will be usingit againin laterchapters.
Now you will calculatethe total score for

I TrnnsformAnalyze Graphs Utilities Whds
eachsubject.We could do this manually,but if the
data file were large, or if there were a lot of
questions,this would take a long time. It is more
Rersdeinto5ameVariable*,,, efficient (and more accurate) to have SPSS
Racodo intoDffferant
Varlables.
,, compute the totals for you. To do this, click
Ar*omSicRarode,,.
Transform and then click Compute Variable.
Vlsual
8inrfrg,..
After clicking the Compute Variable

rrw I i+t*...
command, we get the dialog box at , *l
gl
right. w
ca
U $J-:iidijl
The blank field marked Target lij -!CJ:l Jslcl lllmr*dCof
ll;s rtg-sJ 0rr/ti*
Variable is where we enter the name rt rt rl ,_g-.|J &fntndi)
Oldio.
of the new variable we want to create. :3 lll--g'L'"J til E${t iil
:J
In this example, we are creating a
variable called TOTAL, so type the
word "total."
Notice that there is an equals
sign between the Target Variable
, rr | {q*orfmsrccucrsdqf
blank and the Numeric Expression
blank. These two blank areas are the n* ri c* rl
"*l
l4
iii:Hffiliji:.: two sides of an equation that SPSS

will calculate.For example,total : ql
+ q2 + q3 is the equation that is
. i . i> t ii"alCt entered in the sample presentedhere
i-Jr:J::i i-3J:J (screenshot at left). Note that it is pos-
l:j -:15 JJJI sible to create any equation here
tJ -tJ-il --q-|J
is:Jlll m
simply by using the number and
--q*J
operational keypad at the bottom of
the dialog box. When we click OK,
SPSSwill createa new variablecalled
TOTAL and make it equalto the sum
J- l
of the threequestions.
|f- - | ldindm.!&dioncqdinl
Save your data file again so
tsil nact I c:nt I x* | that the new variablewill be available
for future sessions.
t::,, - ltrl-Xl
Eile gdit SEw Qata lransform $nalyza 9aphs [tilities Add'gns Sindow Help
3.n0 3.0n 4,n0 10.00

4.00
31..........;.
2.oo l 2.oo
41 1.0 0 1 3 0 01
.:1 l-'r
--i-----i
I il I i
, l, l\qg,t_y!"*_i Variabte
ViewJ lit r ljl
W*;
Recodinga Variable-Dffirent Variable
SPSS can create a new
variable based upon data from F{| [dt !la{ Data j Trrx&tm Analrra
another variable. Say we want to ,-.lu l,rll r-al +. vdiouc','
conp$o
---.:1.- Cd.nVail'r*dnCasas.,,
split our participantson the basisof l{
rr 'r tr- l
I
I
-- -
o ..* * ^ c- - u - r - c
their total score.We want to create

Art(tn*Rrcodr...
a variablecalled GROUP, which is 4.00 U*dFhn|ro,,.
coded I if the total score is low 2.00
(lessthan or equal to 8) or 2 if the i.m
S*a *rd llm tllhsd,,,
total score is high (9 or larger). To Oc!t6 I}F sairs..,
Rid&c l4sitE V*s.,.
do this, we click Transform, then Racodrlrto 0ffrror* Yal Rrdon iMbar G.rs*trr,,.
Recodeinto Dffirent Variables.
l5
Ch a p te 2
r En te ri n ga n d Mo d i fy i n gD ata
This will bring up the

Recode into Different Variables
dialog box shown here. Transfer til
the variable TOTAL to the middle
blank. Type "group" in the Name
field under Output Variable.Click
Change,and the middle blank will
show that TOTAL is becoming ladtnl c€ rlccdm confbil
GROUP.as shownbelow. I rygJ**l-H+ |

-'tt"
NtnHbvli|bL-lo|rnrV*#r
To help keep track of variablesthat have

been recoded, it's a good idea to open the
Variable View and enter "Recoded" in the Label rr&*ri*i*t
t *.!*lr
column in the TOTAL row. This is especially ;rln I r-":-'-'1**

useful with large datasets which may include i T - lirli
many recodedvariables. I r nryrOr:frr**"L

,f-
Click Old andNew Values.This will bring i c nq.,saa*ld6lefl;
F-
up the Recodedialog box. In this example,we
have entered a 9 in the Range, value through
HIGHEST field and a 2 in the Value field under
New Value.When we click Add, the blank on the ,.F--*-_-_-_____
right displaysthe recodingformula. Now enter an :I "a *r***o
lrt*cn*r
8 on the left in the Range, LOWEST through rT..".''..."...-

I I nni.
value blank and a I in the Value field under New I ir:L-_-

t'
Value. Click Add, then Continue.Click OK. You l6; F i4i'|(tthah*
-
will be redirectedto the data window. A new I " n *'L,*l'||.r.$, T &lrYdd.r*t li--
: r----**-: i " r, . ! * r h ^ . , " , r y..,t l a ri r, r it : . ' I
variable (GROUP) will have been added and ; r {:ei.* gf-ll

'-
$q I '*J
codedas I or 2, basedon TOTAL.
*u"'." -ltrlIl
Flc Ed Yl.ly Drt! Tr{lform ce|6.,||tf^,!!!ry
{*!c I+
l6
Chapter3
DescriptiveStatistics
manyof the optionsavailablein SPSSfor dealingwith
ln Chapter2, we discussed
data.Now we will discusswaysto summarize our data.The proceduresusedto describe
andsummarizedataarecalleddescriptivestatistics.
Section3.1 FrequencyDistributions and PercentileRanks

for a SingleVariable
Description
The Frequencies commandproducesfrequencydistributionsfor the specifiedvari-
ables.The outputincludesthe numberof occurrences, percentages,
valid percentages,
and
cumulativepercentages. The valid percentages and the cumulativepercentagescomprise
only thedatathatarenot designated asmissing.
TheFrequencies commandis usefulfor describingsampleswherethe meanis not
useful(e.g.,nominalor ordinal scales). It is alsousefulasa methodof gettingthefeelof
your data.It providesmoreinformationthanjust a meanandstandarddeviationandcan
be usefulin determiningskewandidentifyingoutliers.A specialfeatureof the command
percentileranks.
is its abilityto determine
Assumptions
Cumulativepercentages and percentilesare valid only for datathat are measured
on at leastan ordinal scale.Becausethe outputcontainsoneline for eachvalueof a vari-
able,thiscommandworksbeston variableswith a relativelysmallnumberof values.
Drawing Conclusions
TheFrequencies commandproduces outputthatindicatesboththenumberof cases
in the sampleof a particularvalueandthe percentage of caseswith that value.Thus,con-
clusionsdrawnshouldrelateonly to describingthe numbersor percentages of casesin the
regardingthe cumulativeper-
sample.If the dataareat leastordinalin nature,conclusions
centageand/orpercentilescanbe drawn.
.SPSSData Format
The SPSSdatafile for obtainingfrequencydistributions
requiresonly onevariable,
andthatvariablecanbeof anytype.
tt
C h a p te 3
r D e s c ri p ti v e
Sta ti s ti c s
Creating a Frequency Distribution

To run the Frequer?ciescommand,
click Analyze, then Descriptive Statistics,
slsl}sl &99rv
i:rl.&{l&l&l @
I
then Frequencies.(This example uses the i 1 r mpg i 18 cdrFrb'l{tirE } Disbtlvlr...
N
Erpbr,..
CARS.savdata file that comeswith SPSS. croac*a,..
It is typically located at <C:\Program Rrno,.,
F.Pt'lok,.,
Fi les\SPS S\Cars. sav>.) aaPUs,.,
This will bring up the main dialog r5117gl

box. Transfer the variable for which you
would like a frequencydistributioninto the
xl
Variable(s)blank to the right. Be surethat
the Display tables option is
MilesperGallonlm r q ! l checked.Clickfrequency
OK to receiveyour output.
/Erqlr,onispUcamr
/ Hurepowor[horc Note that the dialog boxes in
dv*,id"w"bir 1|ut jq? | newer versions of SPSS show both the
d t!rc toAceileistc
dr',Ccxr*yol Orbin[c .f"tq I type of variable(the icon immediatelyleft
. He_l of the variable name) and the variable
labels if they are entered. Thus, the
l7 Oisgayhequercytder
variable YEAR shows up in the dialog
sr**i,1..1
f*:.,. I rry*,:.
I box as Model Year(modulo I0).
Output for a Frequency Distribution

The output consistsof two sections.The first sectionindicatesthe numberof re-
cords with valid data for eachvariableselected.Recordswith a blank scoreare listedas
missing.In this example,the datafile contained406 records.Notice that the variablelabel
is ModelYear (modulo100).
The second section of the output contains a
statistics
cumulative frequency distribution for each variable
Wse lected.A tth e topof t h e s e c t io n , t h e v a ria b le la b e lis
* y.1"1 | oo?
| Missing | given. The output iiself consistsof five columns.The first
I I t I
Jolumnliststhi valuesof the variablein sortedorder.There
is a row for eachvalue of your variable, Modol Yo.r (modulo 100)
and additional rows are added at the Cumulativs
bottom for the Total and Missing data. vatE 34
Pcr ce n l
I 4
Valid P6rc€nl
I 4 E4
The secondcolumn gives the frequency 7.1 7.2 15.6
72 28 6.9 6.9 22.5
of eachvalue,includingmissingvalues. 73 40 9.9 9.9 32.3
The third columngivesthe percentage of 74 27 6.7 6.7 39.0
75 30 7.4 46.4
all records (including records with 76 34 8.4 8.4 54.8
77 28 6.9 61.7
missingdata) for eachvalue.The fourth 6.9
8.9 8.9 70.6
column, labeled Valid Percenl, gives the 79 29 7.1 f.2 77.8
80 29 7.1 7.2 84.9
percentage of records(without including 81 30 7.4 7.4 92.3
records with missing data) for each 82 31 7.6 7.7 | 00.0
Total 405 99.8 100 .0
value. If there were any missingvalues, Missing 0 (Missing) 1
these values would be larger than the Total 406 100.0
valuesin column threebecausethe total
r8
Chapter3 DescriptiveStatistics
numberof recordswould have beenreducedby the numberof recordswith missing values.

The final column gives cumulative percentages.Cumulative percentagesindicate the per-
centageof records with a score equal to or smaller than the current value. Thus, the last
value is always 100%. These values are equivalentto percentile ranks for the values
listed.
D eterm ining P ercenti Ie Ranl<s

:,,. The Frequencies command can be
used to provide a number of descriptive
Mla pa Galmlm3
Sfndr*Pi*rcsnr
tril statistics,as well as a variety of percentile
SHslsp{rierltuso
/v***v*$t*(ttu
YI values (including quartiles, cut points, and
/lino toaccrbrar
$1C**{ry o{Origr[c !rydI scorescorrespondingto a specificpercentile
|*"1 rank).
To obtain either the descriptiveor
lT Oirpbar
frcqlcreyttblce percentile functions of the Frequencies
frfix*... I command,click the Statisticsbutton at the
bottomof the main dialog box. Note that the
Central Tendencyand Dispersior sectionsof this box are useful for calculatingvalues,
suchas the Median or Mode. which cannotbe calculatedwith the Descriptiyescommand
(seeSection3.3).
xl
This brings up the Frequencies:
Statisticsdialog box. Check any additional
PscdibV.lrr c{q I
tr Ourilr3
I
desiredstatisticby clicking on the blank next F nrs**rtd!i* ,crnqo,p, i
*g"d I
Hdo I
to it. For percentiles, enter the desired
percentile rank in the blank to the right of
the Percentile(s)label. Then, click Add to add
it to the list of percentiles requested.Once f- Vdrixtgor0mi&ohlr
you have selectedall your requiredstatistics, Oi$.r$pn " 0idthfim'

l* SUaa** f Mi*n n t- ghsrurt
click Continue to return to the main dialog n v$*$i |- Hrrdilrtl
T Kutd*b
box. Click OK. I* nmgc l- S"E.mcur
Statistics Outputfor Percentile Ranl<s

ModelYear (modulo100 The Statistics dialog box adds on to the
N Vatid 405 previous output from the Frequenciescommand.The
Missing 1 new sectionof the output is shown at left.
Percentiles 25 73.00 The output containsa row for each piece of
50 76.00 information you requested.In the example above, we
75 79.00 checkedQuartiles and asked for the 80th percentile.
80 80.00 Thus, the output contains rows for the 25th, 50th.
75th,and 80th percentiles.
l9
Ch a p re ,1
r D e s c ri p tier S ta ti s ti cs
Practice Exercise
UsingPracticeDataSet I in AppendixB, createa frequencydistributiontablefor
the mathematicsskills scores.Determine
the mathematicsskills scoreat which the 60th
percentile
lies.
section 3.2 FrequencyDistributions and percentileRanks

for Multiple Variables
Description
The Crosslabscommandproducesfrequencydistributionsfor multiple variables.
The outputincludesthenumberof occurrences of eachcombinationof levelJof eachvari-
able.It is possibleto havethecommandgivepercentages for anyor all variables.
The Crosslabscommandis usefulfor describingsampleswherethe mean is not
useful(e'g.,nominalor ordinal scales).
It is alsousefulasa methodfor gettinga feelfor
your data.
Assumptions
Becausethe outputcontainsa row or columnfor eachvalue of a variable.this
command
worksbeston variables
with a relativelysmallnumberof values.
,SPSSData Format
The SPSS data file for the Crosstabs
lnalyzc Orphn Ut||Uot
commandrequirestwo or more variables.Those I
RcF*r )
variablescanbe of anytype.
(orprycrllcEnr )
Runningthe CrosstabsCommand G*ncral llrgar Flodcl )
,
This exampleusesthe SAMpLE.sav
data ;ilffi; )
file, which you createdin Chapter l. To run the chrfy )
procedure, ctick Analyze, then Descriptive DttaRcd.Etbn )
Statistics,then Crosstabs.This will bring up ttt. scah )
main Crosstabsdialog box, below.
The dialog box initially lists all vari-

Ror{.} T€K I
i, ables on the left and contains two blanks la-
r---r ftr;;ho.- '-l
l rJ I beled Row(s) and Column(s). Enter one vari-
.;lm&! ryq I able (TRAINING) in the Row(s) box. Enter the
second (WORK) in the Column(s) box. To
analyze more than two variables, you would
enter the third, fourth, etc., in the unlabeled
area(ust under theLayer indicator).
20
The Cells button allows you to specify W:

percentagesand other information to be generatedfor t C",ti* |
eachcombinationof values.Click Cells, and you will get t*"1
the box at right. ,"1
''Pd€rl.!p. -
For the example presented here, check Row, r-Bait*"
;F Bu : ,l- U]dadr&ad
Column, and Total percentages.Then click Continue. F corm if- sragatrd
This will return you to the Crosstabsdialog box. Click "1'"1- -_rry-ys___ .
OK to run the analvsis.
TRAINING'
WURKCross|nl)tilntlo|l
WORK
NO Parl-Time Tolal
TRAINING Yes Count I 1
% withinTRAININO 50.0% 50.0% 100.0% Interpreting Cros stabs Output
% withinwoRK 50. 0% 50.0% 50.0%
% ofTolal 25. 0% 25.0% 50.0% The output consistsof a
No Count 1 1 ? contingencytable. Each level of
% withinTRAINING 50.0% 50.0% 1000%
% withinWORK 50. 0% 50.0% 50.0%
WORK is given a column. Each
% ofTolal 25.0% 25.0% 50.0% level of TRAINING is given a
Total Count a
4 row. In addition, a row is added
% withinTRA|NtNo 50.0% 5 00 % r 00.0%
% wilhinWORK 100. 0% 100.0% 100.0%
for total, and a column is added
% ofTolal 50. 0% 50.0% 100.0% for total.
Each cell containsthe numberof participants(e.g.,one participantreceivedno

trainingand doesnot work; two participantsreceivedno training,regardlessof employ-
mentstatus).
The percentagesfor eachcell are also shown.Row percentages add up to 100%
horizontally.
Columnpercentages addup to 100%vertically.Forexample,of all the indi-
vidualswho had no training, 50ohdid not work and 50o%
workedpart-time(using the"o/o
within TRAINING" row). Of the individualswho did not work, 50o/ohad no trainingand
50%hadtraining(usingthe"o/owithin work" row).
Practice Exercise
Using PracticeData Set I in AppendixB, createa contingencytable using the
Crosstabscommand.Determinethe numberof participantsin eachcombinationof the
variablesSEX andMARITAL. Whatpercentage of participants
is married?Whatpercent-
ageof participants
is maleandmarried?
Section3.3 Measuresof Central Tendencyand Measuresof Dispersion

for a SingleGroup
Description
Measuresof centraltendencyare valuesthat representa typical memberof the
sampleor population.Thethreeprimarytypesarethemean,median,andmode.Measures
of dispersiontell you the variabilityof your scores.The primarytypesare the range and
the standarddeviation.Together,a measure of centraltendencyanda measureof disper-
sionprovidea greatdealof informationabouttheentiredataset.
2l
Chapter,l DescriptiveStatistics
We will discussthesemeasures of central iffi{ltl*::l'.,xl

tendencyand measuresof dispersionin the con- Fac*Vd*c-----:":'-'-"-" "-
lcer**r**nc*r1 !*{* |
text of the Descriplives command. Note that |7 Arruer f- rlm Cr* |
|* O*pai*furjF tqLteiotpr , f u"g.t -:.-i
many of these statisticscan also be calculated
F rac$*['* : T Modt
with several other commands (e.g., the r.-I 16- :-^
t5m
k'I
Frequenciesor Compare Means commandsare +l ':'I I
required to compute the mode or median-the l- Vdsm$apn&bcirr
Statisticsoption for the Frequenciescommandis i0hx*ioo*".'*-' oidrlatin -- --

lf Sld.dr',iitbnl* lli*nn r5tcffi:
shownhere). f.H**ntrn
]fV"iro ; f Kutu{b
l fnxrgo f.5.t.ncr i
Assumptions
Each measureof central tendencyand measureof dispersionhas different assump-
tions associatedwith it. The mean is the most powerful measureof centraltendency,and it
has the most assumptions.For example,to calculatea mean, the data must be measuredon
an interval or ratio scale.In addition,the distribution shouldbe normally distributedor, at
least,not highly skewed.The median requiresat leastordinal data.Becausethe median
indicatesonly the middle score (when scoresare arrangedin order), there are no assump-
tions about the shapeof the distribution.The mode is the weakestmeasureof central ten-
dency.There are no assumptionsfor the mode.
The standard deviation is the most powerful measureof dispersion,but it, too, has
severalrequirements.It is a mathematicaltransformationof the variance (the standard
deviation is the squareroot of the variance).Thus, if one is appropriate,the other is also.
The standard deviation requiresdata measuredon an interval or ratio scale.In addition,
the distribution should be normal. The range is the weakestmeasureof dispersion.To cal-
culatea range, the variablemust be at leastordinal. For nominal scale data,the entire
frequencydistribution shouldbe presentedas a measureof dispersion.
Drawing Conclusions
A measureof central tendencyshouldbe accompaniedby a measureof dispersion,
Thus, when reporting a mean, you should also report a standard deviation. When pre-
sentinga median, you shouldalso statethe range or interquartilerange.
.SPSSData Format
Only one variable is required.
22
Running the Command

The Descriptives command will be the lA-dy* ct.dn Ltffibc
command you will most likely use for obtaining
measuresof centraltendencyand measuresof disper-
sion. This example uses the SAMPLE.sav data file !
GonardtFra*!@ D
we have used in the previouschapters. ' cond*s )
. Rolrar*n )
: classfy )
: 0€tdRedrctitrt )
,t X
dlt qil To run the command, click Analyze,
da.v then Descriptive Statistics,then Descriptives.
d**
?n-"* n".d I This will bring up the main dialog box for the
?,r,qx
/t**ts cr*l I Descriptives command. Any variables you
f,"PI would like information about can be placed in
f S&r dr.d!r&!d Y*rcr ri vdi.bb I the right blank by double-clickingthem or by
opdqr"..
selectingthem, then clicking on the anow. ltl
{l
'!t
By default, you will receive the N (number of ,l
,l t
cases/participants),the minimum value, the maximum F Morr l- Slm r@t il
value, the mean, and the standard deviation. Note that qq..' I
F su aa**n F, Mi*ilm 'i
some of thesemay not be appropriatefor the type of data
f u"or- F7 Maiilrn ,|' ?bl I
I
you have selected. l- nrrcr :

I- S.r.npur
If you would like to changethe default statistics "i
that are given, click Options in the main dialog box. You I
will be given the Optionsdialog box presented here. * ",

I otlnyotdq: ;i
I {f V;i*hlC
I
I r lpr,*an
r
I *car*re mar ;
i r Dccemdnnmre
Reading the Output

The output for the Descriptivescommand is quite straightforward.Each type of
output requestedis presentedin a column, and eachvariable is given in a row. The output
presentedhere is for the sampledata file. It showsthat we have one variable (GRADE) and
that we obtainedthe N, minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation for this
variable.
DescriptiveStatistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation
graoe 4 73.00 85.00 80.2500 5.25198
ValidN (listwise) 4
23
Practice Exercise
Using PracticeData Set I in AppendixB, obtainthe descriptive statisticsfor the
ageof the participants.
What is the mean?The median?The mode?What is the standard
deviation?Minimum? Maximum?The range?
Section 3.4 Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of Dispersion

for Multiple Groups
Description
The measuresof centraltendencydiscussedearlierare often needednot only for
the entiredataset,but also for severalsubsets.One way to obtainthesevaluesfor subsets
would be to use the data-selection techniquesdiscussedin Chapter2 and apply the De-
scriptivescommandto each subset.An easierway to perform this task is to use the Means
command.The Means commandis designedto provide descriptive statisticsfor subsets
ofyour data.
Assumptions
The assumptionsdiscussedin the sectionon Measuresof Central Tendencyand
Measuresof Dispersionfor a SingleGroup(Section3.3) alsoapply to multiplegroups.
Drawing Conclusions
A measureof centraltendencyshouldbe accompanied by a measureof dispersion.
Thus,when giving a mean, you shouldalsoreporta standard deviation. When presenting
a median,you shouldalsostatethe range or interquartilerange.
SPSSData Format
Two variablesin the SPSSdata file are required.One representsthe dependent
variable and will be the variablefor which you receivethe descriptive statistics.The
other is the independentvariable and will be usedin creatingthe subsets.Note that while
SPSScalls this variablean independentvariable, it may not meet the strict criteriathat
definea true independentvariable (e.g.,treatmentmanipulation).Thus, someSPSSpro-
ceduresreferto it as the grouping variable.
Runningthe Command
This example uses the ! RnalyzeGraphs Utilities WindowHetp I
SAMPLE.sav data file you created in F r.l
-l
Firulbgt5il |
nsportt
Chapterl. The Means commandis run by ' DescriptiveStatistirs )
clicking Analyze, then Compare Means,
thenMeans. General Linearftladel F Ona-Sarnple
f feft.
This will bring up the main dialog ' Csrrelata ) Independent-Samdes T Te
-
box for the Means command. Place the . Regression I T Test,,,
Falred-SarnplEs
' (fassify F
selectedvariablein the blank field labeled Ons-Way*|iJOVA,,,
DependentList.
1A
LA
Placethe grouping variable in the box labeledIndependentList.In this example,

through use of the SAMPLE.sav data file, measuresof central tendencyand measuresof
dispersion for the variable GRADE will be given for each level of the variable
MORNING.
I
:I
tu
€ arv r T ril
List
Dependant
ryl
,du** ll".i I
/wqrk Heset
I
€tr"ining
lLayarl al1*- Cancel
I
I :'r:rrt| Ii
..!'l?It.
I Independent
Li$:
l"rpI
i r:ffi
lr-, tffi,
r l*i.rl I
L-:-
By default,the mean, numberof cases,and

standard deviation are given. If you would like fd Stdirtlx:
additional measures,click Options and you will be Medan mil'*-*
ofCa*o*
lltlur$u
presentedwith the dialog box at right. You can opt Doviaion
5tt
to include any numberof measures.
Reading the Output

Minirn"rm
Manimlrn
Rarqo
Fist
La{
ml lStardad
VsianNc
The output for the Means command is split Std.Enord Kutosis I

into two sections.The first section,called a case
processingsummary, gives informationabout the
Skemrcro
Sld.Eno ol $karm
HanorricMcan :J I
data used. In our sample data file, there are four
students(cases),all of whom were included in the
analysis. Lqlry-l c""d I x,r I
GaseProcessingSummary
Cases
lncluded Excluded Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
grade - morning 4 100.0% 0 .OYo 4 | 100.0%
25
The secondsectionof the out- Repott

put is the report from the Means com-
GRADE
mand.
MOR N IN G Mean N Std.Deviation
This report lists the name of NO 82.5000 2 3.53553
the dependent variable at the top Yes
78.0000 7.07107
(GRADE). Every level of the inde- Total 80.2500 4 5.25198
pendent variable (MORNING) is
shown in a row in the table. In this example,the levels are 0 and l, labeledNo and Yes.
Note that if a variable is labeled,the labelswill be usedinsteadof the raw values.
The summary statisticsgiven in the report correspondto the data, where the level
of the independentvariable is equalto the row heading(e.g.,No, Yes). Thus,two partici-
pantswere includedin eachrow.
An additional row is added, named Total. That row contains the combined data.
and the valuesare the sameas they would be if we had run theDescriptiyescommandfor
the variableGRADE.
Extension to More Than One Independent Variable

If you have more than one
independent variable, SPSS can id
break down the output even fur-
ther. Rather than adding more
variables to the Independent List
section of the dialog box, you
need to add them in a different
layer. Note that SPSS indicates
with which layer you are working.
If you click Next, you will be presentedwith

Layer 2 of 2, and you can select a secondindependent
variable (e.g., TRAINING). Now, when you run the
command(by clicking On, you will be given summary
statistics for the variable GRADE by each level of
MORNING and TRAINING.
Your output will look like Report

the output at right. You now have
ORADE
two main sections(No and yes), MORNING TRAINING Mean N Std.Deviation
along with the Total. Now, how- No Yes 85.0000 1
ever, each main section is broken NO 80.0000 1
Total 82.5000
down into subsections(No, yes, I 3. 53553
Yes Yes 83.0000 1
and Total).
NO 73.0000 1
The variable you used in Total 78.0000 1
7.07107
Level I (MORNING) is the first Total Yes 84.0000 a 1. 41421
one listed, and it defines the main NO 76.5000 z 4.54575
sections.The variable you had in Total 80.2500 4 5. ?5198
Level 2 (TRAINING) is listed sec-
26
ond. Thus,the first row represents thoseparticipantswho were not morningpeopleand

who receivedtraining.The secondrow represents participants who werenot morningpeo-
ple anddid not receivetraining.The third row represents the total for all participants
who
werenot morningpeople.
Noticethat standarddeviationsarenot givenfor all of the rows.This is because
thereis only oneparticipantpercell in thisexample.Oneproblemwith usingmanysubsets
is that it increasesthe numberof participants requiredto obtainmeaningfulresults.Seea
research designtextor your instructorfor moredetails.
Practice Exercise
UsingPracticeDataSet I in AppendixB, computethe meanandstandarddevia-
tion of agesfor eachvalueof maritalstatus.What is the averageageof the marriedpar-
Thedivorcedparticipants?
ticipants?The singleparticipants?
Section3.5 Standard Scores
Description
Standardscoresallow thecomparison of differentscalesby transforming
thescores
into a commonscale.The mostcommonstandardscoreis the z-score.A z-scoreis based
on a standardnormal distribution(e.g.,a meanof 0 anda standarddeviationof l). A
z-score,therefore,representsthenumberof standarddeviationsaboveor belowthe mean
(e.9.,a z-scoreof -1.5 represents
a scoreI % standarddeviationsbelowthemean).
Assumptions
Z-scoresare basedon the standardnormal distribution. Therefore,the distribu-
tionsthatareconverted shouldbe normallydistributed,
to z-scores andthescalesshouldbe
eitherinterval or ratio.
Drawing Conclusions
Conclusionsbasedon z-scoresconsistof thenumberof standarddeviationsabove
or belowthe mean.For example,a studentscores85 on a mathematics examin a classthat
hasa meanof 70 andstandarddeviationof 5. The student'stestscoreis l5 pointsabove
the classmean(85 - 70: l5). The student's z-scoreis 3 because shescored3 standard
deviationsabovethe mean(15 + 5 :3). If the samestudentscores90 on a readingexam,
with a classmeanof 80 anda standarddeviationof 10,thez-scorewill be I .0 because
she is one standard deviation abovethe mean. Thus,even thoughher raw scorewas
higheron thereadingtest,sheactuallydid betterin relationto otherstudentson the mathe-
maticstestbecauseherz-scorewashigheron thattest.
.SPSSData Format
Calculatingz-scoresrequiresonly a singlevariablein SPSS.That variablemustbe
numerical.
27
Running the Command

Computingz-scoresis a componentof the
Myzc eqhs Uti$tbl WMow Help
Descriptivescommand.To accessit, click Analyze,
) b,lrstlK- al
then Descriptive Statistics, then Descriptives. This
example uses the sample data file (SAMPLE.sav)
createdin ChaptersI and2. @nerdLlneuFbdel )
Correlate )
This will bring up the stan-

dard dialog box for the Descrip-
doay
t*l /ives command. Notice the check-
drnue box in the bottom-left corner la-
dMonNtNs tsr.dI beled Save standardized values as
dwnnn
drR$HtNs c"od I variables.Check this box and move
HdpI the variable GRADE into the right-
hand blank. Then click OK to com-
19 Srva*ndudi3ad vduosts vcriaHas ldry | plete the analysis.You will be pre-
sented with the standard output
from the Descriptivescommand.Notice that the z-scoresare not listed. They were inserted
into the data window as a new variable.
Switch to the Data View window and examine your data file. Notice that a new
variable, called ZGRADE, has been added.When you asked SPSS to save standardized
values,it createda new variable with the samename as your old variable precededby a Z.
The z-scoreis computedfor eachcaseand placedin the new variable.
lr| -tsJX
Eb E* S€w Qpt. lrnsfam end/2. gr$t6
elslel&l *il{|lelej sJglel ffilslffilfw,qlqj

11i-io- rc $citffrtirffi
Tua/Thulaiemoon Yas
Yes
No
Mi-
Reading the Output

After you conductedyour analysis,the new variable was created.You can perform
any numberof subsequentanalyseson the new variable.
Practice Exercise
Using PracticeData Set 2 in Appendix B, determinethe z-scorethat correspondsto
each employee's salary.Determinethe mean z-scoresfor salariesof male employeesand
femaleemployees.Determinethe mean z-scorefor salariesof the total sample.
28
Chapter4
GraphingData
Section4.1 GraphingBasics
In addition to the frequency distributions,the measuresof central tendency and
measuresof dispersiondiscussedin Chapter3, graphingis a useful way to summarize,or-
ganize,and reduceyour data. It has been said that a picture is worth a thousandwords. In
the caseof complicateddatasets,this is certainlytrue.
With Version 15.0of SPSS,it is now possibleto make publication-qualitygraphs
using only SPSS.One importantadvantageof using SPSSto createyour graphsinsteadof
other software (e.g., Excel or SigmaPlot)is that the data have alreadybeen entered.Thus,
duplicationis eliminated,and the chanceof makinga transcriptionerror is reduced.
Section4.2 The New SPSSChart Builder

Data Set
For the graphingexamples,we will use a new set of data.Enter the databelow by
defining the three subject variablesin the Variable View window: HEIGHT (in inches),
WEIGHT (in pounds),and SEX (l = male, 2 = female).When you createthe variables,
designateHEIGHT and WEIGHT as Scale measuresand SEX as a Nominal measure(in
the far-rightcolumnof the VariableView).Switchto the Data Viewto
enterthe datavaluesfor the 16participants.
Now usethe SaveAs com- Measure
mandto savethefile,namingit HEIGHT.sav. Scale
--
bCIb
-
HEIGHT WEIGHT SEX iNiomiiiai
66 1 50 I
69 1 55 I
/5 1 60 I
72 1 60 I
68 1 50 I
63 1 40 I
74 1 65 I
70 1 50 I
66 ll0 2
64 1 00 2
60 95 2
67 ll0 2
64 1 05 2
63 100 2
67 ll0 2
65 1 05 2
29
Chapter4 GraphingData
Make sure you have enteredthe data correctly by calculating a mean for each of
the three variables(click Analyze,thenDescriptive Statistics,thenDescriptives).Compare
your resultswith thosein the tablebelow.
Descrlptlve Statistics
srd.
N Minimum Maximum Mean Dpvi2lion
l-ttstuFl
I 16 60.00 74.00 66.9375 J.9Ub//
WEIGHT 16 06 nn 165.00 129.0625 26.3451
SEX 16 1.00 2.00 1.5000 .5164
ValidN
(listwise) 16
Chart Builder Basics

Make sure that the HEIGHT.sav data file you createdabove is open. In order to
usethe chart builder, you must have a data file open.
NewwithV ersio n l5 . 0 o f S P S S is t h e Ch a rt B u ild e rc o m. W
-
mand. This command is accessedusing Graphs, then Chart rct"ph; Lulitieswindt
Builder in the submenu.This is a very versatilenew commandthat
can make graphsof excellentquality.
When you first run the Chart Builder command,you will
probably be presentedwith the following dialog box:
This dialog box is

Bcforeyur rrc thlsdalog,moasuranar*hvel shold bc sct gecrh fw cadr vadabb askingyou to ensurethatyour
h yourdurt. In dtbn, f yow chartcodahs cataqo*d v6d&. v*re hbds
sha.rldbr &fhcd for eachcrtrgory variables are properly de-
fined. Refer to Sections1.3
kass O( to doflrc yorr chart,
and2.1 if you had difficulty
Pr6srDafineV.riaHafroportbs to mt masrcnrant brd or ddhe v*.te l&b for definingthe variablesusedin
rhart vsi$bs,
:, creatingthe datasetfor this
f* non't*row $rUdalogagaFr
example,or to refreshyour
ol( Ocfknvubt# kopcrtcr.,.
knowledge of thistopic.Click
oK.
The Chart Builder allows you to make any kind of graph that
cc[ffy
is normally used in publication or presentation,and much of it is be-
yond the scopeof this text. This text, however,will go over the basics Eesknotnents
of the Chart Builder so that you can understandits mechanics.
On the left side of the Chart Builder window are the four main
l"ry{Y:_
litleo/Footndar
tabs that let you control the graphsyou are making. The first one is
the Gallery tab. The Gallery tab allows you to choosethe basic format
ofyour graph.
30
Chapter4 Graphing Data
For example, the screenshothere

showsthe different kinds of bar chartsthat
the Chart Builder can create.
After you have selectedthe basic
form of graph that you want using the 0rr9 a 63llst ctrt fsg b re it e
y* 6t'fig pohr
Gallery tab, you simply drag the image OR
from the bottom right of the window up to Clkl m f€ 86r Ele|mb * b tulH
r dwt €lsffirt bf ele|Ft
the main window at the top (where it
@9Pk8:
reads,"Drag a Gallery chart here to use it
as your startingpoint").
Chrtpftrbv [43 airr?b deb
Alternatively, you can use the Ba- dnsrfiom:
sic Elemenlstab to drag a coordinatesys- 8arts ElpnF&

tem (labeledChooseAxes) to the top win- Ll3
Aroa
PleFokr
dow, then drag variables and elements Scalbillot
Hbbqran
into the window. HUH-ot,
The other tabs (Groups/Point ID 8oph
DJ'lAm
and Titles/Footnotes)can be used for add-
ing other standard elements to your
graphs.
n"ct I cror | ,bh I
The examples in this text will
cover some of the basic types of graphs
you can make with the Chart Builder. After a little experimentationon your own, once you
have masteredthe examplesin the chapter,you will soon gain a full understandingof the
ChartBuilder.
Section4.3 Bar Charts, Pie Charts, and Histograms

Description
Bar charts,pie charts,andhistogramsrepresentthenumberof timeseachscoreoc-
cursthroughthevaryingheightsof barsor sizesof pie pieces.Theyaregraphicalrepresen-
tationsof thefrequency in Chapter3.
discussed
distributions
Drawing Conclusions
TheFrequencies commandproduces outputthatindicatesboththenumberof cases
in the samplewith a particular valueand the percentage of caseswith that value.Thus,
conclusionsdrawn shouldrelateonly to describingthe numbersor percentages for the
regardingthe cumulativeper-
sample.If the dataareat leastordinal in nature,conclusions
centages and/orpercentilescanalsobedrawn.
SPSSData Format
You needonlv onevariableto usethiscommand.
3l
Running the Command

The Frequenciescommand will produce *nalyze Gr;pk Udties Window Hdp
|
graphicalfrequencydistributions.Click Analyze, t LiwL lW .a'fJul
then Descriptive Statistics, then Frequencies.
You will be presentedwith the main dialog box (6fnpSg MBan* )
for the Frequencies command, where you can GeneralLinearMsdel)
enter the variables for which vou would like to
creategraphsor charts.(SeeChapter3 for other optionswith this command.)
);,r.: xl Click the Charts button at the bot-

0Kl tom to producefrequencydistributions.This
will give you the Chartsdialog box.
n"*dI There are three types of chartsavail-
c"!q I able with this command: Bar charts, Pie
l1t"l charts, andHistograms. For each type, the I
axis can be either a frequency count or a
percentage(selectedwith the Chart Values
option).
You will receive the charts for any variables

lectedin the main Frequenciescommanddialog box.
Output
The bar chart consistsof a I'axis, representingthe
frequency,and an Xaxis, representingeachscore.Note that
the only values representedon the X axis are those values
with nonzero frequencies(61, 62, and 7l are not repre-
sented).
h.lgtrt
G
,
a
I
a
L
65.00 66.!0 67.m 68.00 70.s

h.lght
Chapter4 Graphing Data NEUMAf{l{COLLEiSELt*i:qARy
pA .igU14
A$TO|',J,
hclght
s0.00 The pie chart shows the per-

t3r0
€alr centageof the whole that is repre-
05!0
66.00 sentedby eachvalue.
67.!0
Gen0
!9.!0
tos
nfit
13!o
il.m
The Histogram commandcre-

atesa groupedfrequencydistribution.
Therangeof scoresis splitintoevenly
spacedgroups.The midpointof each
groupis plottedon theX axis,andthe
I axisrepresents the numberof scores
for eachgroup.
If you select With Normal
Curve,a normalcurve will be super-
imposedover the distribution. This is
very useful in determiningif the dis- h166.9l
S. Oae,.lr07
tribution you have is approximately flrl0
normal. The distributionrepresented h.lght
here is clearly not normaldue to the

asymmetryof thevalues.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set I in Appendix B. After you have enteredthe data,constructa
histogramthat representsthe mathematicsskills scoresand displaysa normal curve, and a
bar chart that representsthe frequenciesfor the variableAGE.
Section4.4 Scatterplots
Description
Scatterplots(also called scattergramsor scatterdiagrams)display two values for
eachcasewith a mark on the graph.The Xaxis representsthe value for one variable.The I
axis representsthe value for the secondvariable.
JJ
Ch a p te -1
r Gra p h i n gD a ta
Assumptions
Both variablesshouldbe interval or ratio scales.If nominalor ordinal dataare
used,be cautiousaboutyour interpretation
of thescattergram.
.SPSSData Format
You needtwo variablesto performthiscommand.
Running the Command

You can produce scatterplotsby clicking Graphs, then Chart I 6raph* ulfftlqs Wnd
Builder. (Note: You can also use theLegacyDialogs. For this method,
pleaseseeAppendixF.)
r l 0l ln Gallerv Choose
from: selectScatter/Dol.Then drag the Simple
Scatter icon (top left) up to the main chart
areaas shown in the screenshotat left. Disre-
orrq a 6ilby (h*t fes b & it e
tl ".:' ;o on, gard the ElementPropertieswindow that pops
l
ln
iLs
up by choosingClose.
clr* s fE Bs[ pleitbnb t b b krth
3 cfst Bleffit by €l8ffit Next, dragthe HEIGHT variableto the
X-Axis area,and the WEIGHT variable to the
Y-Axisarea(rememberthat standardgraphing
Chrifrwr* (& mtrpb dstr
Ctffii'w:
conventions indicate that dependent vari-
Frwih
Si
ables shouldbe I/ and independentvariables
LtE
lr@ shouldbe X. This would mean that we are try-
Fb/Fq|n
gnt$rrOol ing to predict weights from heights).At this
l,lbbgran
HlgfFl"tr point, your screenshould look like the exam-
l@bt
Ral Ars ple below. Note that your actual data are not
shown-just a set of dummy values.
Wrilitll'.,: ,, .Jol
V*l&bi:
^ry.J Y*J - '"? |
Click OK. You shouldget your new

graph(nextpage)asOutput.
8n
Lh
PlrifsLa
Scfflnal
xbbrs
Hg||rd
iEbM{ Ffip*t!4.,
opbr.,
, x**J " s*J ...ryFl
34
Output
Theoutputwill consistof a markfor eachparticipant
at theappropriate
X and
levels.
arlo i?Jo ?0.00 t:.${

hdtht
Adding a Third Variable

Even thoughthe scatterplotis a
two-dimensional graph,it canplot a third
variable.To make it do so, selectthe
Groups/PointID tab in the ChartBuilder.
Click the Grouping/stacking variable op-
tion. Again,disregardtheElementProp-
erties window that pops up. Next, drag
thevariableSEX into theupper-rightcor-
ner where it indicatesSet Color. When
this is done,your screenshouldlook like
the imageat right. If you are not ableto
dragthe variableSEX,it may be because !|||d d*|er btrdtn- b$tdl
it is not identifiedas nominalor ordinal

in the VariableViewwindow.
Click OK to have SPSSproduce
thegraph.
l- cotrnrcpr:tvr$
I- aontpl*rt
35
Now our output will have two different setsof marks. One set representsthe male
participants,and the secondset representsthe female participants.Thesetwo setswill ap-
pear in two different colors on your screen.You can use the SPSSchart editor (seeSection
4.6) to make them different shapes,as shown in the examplebelow.
sPx
iil
os
60.00 65,00 67.50

helght
Practice Exercise
to examinetherela-
UsePracticeDataSet2 in AppendixB. Constructa scatterplot
tionshipbetweenSALARY andEDUCATION.
Section4.5 Advanced Bar Charts
Description
Bar chartscan be producedwith the Frequencie.s command(see Section4.3).
Sometimes.however.we are interestedin a bar chartwherethe I/ axis is not a frequency.
To producesucha chart,we needto usetheBar chartscommand.
SPSS Data Format

You need at least two variables to perform this command. There are two basic
kinds of bar charts-those for between-subjectsdesignsand those for repeated-measures
designs.Use the between-subjects methodif one variableis the independentvariable and
the other is the dependent variable. Use the repeated-measures method if you have a de-
pendent variable for eachvalue of the independentvariable (e.g.,you would havethree
36
variablesfor a designwith threevaluesof the independentvariable). This normally oc-

curs when you make multiple observationsover time.
This exampleusesthe GRADES.savdata file, which will be createdin Chapter6.
Pleaseseesection6.4 for the dataif you would like to follow along.
Running the Command

Open the Chart Builder by clicking Graphs, then Chart
Builder. In the Gallery tab, select Bar. lf you had only one inde- tG*ptrl uti$Ueswh&
pendent variable, you would selectthe Simple Bar chart example
(top left corner).If you have more than one independentvariable
(as in this example),
tfldr(
l?i;ffitF.t-
select the Clustered Bar Chart example
d'd{4rfr trrd...
/ft,Jthd)
from the middle of the top row.
/l*n*|ts,.,
dq*oAtrm, ,
h4 | G.lary ahd lsr to @ t 6 p
Drag the example to the top work-
cfwxry
ing area. Once you do, the working area
m
ffi * $r 0* dds t bto h.td. drr
should look like the screenshotbelow.
drrrl by.lr!*
(Note that you will need to open the data
file you would like to graph in order to run
this command.)
9{
m
hlpd{
sc.ffp/Dat
tffotm
tldrtff
60elot
oidA#
:gi
y"J .*t I r,* |
lh. y*rfts yu vttdld {a b. rsd te grmt! yw d.t,

rh ffi qa..dr vrt d. {db. Edr.*6ot.' h *. dst,
vtlB enpcr*.dby |SddSri,lARV vrtdb cdon d b
Ur Y d. Vrtdrr U* d.ftr (&gqb n.ryst d !d c
*rdd nDe(rd*L, **h o b. red o. c&eskd d q 6
. gdslo a F Ftrg Yrt aic.
Cdtfry
LSdrl
f o,-l ryl *. r! " l
If you are using a repeated-measures design like our example here using
GRADES.sav from Chapter 6 (three different variablesrepresentingthe i values that we
want), you needto selectall threevariables(you can <Ctrl>-click them to selectmultiple
variables)and then drag all threevariablenamesto the Y-Axisarea.When you do. vou will
be given the warning messageabove. Click OK.
JI
,'rsji,. *lgl$ Next, you will need to

r*dlF*...
drag the INSTRUCT variable to
dnif*ntmld,.. the top right in the Cluster: set
/tudttbdJ
{i*rEkucrt}&"., color area (see screenshot at
&rcqsradtrcq,,.
left).
i: Jr g;? i
I'
'!
;:Nl
iai
Note: The Chart Builder pays
attention to the types of vari-
*rrrt plYkrlur.r ollmbdaa.
ables that you ask it to graph. If
you are getting etTor messages
8{ or unusual results, be sure that
Lll.
,fat your categorical variables are
H.JPd.,
t(.&|rih properly designatedas Nominal
Krtogrqn
HCtstoef in the Variable View tab (See
loxpbt
orrl Axas Chapter2, Section2.l).
n"i* l. crot J rr! |
Output
inilrut
lr
&t:
nt
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set I in Appendix B. Constructa clusteredbar graph examining
the relationshipbetweenMATHEMATICS SKILLS scores(as the OepenOentvariabtej
and MARITAL STATUS and SEX (as independentvariables). Make sure you classify
both SEX and MARITAL STATUS as nominalvariables.
38
Section4.6 Editing SPSSGraphs

Whatever command you FFF,Ffu FF|* "'4 F&'E'
rI
use to create your graph, you will cFtA$-qli*LBul0l al ll
probably want to do some editing
to make it appear exactly as you $r
want it to look. In SPSS,you do

this in much the sameway that you
edit graphs in other software
programs(e.g., Excel). After your *.
q
graph is made, in the output

window, select your graph (this
will createhandlesaround the out-
side of the entire object) and right-
click. Then. click SPSS Chart
Object, and click Open. Alter-
natively, you can double-clickon
the graphto open it for editing.
When you open the graph, the Chart Editor window and the correspondingProper-
lies window will appear.
qb li. lin.tlla. *rll..!!lflE.!l

,, ; l 61f L: lr ! . H; gb. t c t - ] pu1 r i
;l Jxr F4*.it.r":!..*
ltliL&{ il.dk'nl
IE :,- r--."1
Ittttr
tlttIr
tllrwel
w&&$!{!rJ
r 9-,rt JJJJ-JJ
I JJJJJJ
.nlqrl
cnl,f,,!sl
fil mlryl
OnceChart Editor is open,you can easily edit eachelementof the graph.To select
an element,just click on the relevantspot on the graph. For example,if you have addeda
title to your graph ("Histogram" in the examplethat follows), you may selectthe element
representingthe title of the graphby clicking anywhereon the title.
39
Once you have selected

jn Ex Yt Lil tb " :€ k l g tH ,U:; an element, you can tell
trTT.":.TJ *"
^' ir sGssir ' . '*t A:
r::-'
:J*r o :l A I 3 *l.A-I,-- whether the correct element is
selectedbecauseit will have
handlesaroundit.
If the item you have
selectedis a text element(e.g.,
the title of the graph), a cursor
will be presentand you can edit
the text as you would in a word
processing program. If you
would like to change another
attribute of the element (e.g.,
the color or font size), use the
Propertiesbox. (Text properties
are shownbelow.)
With a linle practice,
you can make excellent graphs
using SPSS.Once your graph
is formatted the way you want
it, simply select File, Save,
then Close.
o,tl*" ffiln*fot*.1
P?*l!r h ?frtmd Sa . .
$o gdt lbw gsion Ek
AaBbCc123 $vr {hat Trm$tr,,,
Spdy$a*Tmpt*c.,.
flpoft {bdt rf'.|1,,,
gltaridfu; Ua*tr$Sie
40
Chapter5
PredictionandAssociation
Section5.1 PearsonCorrelation Coefficient
Description
The Pearson correlationcoefficient(sometimes
calledthe Pearson product-moment
correlationcoefficientor simplythe Pearsonr) determinesthe strengthof the linearrela-
tionshipbetween two variables.
Assumptions
4
Both variablesshouldbe measured on intervalor ratio scales(or a dichotomous n
nominalvariable).If a relationship
existsbetween them,thatrelationship
shouldbe linear.
Becausethe Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientis computedwith z-scores,both variables 1
shouldalsobe normallydistributed.If your datado not meettheseassumptions, consider ..
usingthe Spearman rho correlationcoefficientinstead.
SP.SSData Format
Two variablesarerequiredin your SPSSdatafile. Eachsubjectmusthavedatafor
bothvariables.
Running the Command

To selectthe Pearsoncorrelationcoefficient, lfratyil qapnsUtl&i*s t#irdow Heb
click Analyze, then Conelate, then Bivariate
(bivariate refers to two variables).This will bring
Reportr
DescripHve
)
Salirtk* )
rqsl
up the Bivariate Correlations dialog box. This Ccmpara Hranr )
example uses the HEIGHT.sav data file enteredat ue"qer:d
lirwarmo{d )
the startof Chapter4.
Vdri.blcr
Move at leasttwo variablesfrom the

I n"."tI box at left into the box at right by using the
I ry{l transfer arrow (or by double-clicking each
I i*l variable). Make sure that a check is in the
Pearson box under Correlation
Cofficients. It is acceptableto move more
than two variables.
. .i lwolalad {. 0rG-tr8.d
9@,. 1
4l
Chapter5 Predictionand Association
For our example,we will move

all threevariablesover and click OK. Vdi{$b*
lsffi -N-
OX I
Reading the Output

The output consists of a
m l/'* nql
:rydl
correlation matrix. Every variableyou !4 1
entered in the command is represented
as both a row and a column. We entered
three variables in our command. I Tc* d $lrfmma*--*=*-*:-**-*l
Therefore,we have a 3 x 3 table. There
are also three rows in each cell-the
l_i::x- .--i
17 Flag{flbrrcorda&rn
correlation,the significance level, and
the N. If a correlation is signifi-
cant at less than the .05 level, a Correlations
single * will appear next to the heioht weioht sex
correlation.If it is significant at netgnt Pearsonuorrelalron 1 .806' -.644'
the .01 level or lower, ** will ap- Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .007
N 16 16 16
pear next to the correlation. For
weight PearsonCorrelation .806' I .968'
example, the correlation in the Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
output at right has a significance N 16 16 16
level of < .001, so it is flagged sex PearsonCorrelation -.644' -.968' 1
with ** to indicatethat it is less Sig. (2-tailed) .007 .000
N 16 16 16
than.0 1 .
". Correlationis significantat the 0.01 levet(2-tailed).
To read the correlations.
select a row and a column. For
example,the correlationbetweenheight and weight is determinedthrough selectionof the
WEIGHT row and the HEIGHT column (.806).We get the sameanswerby selectingthe
HEIGHT row and the WEIGHT column. The correlationbetween a variable and itself is
always l, so thereis a diagonalsetof I s.
Drawing Conclusions
The correlationcoefficientwill be between-1.0 and +1.0. Coefficientscloseto 0.0
representa weak relationship.Coefficientscloseto 1.0or-1.0 representa strongrelation-
ship. Generally,correlationsgreaterthan 0.7 are consideredstrong. Correlationsless than
0.3 are consideredweak. Correlationsbetween0.3 and 0.7 are consideredmoderate.
Significant correlationsare flagged with asterisks.A significant correlation indi-
catesa reliable relationship,but not necessarilya strong correlation.With enoughpartici-
pants,a very small correlationcan be significant.PleaseseeAppendix A for a discussion
of effect sizesfor correlations.
Phrasinga SignificantResult
In the example above, we obtained a correlation of .806 between HEIGHT and
WEIGHT. A correlationof .806 is a strongpositivecorrelation,and it is significantat the
.001level.Thus,we could statethe following in a resultssection:
4/
A Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientwas calculatedfor the relationshipbetween

participants' height and weight. A strong positive correlation was found
(r(14) : .806,p < .001),indicatinga significantlinear relationshipbetween
the two variables.Taller participantstendto weigh more.
The conclusionstatesthe direction(positive),strength(strong),value (.806), de-
greesof freedom(14), and significancelevel (< .001) of the correlation.In addition,a
statementof direction is included(taller is heavier).
Note that the degreesof freedomgiven in parentheses is 14. The output indicatesan
N of 16. While most SPSSproceduresgive degrees of freedom, the correlationcommand
gives only the N (the numberof pairs).For a correlation,the degreesof freedomis N - 2.
Phrasing Results That Are Not Significant

Correlations
Using our SAMPLE.savdataset
from the previous chapters,we could ID GRADE
lD PearsonUorrelatlon 1.000 .217
calculatea correlationbetweenID and
Sig.(2{ailed) 7A?
GRADE. If so, we get the outPut at 4
N 4
right. The correlationhasa significance GMDE PearsonCorrelation .217 1.000
level of .783. Thus, we could write the Sig.(2-tailed) .783
following in a resultssection(note that N 4 4
the degreesof freedomis N - 2):
A Pearsoncorrelation was calculatedexamining the relationshipbetween
participants' ID numbers and grades. A weak correlation that was not
significantwas found(, (2): .217,p > .05).ID numberis not relatedto grade
in the course.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in Appendix B. Determinethe value of the Pearsonconela-
tion coefficient for the relationshipbetweenSALARY and YEARS OF EDUCATION.
Section5.2 SpearmanCorrelationCoeflicient
Description
The Spearmancorrelationcoefficientdeterminesthe strengthof the relationshipbe-
tween two variables.It is a nonparametricprocedure.Therefore,it is weakerthan the Pear-
son correlationcoefficient.but it can be usedin more situations.
Assumptions
Becausethe Spearmancorrelationcoefficient functions on the basisof the ranks of
data,it requiresordinal (or interval or ratio) data for both variables.They do not needto
be normally distributed.
43
Cha p te r5 Pre d i c ti o na n dA s s o c i a ti on
SP.SSData Format
Two variablesarerequiredin your SPSSdatafile. Eachsubjectmustprovidedata
for bothvariables.
Running the Command

Click Analyze, then Correlate, then Grapk Utilitior wndow Halp
|;,rfiy*
Bivariate.This will bring up the main dialog box RrFarts )
for Bivariate Correlations(ust like the Pearson Statistics
Oescri$ive )
I
correlation). About halfway down the dialog ComparcMeans )
box, there is a section for indicating the type of " GenerdLinearf{udel )
correlation you will compute. You can selectas
many correlationsas you want. For our example,
removethe check in the Pearsonbox (by clicking
on it) and click on theSpearmanbox.
i* CsreldionCoefficients Use the variablesHEIGHT and WEIGHT

j
j f f"igs-"jjl- fienddrs from our HEIGHT.savdatafile (Chapter4). This is

tzu.b
also one of the few commandsthat allows you to
choosea one-tailedtest.if desired.
Reading the Output

The output is essen- Correlations
tially the sameas for the Pear- H E IGH T WEIGHT

Spearman'srho HEIGHT CorrelationCoeflicient 1.000 tr-4.
son correlation.Each pair of
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
variables has its correlation N 16 16
coefficient indicatedtwice. The ffi .883 1.000
Spearman rho can range from Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 't6 16
-1.0 to +1.0,just like the Pear-
". Correlationis significantat the .01 level (2-tailed)
son r.
The output listed above indicatesa correlationof .883 between HEIGHT and
WEIGHT. Note the significancelevel of .000,shown in the "Sig. (2-tailed)"row. This is,
in fact, a significancelevel of <.001. The actualalpha level roundsout to.000, but it is
not zero.
Drawing Conclusions
The correlationwill be between-1.0 and +1.0. Scorescloseto 0.0 representa weak
relationship.Scorescloseto 1.0or -1.0 representa strongrelationship.Significantcorrela-
tions are flagged with asterisks.A significant correlation indicatesa reliable relationship,
but not necessarilya strong correlation.With enoughparticipants,a very small correlation
can be significant. Generally,correlationsgreaterthan 0.7 are consideredstrong. Correla-
tions less than 0.3 are consideredweak. Correlationsbetween0.3 and 0.7 arc considered
moderate.
44
PhrasingResultsThatAre Significant
In the exampleabove,we obtaineda correlationof .883 betweenHEIGHT and
WEIGHT. A correlationof .883 is a strongpositivecorrelation,and it is significantat the
.001level.Thus,we could statethe following in a resultssection:
A Spearmanrho correlationcoefficient was calculatedfor the relationship
betweenparticipants'height and weight. A strong positive correlationwas
found (rh o (1 4 ):.883, p <. 0 0 1 ), in d ic a t in ga s ig n if ic a n re
t la t io n s h ip
betweenthe two variables.Taller participants tend to weigh more.
The conclusionstatesthe direction(positive),strength(strong),value (.883), de-

greesof freedom(14), and significancelevel (< .001) of the correlation.In addition,a
statementof directionis included(talleris heavier).Note that the degreesof freedomgiven
in parenthesesis 14.The outputindicatesan N of 16.For a correlation,the degreesof free-
dom is N- 2.

Correlations
Using our SAMPLE.sav
data set from the previouschapters, to GRADE
Spearman'srho lD CorrelationCoenicten 000 .UUU
we could calculatea Spearmanrho S i g. (2{ai l ed) 1.000
correlation between ID and N
GRADE. If so, we would get the ffi .000 1.000
Sig. (2{ailed) 1.000
output at right. The correlationco-
N 4
efficient equals.000 and has a sig-
nificance level of 1.000.Note that thoughthis value is roundedup and is not, in fact, ex-
actly 1.000,we could statethe following in a resultssection:
A Spearmanrho correlationcoefficient was calculatedfor the relationship
betweena subject's ID number and grade.An extremely weak correlation
that was not significantwas found (r (2\ = .000,p > .05).ID numberis not
relatedto gradein the course.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in AppendixB. Determinethe strengthof the relationship
betweensalaryandjob classification
by calculatingthe Spearmanr&o correlation.
Section 5.3 Simple Linear Regression
Description
allowsthe predictionof one variablefrom another.
Simplelinearregression
Assumptions
Simple linear regressionassumesthat both variablesare interval- or ratio-scaled.
In addition,the dependentvariable shouldbe normally distributedaroundthe prediction
line. This, of course,assumesthat the variablesare relatedto each other linearly.Typi-
45
Ch a p te 5
r P re d i c ti o na n dA s s o c i ati on
cally, both variablesshould be normally distributed.Dichotomous variables (variables

with only two levels)are alsoacceptable
as independentvariables.
.SPSSData Format
Two variablesare required in the SPSSdata file. Each subject must contribute
to
both values.
Running the Command

Click Analyze, then Regression,then
Linear. This will bring up the main diatog Aulyze Graphs LJtl$ties Whdow Help
box for Linear Regression. On the left sideof R;porte
' Descrptive5tatistkf >
the dialog box is a list of the variablesin
your data file (we are using the HEIGHT.sav Comparc Mems )
Generallinear frlod l
data file from the start of this section). On '
Corrolate
the right are blocks for the dependent
variable (the variable you are trying to
Clasifu )
predict),and the independent variable (the DataReductbn )
variablefrom which we are predicting).
We are interestedin predicting

lt{*rt* 0coandart
t '-J ff*r,'-- someone'sweight on the basisof his or
her height. Thus, we should place the
j iL,:,,,r,,,'l u* I i -Iqil variable WEIGHT in the dependent
Itd.p.nd6r(rl I Crof I
variable block and the variable
rrr
r { r l Pm- i E HEIGHT in the independent variable
Ucitbd
block. Then we can click OK to run the
lErra :J
analysis.
SdrdhVui.bh
Ar-'"1 Reading the Output

Est*6k
I'J For simple linear regressions,
WLSWaidrl:
we are interestedin three components
sui*br...I pbr.. I Srrs... I Oaly*..I of the output. The first is called the
Model Summary,and it occursafter the
Variables Entered/Removed section.
For our example,you shouldseethis output.R Square(calledthe coeflicient
of determi-
nation) gives you the proportionof the variance of your dependentvariable
(yEIGHT)
that can be explainedby variationin your independentvariable (HEIGHT).
Thus, 649%
of the variation in weight can be explainedby differencesin height (talier
individuals
weigh more).
The standard error of Modetsummarv
ModelSummary
estimategivesyou a measure
of dispersionfor your predic- Model Adjusted Std.Errorof
R R Square R Souare the Estimate
tion equation. When the 1 .E06 .649 .624 16.14801
predictionequationis used. a. Predictors:
(Constant),
height
68%of thedatawill fall within
46
one standard error of estimate (predicted)value. Just over 95ohwill fall within two stan-
dard errors.Thus, in the previous example,95o/oof the time, our estimatedweight will be
within 32.296poundsof beingcorrect(i.e.,2 x 16.148:32.296).
ANOVAb
Sumof Mean
Model Sorrares df Souare F Sio.
1 Kegressron 6760.323 I 6760.323 25.926 .0004
Residual 3650.614 14 260.758
Total 10410.938 15
a' Predictors:
(Constant),
HEIGHT
b. Dependent
Variable:
WEIGHT
The secondpart of the output that we are interestedin is the ANOVA summaryta-
ble, as shown above.The important numberhere is the significance level in the rightmost
column. If that value is lessthan .05, then we have a significantlinear regression.If it is
/:
largerthan .05,we do not.
The final sectionof the output is the table of coefficients.This is wherethe actual "
predictionequationcan be found. I
Coefficientt'
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std.Error Beta t S i o.
1 (Constant) -234.681 71.552 -3.280 .005
height 5.434 1.067 .806 5.092 .000
a. Dependent weight
Variable:
In most texts, you learn that Y' : a + bX is the regressionequation.f' (pronounced

"Y prime") is your dependent variable (primes are normally predictedvalues or depend-
ent variables),and X is your independentvariable. In SPSSoutput,the valuesof both a
andb are found in the B column.The first value,-234.681,is the value of a (labeledCon-
stant).The secondvalue,5.434,is the value of b (labeledwith the name of the independ-
ent variable). Thus, our prediction equation for the example above is WEIGHT' :
-234.681+ 5.434(HEIGHT). In otherwords,the averagesubjectwho is an inch taller than
anothersubjectweighs 5.434 poundsmore. A personwho is 60 inchestall shouldweigh
-234.681+ 5.434(60):91.359pounds.Givenour earlierdiscussion of standarderror of
estimate,95ohof individualswho are 60 inchestall will weigh between59.063(91.359-
32.296: 59.063)and 123.655(91.359+ 32.296= 123.655)pounds.
47
Drawing Conclusions
Conclusionsfrom regressionanalysesindicate(a) whether or not a significant pre-
diction equation was obtained,(b) the direction of the relationship,and (c) the equation
itself.
Phrasing Results That Are Significant

In the exampleson pages46 and 47, we obtainedan R Squareof .649 and a regres-
sion equationof WEIGHT' : -234.681 + 5.434(HEIGHT). The ANOVA resultedin .F =
25.926 with I and 14 degreesof freedom.The F is significant at the less than .001 level.
Thus, we could statethe following in a resultssection:
A simple linear regressionwas calculatedpredicting participants' weight
basedon their height.A significantregressionequationwas found (F(1,14) :
25.926,p < .001),with an R' of .649.Participants'predictedweight is equal
to -234.68 + 5.43 (HEIGHT) pounds when height is measuredin inches.
Participants'averageweight increased5.43poundsfor eachinch of height.
The conclusion statesthe direction (increase),strength(.649), value (25.926), de-
greesof freedom(1,14), and significancelevel (<.001) of the regression.In addition,a
statementof the equationitself is included.
Phrasing ResultsThatAre Not Significant

If the ANOVA is not significant llorlol Srrrrrrry
(e.g.,seethe output at right), the section Hodel R Souare

Adjuslsd
R Souare
Std.Eror of
lh. Fsl i m a l e
of the output labeled SE for the attt 221 112 3 06696

a. Predlclors:(Constan0,h8lghl
ANOVA will be greaterthan .05, and the
regressionequationis not significant.A
rt{)vP
results section might include the
Sumof
following statement: Xodel dl xean Souare t Slo
J U/?U I 4.12U 0621
Rssldual r 31 688 1a I 408
A simple linear regression was Tolal 170t38 t5
calculatedpredicting participants' a. Prodlclors:(Conslan0.h8lghl
b. OependentVarlableracl
ACT scoresbasedon their height.
The regressionequation was not
significant(F(^1,14): 4.12, p > Cootlklqrrr
Unstandardiz€d Slandardizsd
.05) with an R' of .227.Height is
Bsta Sio
not a significantpredictor of ACT Hod€l
(u0nslan0
ts
| 9.35I
Std. Erol
13590 J OJI 003
. r 17 .2 0 3 0
scores. hei9hl -.411 203 062
a. OBDendsnlva.iable:acl
Note that for resultsthat are not significant,the ANOVA results and R2resultsare
given,but the regressionequationis not.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in Appendix B. If we want to predict salary from years of
education,what salary would you predict for someonewith l2 years of education?What
salarywould you predict for someonewith a collegeeducation(16 years)?
48
Section5.4 Multiple Linear Regression
Description
The multiple linear regressionanalysisallows the prediction of one variable from
severalother variables.
Assumptions
Multiple linear regressionassumesthat all variablesare interval- or ratio-scaled.
In addition, the dependent variable should be normally distributedaround the prediction
line. This, of course,assumesthat the variablesare relatedto eachother linearly. All vari-
ablesshouldbe normally distributed.Dichotomousvariables are also acceptableas inde-
pendentvariables.
,SP,S,S
Data Format
At least three variablesare required in the SPSSdata file. Each subject must con-
tributeto all values.
Running the Command

Click Analyze,thenRegression, thenLinear. At"h* eoptrc utiltt 5 t{,lrdq., }l+
I
This will bring up the main dialog box for Linear
Regression. On the left sideof the dialog box is a i &ry!$$sruruct
list of the variablesin your datafile (we are using Cglpsaftladls
GarnrdLhcar ldd
the HEIGHT.savdata file from the start of this
chapter).On the right side of the dialog box are
blanksfor thedependentvariable(thevariableyou
aretrying to predict)andthe independentvariables
(thevariablesfrom whichyou arepredicting).
Dmmd*
We are interested in predicting
l-...G
.roj I someone'sweight basedon his or her height
LLI l&-*rt
n{.rI and sex. We believe that both sex and
ryl height influence weight. Thus, we should
tb.l place the dependent variable WEIGHT in
the Dependentblock and the independent
variables HEIGHT and SEX in the Inde-
S€lcdirnVdir*
pendent(s)block. Enterboth in Block l.
fn f*---*-- ,it'r:,I This will perform an analysisto de-
Cs Lrbr&:
Er- termine if WEIGHT can be predicted from
ti4svlit{ SEX and/or HEIGHT. There are several
'---
Li-J r- methods SPSS can use to conduct this
sr"u*t. I Pr,rr...
I s* | oei*. I
analysis. These can be selected with the
Method box. Method Enter. the most widely
49
Cha p te 5
r Pre d i c ti o n
a n dA s s o c i a ti on
used,puts all variablesin the equation, whether they are significant or not. The other
methodsuse various meansto enter only those variables that are significant predictors.
Click OK to run the analvsis.
UethodlE,rt-rl
Readingthe Output
For multiplelinearregres- ModelSummary
sion,therearethreecomponents of Adjusted Std.Errorof
the output in which we are inter- Model R R Souare R Square the Estimate
ested.The first is calledthe Model .99 .993 .992 2.29571
Summary,which is foundafterthe a. Predictors:
(Constant),
sex,height
VariablesEntered/Removedsection.For our example,you should get the output above.R
Square(calledthe coefficientof determination) tells you the proportionof the variance
in the dependentvariable (WEIGHT) that can be explainedby variationin the independ-
ent variables (HEIGHT and SEX, in this case).Thus, 99.3%of the variationin weight can
be explained by differencesin height and sex (taller individuals weigh more, and men
weigh more). Note that when a secondvariable is added,our R Squaregoes up from .649
to .993.The .649was obtainedusingthe SimpleLinear Regressionexamplein Section5.3.
The StandardError of the Estimategives you a margin of error for the prediction
equation.Using the predictionequation,68%o of the datawill fall within one standard er-
ror of estimate (predicted)value.Just over 95% will fall within two standard errors of
estimates.Thus, in the exampleabove,95ohof the time, our estimatedweight will be
within 4.591 (2.296 x 2) poundsof being correct.In our Simple Linear Regressionexam-
ple in Section5.3, this numberwas 32.296.Note the higherdegreeof accuracy.
The secondpart of the output that we are interestedin is the ANOVA summaryta-
ble. For more information on readingANOVA tables,refer to the sectionson ANOVA in
Chapter6. For now, the importantnumberis the significancein the rightmostcolumn. If
that value is lessthan .05,we havea significantlinearregression. If it is largerthan .05,we
do not.
eHoveb
Sum of
Model Souares df Mean Souare F S i o.
xegresslon 03424 24 z 5171.212 v61.ZUZ .0000
Residual 68.514 13 5.270
Total 10410.938 15
a. Predictors:(Constant),sex, height
b. DependentVariable:weight
The final sectionof output we are interestedin is the table of coefficients.This is

wherethe actualpredictionequationcan be found.
50
Coefficientf
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std.Error Beta t Sio.

1 (Constant) 47j38 14.843 176 .007
height 2 .1 0 1 .198 .312 10.588 .000
sex -3 9 .1 3 3 1.501 -.767 -26.071 .000
a. DependentVariable:weight
In most texts, you learn that Y' = a + bX is the regressionequation.For multiple re-
gression,our equationchangesto l" = Bs + B1X1+ BzXz+ ... + B.X.(where z is the number
of IndependentVariables). I/' is your dependent variable, and the Xs are your independ-
ent variables. The Bs are listed in a column. Thus, our predictionequationfor the example
aboveis WEIGHT' :47.138 - 39.133(SEX)+ 2.101(HEIGHT)(whereSEX is codedas
I : Male, 2 = Female,and HEIGHT is in inches).In other words, the averagedifferencein
weight for participantswho differ by one inch in height is 2.101 pounds.Males tend to
weigh 39.133 pounds more than females.A female who is 60 inchestall should weigh
47.138- 39.133(2)+ 2.101(60):94.932 pounds.Given our earlierdiscussionof the stan-
dard error of estimate,95o/oof femaleswho are 60 inchestall will weigh between90.341
(94.932- 4.591: 90.341)and99.523(94.932+ 4.591= 99.523)pounds.
Drawing Conclusions
Conclusionsfrom regressionanalysesindicate(a) whether or not a significant pre-
diction equation was obtained,(b) the direction of the relationship,and (c) the equation
itself. Multiple regressionis generallymuch more powerful than simple linear regression.
Compareour two examples.
you must alsoconsiderthe significancelevel of eachin-
With multiple regression,
dependentvariable. In the exampleabove,the significancelevel of both independent
variables is lessthan .001.
Morbl Sratrtny
PhrasingResultsThatAre Significant xodsl R Souars

Adlusted Std.Eror of
R Souare lhe Estimatg
.997. 992 2 2C 5r 1
In our example,we obtainedan a Prsdictorsr
(Conslan0,
sex,hsighl
R Squareof.993 anda regression equa-

tion of WEIGHT' = 47.138 ANr:rVAD
39 . 1 3 3 ( S E X+) 2.1 0 1 (H E IGH TT).he Sumof

Xodel Sd r r r r a q dt XeanSouare
ANOVA resultedin F: 981.202with 2 I Heorsssron r u3t2.424 2 5171212 981202 000r
and 13 degreesof freedom.F is signifi- R es i dual

Tutal
68.5t4
| 0410.938 15
cantat the lessthan.001level.Thus.we a. Predlctors:(Conslan0, ser,hoighl
b. OspBndontVariablo
reighl
couldstatethe followinein a resultssec-
tion:
Coefllcldasr
Unslanda.dizsd Slandardizad
Xodel Std.Eror Beta I Sio

at 38 4 843 3 t6 007
hei0hl 2.101 .198 .312 10.588 000
sex .39.133 L501 - 26.071 000
a. DepsndenlVarlabl€:
rei0hl
5l
A multiple linear regressionwas calculatedto predict participants' weight

basedon their height and sex. A significantregressionequationwas found
(F(2,13): 981.202,p < .001),with an R' of .993. Participants'predicted
weightis equalto 47.138- 39.133(SEX) + 2.10l(HEIGHT),whereSEX is
coded as I = Male, 2 : Female, and HEIGHT is measuredin inches.
Participantsincreased2.101 pounds for each inch of height, and males
weighed 39.133 pounds more than females. Both sex and height were
significantpredictors.
The conclusionstatesthe direction(increase),strength(.993), value (981.20),de-
greesof freedom(2,13),and significancelevel (< .001) of the regression.In addition,a
statementof the equationitself is included.Becausethere are multiple independent vari-
ables,we havenotedwhetheror not eachis significant.

If the ANOVA does not find a llorlel Surrrwy
significantrelationship,the Srg section XodBl x R Souare

AdtuslBd
R Souare
Std Eror of
of the output will be greaterthan .05, 528. t68 3 07525

(ConslanD.
a Prsdlclors: se4 hel9ht
and the regressionequation is not sig-
nificant. A resultssectionfor the output
at right might include the following ANI]VIP
gum of
statement: dt qin
I Reoressron 1t.191 23.717 2.5rI i tn.
A multiple linear regressionwas Rssidual 122.9a1 l3 9.a57

Total 't70.t38 't5
calculated predicting partici- (ConslanD,
a Pr€dictors: se( hsight
pants' ACT scoresbasedon their o. OoDendBnl
Vaiabloracl
height and sex. The regression

equation was not significant Coetllc lst 3r
(F(2,13): 2.511,p > .05)with an Unstandardizsd Standardized
Cosilcisnls Coeilcionts
R" of .279. Neither height nor Yo d e l Sld E.rol Beia std
weight is a significant predictor I (Constan0 oJ ttl 19.88{ 3.102 007

h€l9hl - 576 .266 - .668 2.168 019
of lC7" scores. s€x -t o?? 2011 - 296 - s 62 35{
Notethatfor resultsthatare ,ir";;;;ilJlovA resultsandR2resultsare

given,but theregression
equation "o,
is not.
Practice Exercise
UsePracticeDataSet2 in AppendixB. Determinethe predictionequationfor pre-
dictingsalarybasedon education,yearsof service,andsex.Whichvariablesaresignificant
predictors?If you believethat men were paid more than womenwere,what would you
concludeafterconducting thisanalysis?
52
Chapter6
ParametricInferentialStatistics
Parametricstatisticalproceduresallow you to draw inferencesabout populations
basedon samplesof those populations.To make theseinferences,you must be able to
makecertainassumptions aboutthe shapeof the distributionsof the populationsamples.
Section6.1 Reviewof BasicHypothesisTesting
TheNull Hypothesis
In hypothesistesting,we createtwo hypothesesthat are mutually exclusive(i.e.,
both cannotbe true at the sametime) and all inclusive(i.e.,one of them must be true).We
refer to thosetwo hypothesesas the null hypothesisand the alternative hypothesis.The
null hypothesis generallystatesthat any differencewe observeis causedby random error.
The alternative hypothesis generallystatesthat any differencewe observeis causedby a
systematicdifferencebetweengroups.
TypeI and TypeII Eruors

REAL
WORLD
All hypothesistesting attemptsto Null Hypothesis
True NullHypothesisFalse
draw conclusions about the real world
basedon the resultsof a test (a statistical
test, in this case).There are four possible zdi
combinationsof results (see the figure at TypeI Error I No Error
<.r) 6a
right). = E-
Two of the possibleresultsare cor-
A
rect test results.The other two resultsare
enors. A Type I error occurs when we U
;
reject a null hypothesis that is, in fact, - ^6
6!u
fr trO
true, while a Type II error occurs when l- o>
No Error I Typell Error
we fail to reject the null hypothesis that 'F:
n2
is, in fact,false.
Significance tests determine the
probabilityof making a Type I error. In
other words, after performing a seriesof calculations,we obtain a probability that the null
hypothesisis true. If there is a low probability,suchas 5 or less in 100 (.05), by conven-
tion, we rejectthe null hypothesis.In other words,we typically use the .05 level (or less)
as the maximumType I error ratewe are willing to accept.
When there is a low probability of a Type I error, such as .05, we can statethat the
significancetest has led us to "reject the null hypothesis."This is synonymouswith say-
ing that a difference is "statistically significant." For example,on a reading tesr, suppose
you found that a random sampleof girls from a school district scoredhigher than a random
53
Chapter6 ParametricInferentialStatistics
sampleof boys. This result may have been obtainedmerely becausethe chanceenors as-
sociatedwith random sampling createdthe observeddifference (this is what the null hy-
pothesis asserts).If there is a sufficiently low probability that random errors were the
cause(as determinedby a significance test),we can statethat the differencebetweenboys
and girls is statisticallysignificant.
SignificanceLevelsvs.Critical Values
Moststatistics
textbooks
present
hypothesis
testingby usingtheconcept
of a criti-
cal value. With such an approach,we obtain a value for a test statisticand compareit to a
critical value we look up in a table.If the obtainedvalue is larger than the critical value, we
reject the null hypothesis and concludethat we have found a significant difference(or re-
lationship).If the obtainedvalue is lessthan the critical value, we fail to reject the null hy-
pothesisand concludethat there is not a significantdifference.
The critical-value approachis well suited to hand calculations.Tables that give
critical valuesfor alpha levels of .001, .01, .05, etc., can be created.tt is not practicalto
createa table for every possiblealpha level.
On the other hand, SPSScan determinethe exact alpha level associatedwith any
value of a test statistic.Thus, looking up a critical value in a table is not necessary. This,
however,doeschangethe basic procedurefor determiningwhetheror not to reject the null
hypothesis.
The sectionof SPSSoutput labeledSrg.(sometimesp or alpha) indicatesthe likeli-
hood of making a Type I error if we rejectthe null hypothesis.A value of .05 or lessin-
dicatesthat we should reject the null hypothesis(assumingan alpha level of .05). A value
greaterthan .05 indicatesthat we shouldfail to reject the null hypothesis.
In other words, when using SPSS,we normally reject the null hypothesis if the
output value under Srg. is equal to or smaller than .05, and we fail to reject the null hy-
pothesisif the outputvalueis largerthan .05.
One-Tailed vs. Two-Tailed Tests

SPSSoutput generally includes a two-tailed alpha level (normally labeled Srg. in
the output). A two-tailed hypothesisattemptsto determinewhether any difference (either
positive or negative)exists.Thus, you have an opportunity to make a Type I error on ei-
ther of the two tails of the normal distribution.
A one-tailedtest examinesa differencein a specificdirection.Thus, we can make a
Type I error on only one side (tail) of the distribution.If we have a one-tailedhypothesis,
but our SPSSoutput gives a two-tailed significance result, we can take the significance
level in the output and divide it by two. Thus, if our differenceis in the right direction,and
if our output indicatesa significance level of .084 (two-tailed), but we have a one-tailed
hypothesis,we can report a significance level of .042 (one-tailed).
Phrasing Results
Resultsof hypothesistestingcan be statedin different ways, dependingon the con-
ventionsspecifiedby your institution.The following examplesillustrate someof thesedif-
ferences.
54
Degreesof Freedom
Sometimesthe degreesof freedom are given in parenthesesimmediately after the
symbol representingthe test,as in this example:
(3):7.0 0 ,p<.0 1
Other times, the degreesof freedomare given within the statementof results,as in
this example:
t:7.0 0 , df :3, p < .01
SignificanceLevel
When you obtain results that are significant, they can be describedin different
ways. For example,if you obtaineda significancelevel of .006 on a t test, you
could describeit in any of the following threeways:
(3 ):7 .00,p <.05
(3 ):7 .00,p <.01
(3 ) : 7.0 0 ,p : .006
Notice that becausethe exactprobabilityis .006,both .05 and .01 are alsocorrect. I
There are also variousways of describingresultsthat are not significant.For exam-

ple, if you obtaineda significancelevel of .505, any of the following three state-
mentscould be used:
t(2 ): .8 0 5 ,ns
t(2):.8 0 5 , p > .05
t(2 )=.8 0 5 ,p:.505
Statementof Results
Sometimesthe resultswill be statedin terms of the null hypothesis,as in the fol-
lowing example:
wasrejected1t: 7.00,df :3, p:.006).
The null hypothesis
Other times,the resultsare statedin terms of their level of significance,as in the
following example:
significantdifferencewas found:r(3):7.00,p <.01.
A statistically
StatisticalSymbols
Generally,statisticalsymbolsare presentedin italics. Prior to the widespreaduse of
computersand desktop publishing, statisticalsymbols were underlined.Underlin-
ing is a signal to a printer that the underlinedtext should be set in italics. Institu-
tions vary on their requirementsfor student work, so you are advised to consult
your instructoraboutthis.
Section 6.2 Single-Sample I Test
Description
The single-sampleI test comparesthe mean of a single sampleto a known popula-
tion mean. It is useful for determiningif the current set of data has changedfrom a long-
55
term value (e.g., comparing the curent year's temperaturesto a historical averageto de-
termine if global wanning is occuning).
Assumptions
The distributions from which the scoresare taken should be normally distributed.
However, the t test is robust and can handleviolations of the assumptionof a normal dis-
tribution. The dependentvariable must be measuredon an interval or ratio scale.
.SP,SS
Data Format
The SPSSdata file for the single-sample / test requiresa single variablein SPSS.
That variablerepresentsthe set of scoresin the samplethat we will compareto the popula-
tion mean.
Running the Command

The single-sample/ test is locatedin the CompareMeans submenu,under theAna-
lyze menu.The dialog box for the single-sample/ test requiresthat we transferthe variable
representing the currentset ofscores ry
to the Test Variable(s) section. We i Ardvze Graphswllties Wiidnru nrb
must also enter the population aver- Reports )
I Sescriplive
Stati*icr ]
age in the Test Value blank. The ex-
ample presentedhere is testing the Mcrns.,,
linearModel )
General
variable LENGTH againsta popula- '
CorrElata ) Indegrdant-SrmplCsT
tion meanof 35 (this exampleusesa ' Regrossion ) Paired-Samples
T Tert.,,
hypotheticaldata set). Clasdfy ) 0ne-WeyANOVA,..
Readingthe Output
The output for the single-samplet test consistsof two sections.The first section
lists the samplevariable and somebasic descriptive statistics (N, mean, standard devia-
tion, and standarderror).
56
T-Test
One-SampleS'tatistics
std. Std.Enor
N Mean Deviation Mean
LENGTH 10 35.9000 1.1972 .3786
One-SampleTes{
TeslValue= 35
95%gsnl i 6sngg
Interual
ofthe
sis. Mean Difierence
? df (2-tailed) DitTerence Lowef U pner
LENGTH 2.377 s .041 .9000 4.356E -02 7564
The secondsection of output containsthe results of the t test. The example pre-
sentedhere indicatesa / value of 2.377,with 9 degreesof freedomand a significance level
of .041.The mean differenceof .9000is the differencebetweenthe sampleaverage(35.90)
and the populationaveragewe enteredin the dialog box to conductthe test (35.00).
Drawing Conclusions
The I test assumesan equality of means.Therefore, a significant result indicates
that the sample mean is not equivalentto the population mean (hence the term "signifi-
cantly different"). A result that is not significantmeansthat there is not a significantdiffer-
ence betweenthe means.It doesnot mean that they are equal. Refer to your statisticstext
for the sectionon failure to reject the null hypothesis.
The aboveexamplefound a significantdifferencebetweenthe populationmean and
the samplemean.Thus, we could statethe following:
A single-samplet test compared the mean length of the sample to a
populationvalue of 35.00. A significantdifferencewas found (t(9) = 2.377,
p <.05).The samplemeanof 35.90(sd: 1.197)was significantlygreater
than the population mean.
57

If the significance level
L{n-S.I|pla Sl.llsllcs
had been greaterthan .05, the dif-
Std.Eror
ferencewould not be significant. N tean Sld Deviation
For example,if we receivedthe tempetalure I OU .OOD T 9.11013 3.03681
output presentedhere, we could

statethe following: L'|D.S.Ittte Tesi
TsstValue= 57.1
A single-sample / test 95% Contldsnc6
comparedthe mean temp- llean
Inlsryalofthe
Oit8rsnce
erature over the past year t dt Sro (2-lail€d) DilTer€nce Lowsr UDOEI
lemp€latute I 688 1 ?6667 - 5.736 2 8.2696
to the long-term average.
The difference was not significant (r(8) = .417, p > .05). The mean
temperatureover the past year was 68.67(sd = 9.1l) comparedto the long-
term averageof 67.4.
Practice Exercise
The averagesalary in the U.S. is $25,000.Determine if the averagesalary of the
participantsin PracticeData Set 2 (Appendix B) is significantlygreaterthan this value.
Note that this is a one-tailedhypothesis.
Section6.3 Independent-samples
I Test
Description
The independent-samples I test comparesthe meansof two samples.The two sam-
ples are normally from randomly assignedgroups.
Assumptions
The two groupsbeing comparedshouldbe independentof eachother. Observations
are independentwhen information about one is unrelated to the other. Normally, this
meansthat one group of participantsprovidesdata for one sampleand a different group of
participants provides data for the other sample (and individuals in one group are not
matchedwith individualsin the other group).One way to accomplishthis is throughran-
dom assignmentto form two groups.
The scoresshould be normally distributed,but the I test is robust and can handle
violationsof the assumptionof a normal distribution.
The dependent variable must be measuredon an interval or ratio scale.The in-
dependentvariable shouldhaveonly two discretelevels.
SP,S,S
Data Format
The SPSSdata file for the independentI test requirestwo variables.One variable,
the grouping variable, representsthe value of the independentvariable. The grouping
variable should have two distinct values (e.g., 0 for a control group and I for an experi-
58
mental group). The secondvariablerepresentsthe dependent variable, such as scoreson a

test.
Conducting an Independent-Samples t Test
For our example,we will use 6adrs Utltties window Heh
[n;y*
the SAMPLE.savdatafile.
Click Analyze, then Compare Std{ic* l ls elrl
Means, then Independent-SamplesT
?"est.This will bring up the main dia- I
log box. Transfer the dependent Can*bto )
variable(s) into the Test Variable(s) Regf6s$isl l
blank. For our example,we will use ctaseff t
thevariableGRADL,.
Transfertheindependentvariableinto the GroupingVariablesection.For our ex-
ample,we will usethevariableMORNING.
Next, click Define Groups and enter the

it values of the two levels of the independent '1
dry
lim variable. Independent t tests are capable of
mk
lr*iT comparingonly two levels at a time. Click Con-
tinue, then click OK to run the analysis.
Outputfrom the Independent-Samples t Test

The output will have a sectionlabeled"Group Statistics."This sectionprovidesthe
basicdescriptivestatisticsfor the dependentvariable(s)for eachvalue of the independ-
ent variable. It shouldlook like the outputbelow.
Group Statistics
Std.Error
mornrnq N Mean Std.Deviation Mean
grade No 2 82.5000 3.53553 2.50000
Yes 2 78.0000 7.07107 5.00000
59
Next, there will be a sectionwith the resultsof the I test. It should look like the
outputbelow.
lnd6pondent Samplo! Telt
Leveng's Tost for

Fdlralitv df Variencac ltest for Eoualitv of Msans
95% Confidenco
lntsrual of the
Mean Sld. Error Diffor€nc6
Sio . t df Sio. (2{ailed} Diff6rence Ditforenc6 Lower Uooer
graoe tqual vanances
assum6d .805 2 505 4.50000 5.59017 -19.55256 28.55256
Equal variances
not assumed .805 1.471 530 4.50000 5.59017 -30.09261 39.09261
The columns labeledt, df, and Sig.(2-tailed) provide the standard"answer" for the
I test.They provide the value of t, the degreesof freedom(number of participants,minus 2,
in this case),and the significancelevel (oftencalledp). Normally, we usethe "Equal vari-
ancesassumed"row.
Drawing Conclusions
Recall from the previous section that the , test assumesan equality of means.
Therefore,a significant result indicatesthat the means are not equivalent.When drawing
conclusionsabouta I test,you must statethe directionof the difference(i.e., which mean
was larger than the other). You should also include information about the value of t, the
degreesof freedom,the significancelevel,and the meansand standard deviationsfor the
two groups.

For a significant / test (for example,the output below), you might statethe follow-
ing: 6adO slil|llk!
'.do,.ilhrh!
Sld Eror
0r0uD N x€an Sld. Odiation xaan
sc0r9 conlfol al 0000 a.7a25a 2 121J2
€rDoflmontal 3 2osr67 | 20185
hlapdrlra S,uplcr lcsl
Lmno's T€sl for

l l a sl fo r Fo u e l l to o t l n a n s
95(f, Contld9n.e
Inl€ryalofthe
xsan Std Error
Si d dT Sio a2-laile(n
sc0re EqualvarlencSs
assum€d 5 058 071 5 U Jb 7 66667 2 70391 71605 I r. 6 17 2 8
Equalvaiancos
nol assumgd
31tl a 53l 029 2 138't2 I 20060 r r. r 3 2 7 3
An independent-samplesI test comparing the mean scores of the

experimental and control groups found a significant difference between the
means of the two groups ((5) = 2.835, p < .05). The mean of the
experimentalgroup was significantlylower (m = 33.333,sd:2.08) than the
meanof the control group (m: 41.000,sd : 4.24).
60
Phrasing Results That Are Not Signifcant

In our example at the start of the section,we comparedthe scoresof the morning
peopleto the scoresof the nonmorningpeople.We did not find a significant difference,so
we could statethe following:
An independent-samples t test was calculatedcomparingthe mean score of

participantswho identified themselvesas morning people to the mean score
of participants who did not identi$ themselvesas morning people. No
significant difference was found (t(2) : .805, p > .05). The mean of the
morning people (m : 78.00,sd = 7.07) was not significantly different from
the meanof nonmomingpeople(m = 82.50,sd = 3.54).
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set I (AppendixB) to solvethis problem.We believethat young
individualshave lower mathematicsskills than older individuals.We would test this hy-
pothesisby comparingparticipants25 or younger(the "young" group) with participants26
or older (the "old" group). Hint: You may need to createa new variable that represents
which age group they are in. SeeChapter2 for help.
/ Test
Section6.4 Paired-Samples
Description
The paired-samplesI test (also called a dependent/ test) comparesthe means of
two scoresfrom relatedsamples.For example,comparinga pretestand a posttestscorefor
a group of participantswould requirea paired-samples
I test.
Assumptions
The paired-samplesI test assumesthat both variablesare at the interval or ratio
levels and are normally distributed.The two variablesshould also be measuredwith the
samescale.If the scalesare different. the scoresshouldbe convertedto z-scoresbefore the
, testis conducted.
.SPSSData Format
Two variablesin the SPSSdata file are required.These variablesshould represent
two measurementsfrom eachparticipant.
Running the Command

We will createa new data file containing five variables:PRETEST, MIDTERM,
FINAL, INSTRUCT, and REQUIRED. INSTRUCT representsthree different instructors
for a course.REQUIRED representswhether the coursewas required or was an elective
(0 - elective, I : required).The other threevariablesrepresentexam scores(100 being the
highestscorepossible).
6l
PRETEST MIDTERM FINAL INSTRUCT REQUIRED

56 64 69 I 0
79 9l 89 0
68 77 8l I 0
59 69 7l I
64 77 IJ
t.+ 88 86 I
t) 85 86 I
47 64 69 2 0
78 98 100 2 0
6l 77 85 2 0
68 86 93 2
64 77 87 2
53 67 76 2
7l 85 95 2
6l 79 97 J 0
57 77 89 J 0
49 65 83 J 0
7l 93 100 J
6l 83 94 J
t
58 75 92 J
58 74 92 J
Enter the data and save it as Report

GRADES.sav.You can check your
INSTRUCT PRETEST MIDTERM FINAL
data entry by computinga mean for 1.00 Mean 67.5714 (6.t'l 4J 79.5714
each instructor using the Means N 7 7 7
command (see Chapter 3 for more std.
8.3837 9.9451 7.9552
information). Use INSTRUCT as Deviation
2.00 Mean 63.1429 79.1429 86.4286
the independentvariable and enter
N 7 7 7
PRETEST, MIDTERM, ANd std.
FINAL as your dependent vari- 10.6055 11.7108 10. 9218
Deviation
ables. 3.00 Mean 59.2857 78.0000 92.4286
Once you have entered the N 7 7 7
data,conducta paired-samplesI test std.
6.5502 8.62',t7 5.5032
Deviation
comparing pretest scores and final Total Mean 63.3333 78.6190 86. 1429
scores. N 21 21 21
Click Analyze, then Com- std. 9.6348
8.9294 9.6617
pare Means, then Paired-SamplesT Deviation
?nesr.This will bring up the main
dialog box.
6r5db trl*lct tilkrdo| tbb

i;vr*;
Bsi*i l
' l)06ctftlv.s44q t
@Cdnrdur*Modd t q8-sdndo T Tart...
i c*@
i lryt'sn
i'w
62
You must select pairs of

variables to compare. As you se-
lect them, they are placed in the m
Current Selections area.
|y:tl
Click once on PRETEST.
then once on FINAL. Both vari-
ry{l
ableswill be moved into the Cnr-
.ry1
: CundSdacti:n:
rent Selections area.Click on the I VcirHal:
Vri{!ilcz
right anow to transfer the pair to
"l*;"J
the Paired Variablessection.Click
OK to conductthe test. xl
y.pllarq PaildVaiibblt
*,n*f.n n
Cf;tndcim
.!K I
ril',n*
"ttr.I
atrirdftEl
d1;llqi.d
-L*rd
.t
i
fc
Reading the Output

The output for PairedSamplesStatistics
the paired-samples t test
consists of three com- std. Std.Error
ponents. The first part Mean N Deviation Mean
Pair PRETEST 63.3333 21 8.9294 1.9485
givesyou basicdescrip- 1 rtNet 86.1429 21 9.6348 2.1025
tive statistics for the I
pair of variables.The PRETESTaveragewas 63.3,with a standard deviation of 8.93.The

FINAL averagewas 86.14,with a standarddeviationof 9.63.
PairedSamplesGorrelations The secondpart ofthe

output is a Pearson correla-
N Correlation S i o.
PaIT1 PRETEST tion coefficientfor the pair of
& F IN A L 21 .535 .013 variables.
Within the third part of the output (on the next page),the sectioncalled paired Dif-
ferences contains information about the differencesbetweenthe two variables.you miy
have learnedin your statisticsclassthat the paired-samples / test is essentiallya single-
samplet testcalculatedon the differencesbetweenthe scores.The final threecolumnscon-
tain the value of /, the degreesof freedom,and the probability level. In the examplepre-
sentedhere,we obtaineda I of -11.646,with 20 degreesof freedomand a significance
level of lessthan.00l. Note that this is a two-tailedsignificancelevel. Seethe startof this
chapterfor more detailson computinga one-tailedtest.
63
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
95%Confidence
Inlervalof the
srd, Std.Errot l)iffcrcncc
sig
Mean Dcvirl Maan Lower U D oer I df l)Jailatl\
Pair1 PRETEST
. FINAL -22.8095 8.9756 1.9586 -26.8952 -18.7239 '|1.646 20 .000
Drawing Conclusions
Paired-samplesI testsdeterminewhetheror not two scoresare significantly differ-
ent from each other. Significant values indicate that the two scoresare different. Values
that are not significant indicatethat the scoresare not significantly different.
When statingthe resultsof a paired-samplesI test,you shouldgive the value of t,
the degreesof freedom,and the significancelevel. You should also give the mean and
standard deviation for each variable.as well as a statementof results that indicates
whetheryou conducteda one- or two-tailedtest.Our exampleabovewas significant,so we
could statethe following:
A paired-samples I test was calculatedto comparethe mean pretestscoreto
the mean final exam score.The mean on the pretestwas 63.33 (sd : 8.93),
and the mean on the posttestwas 86.14(sd:9.63). A significantincrease
from pretestto final was found (t(20) : -ll .646,p < .001).

If the significancelevel had beengreaterthan .05 (or greaterthan .10 if you were
conductinga one-tailedtest),the resultwould not have beensignificant.For example,the
hypotheticaloutput below representsa nonsignificantdifference.For this output, we could
state:
P.l crl Sdr{ror St.rtlstkr
Sld.Etrof
x6an N Sl d D d a l l o n
Patr midlsrm r B t1a3 7 I 9.509 3 75889
1 nnal 79.571 1 7 95523
I 3.00680
P.rl c(l Sxtlro3 Cq I olrlqt6
N Cotrelali 5 to
ts4trI mtdt€rm&flnal I 96S 000
P.*od Silrlta! Tcrl
ParredOrflerences
95%ConidBncs
lnlsNrlotth€
Std.Eror DilYerenca
x s an Std Oryiation X€an Lmt u008r tl Sio (2-lailad)
. 8571a 2 96808 I 12183 1 88788 - 76a b a7a
64
A paired-samplest testwascalculatedto comparethe meanmidtermscoreto

themeanfinal examscore.Themeanon the midtermwas78.71(sd: 9.95),
andthe meanon the final was79.57(sd:7.96). No significant difference
=
from midtermto finalwasfound((6) -.764,p >.05).
Practice Exercise
Usethe sameGRADES.sav datafile, andcomputea paired-samples
/ testto deter-
from midtermto final.
mineif scoresincreased
Section6.5 One-Wav ANOVA
Description
Analysisof variance(ANOVA) is a procedurethat determines the proportionof
variabilityattributedto eachof severalcomponents. It is oneof the mostusefulandadapt-
ablestatisticaltechniques available.
The one-wayANOVA compares the meansof two or moregroupsof participants
that vary on a singleindependentvariable (thus,the one-waydesignation). When we
havethreegroups,we couldusea I testto determinedifferencesbetweengroups,but we
wouldhaveto conductthreet tests(GroupI comparedto Group2, Group I comparedto
Group3, andGroup2 compared to Group3). Whenwe conductmultipleI tests,we inflate
the Type I error rate and increaseour chanceof drawingan inappropriate conclusion.
ANOVA compensates for thesemultiplecomparisons and gives us a singleanswerthat
tellsus if anyof thegroupsis differentfrom anyof theothergroups.
Assumptions
The one-wayANOVA requiresa singledependentvariable and a singleinde-
pendentvariable. Which groupparticipants
belongto is determinedby the valueof the
independentvariable. Groupsshouldbe independent of eachother.If our participants
belong to more than one group each,we will have to conducta repeated-measures
ANOVA. If we havemorethanone independentvariable,we would conducta factorial
ANOVA.
ANOVA alsoassumes thatthedependentvariableis at the intervalor ratio lev-
is
elsand normallydistributed.
SP,S,S
Data Format
Two variablesare requiredin the SPSSdatafile. One variableservesas the de-
pendentvariable andtheotherasthe independentvariable.Eachparticipantshouldpro-
videonly onescorefor thedependentvariable.
Running the Command

datafile we createdin the previous
For this example,we will usetheGRADES.sav
section.
65
To conduct a one-way ANOVA, click Ana- i An$tea &ryhr l.{lith; wr$|f $alp
R;pa*tr )
lyze, then Compare Means, then One-I7ay ANOVA. I
DrrsFfivsft#l|'
This will bring up the main dialog box for the One-
lhcd friodd ] orn-5dtFh f f64...
lltay ANOVA command. I
Csnalda l|1|J46tddg.5arylarT16t,.,
R!E'l'd6al ) P*G+tunpbs I IcJt..,
l ':l i rl :.,.
:J cl#y rffillEil
You should place the independ-
xrded
f *wm
f,'',I ent variable in the Factor box. For our
dtin"t
S instt.,ct R*g I example, INSTRUCT representsthree
/ rcqulad
c*"d I different instructors.and it will be used
Hdp I
as our independentvariable.
Our dependentvariable will be
miqq|4^__
FINAL. This test will allow us to de-
!qt5,l fqiryt,,,l odiors"'
I termine if the instructor has any effect
on final sradesin the course.
-rl
pela$t
ToKl
/n*Jterm
d f- Fncdrdr*dcndlscls
'cqfuda
Ro"t I l* Honroga&olvairre,* j *_It J
c*ll
H& l
mrffi,.*-
Pqyg*-I odi"*.'.I
"?s'qt,.,l
Click on the Options box to

get the Options dialog box. Click
Descriptive. This will give you
meansfor the dependentvariable at
each level of the independentvari-
able. Checkingthis box preventsus
from having to run a separatemeans
, Eqiolvdirnccs NotfudfiEd
command. Click Continue to return r TY's,T2 t or*ol::
. l,?."*:,_: _l6{''6:+l.'od j
to the main dialog box. Next, click
Post Hoc to bring up the Post Hoc Sigflber! h,v!t tffi-
Multiple Comparisonsdialog box. rc"'*i.'I r"ry{-l" H* |

Click Tukev.then Continue.
Post-hoctests are necessaryin the event of a significant ANOVA. The ANOVA
only indicatesif any group is different from any other group. If it is significant,we needto
determinewhich groupsare different from which other groups.We could do I teststo de-
termine that, but we would have the sameproblem as before with inflating the Type I er-
ror rate.
There are a variety of post-hoccomparisonsthat correct for the multiple compari-
sons.The most widely used is Tukey's HSD. SPSSwill calculatea variety of post-hoc
testsfor you. Consult an advancedstatisticstext for a discussionof the differencesbetween
thesevarioustests.Now click OK to run the analvsis.
66
Readingthe Output
Descriptivestatisticswill be givenfor eachinstructor(i.e.,levelof the independ-
ent variable)andthe total.For example,in hisftrerclass,InstructorI hadan averagefinal
examscoreof 79.57.
Descriptives
final
95% ConfidenceIntervalfor
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std.Enor LowerBound UooerBound Minimum Maximum
UU 79.5714 7.95523 3.00680 72.2',t41 86 9288 tiv.uu 6Y.UU
2.00 7 86.4286 1 0 .9 2180 4.12805 76.3276 96.5296 69.00 100.00
3.00 7 92.4286 5.50325 2.08003 87.3389 97.5182 83.00 100.00
Total 2'l 86. 1429 9.63476 2.10248 81.7572 90.5285 69.00 100.00
The next section of

the output is the ANOVA
sourcetable. This is where
579.429 the various componentsof
1277. 143
the variance have been
1856.571
listed,along with their rela-
tive sizes. For a one-way ANOVA, there are two componentsto the variance: Between
Groups (which representsthe differencesdue to our independent variable) and Within
Groups(which represents differenceswithin eachlevel of our independentvariable). For
our example,the BetweenGroups variancerepresentsdifferencesdue to different instruc-
tors. The Within Groupsvariancerepresentsindividual differencesin students.
The primary answeris F. F is a ratio of explainedvariance to unexplainedvari-
ance. Consult a statisticstext for more informationon how it is determined.The F has two
different degreesof freedom,one for BetweenGroups(in this case,2 is the number of lev-
els of our independentvariable [3 - l]), and anotherfor Within Groups(18 is the number
of participantsminusthe numberof levelsof our independentvariable [2] - 3]).
The next part of the output consistsof the results of our Tukey's ^EISDpost-hoc
comparison.
This table presentsus with every possiblecombinationof levels of our independ-
ent variable. The first row representsInstructor I comparedto Instructor 2. Next is In-
structor I compared to Multlple Comparlsons
Instructor 3. Next is In- F,NAL
variabre:
Dooendenr
structor 2 compared to HS D
Instructor l. (Note that 95% Confidence

this is redundantwith the Mean
first row.) Next is Instruc- ( t) (J) Difference Lower Upper
INSTRUCT INSTRUCT Il-.tl Sld. Enor Sia B ound R6r rn.l
tor 2 comparedto Instruc- 1 .0 0 2.OU €.8571 4.502 JU4 -16.J462 4.6339

tor 3, and so on. 3.00 -12.8571' 4.502 .027 -24.3482 -1.3 661
2.00 1.00 6.8571 4.502 .304 -4.6339 18.3 482
The column la- 3.00 -6.0000 4.502 .396 -17.4911 5,49 11
beled Sig. representsthe 3.00 1.00 12.8571' 4.502 .027 1.3661 24.3482
Type I error (p) rate for 2.00 6.0000 4.502 .396 -5.4911 17.49 11
'. The mean differ€nceis significantat the .05 level.
the simple (2-level) com-
parison in that row. In our
67
exampleabove,InstructorI is significantlydifferentfrom Instructor3, but InstructorI is

not significantlydifferentfrom Instructor2, andInstructor2 is not significantlydifferent
from Instructor3.
Drawing Conclusions
Drawing conclusionsfor ANOVA requiresthat we indicate the value of F, the de-
greesof freedom,and the significance level. A significantANOVA should be followed by
the resultsof a post-hocanalysisand a verbal statementof the results.

In our exampleabove,we could statethe following:
We computed a one-way ANOVA comparing the final exam scores of
participantswho took a course from one of three different instructors.A
significant difference was found among the instructors (F(2,18) : 4.08,
p < .05). Tukey's f/SD was usedto determinethe natureof the differences
between the instructors. This analysis revealed that students who had
InstructorI scoredlower (m:79.57, sd:7.96) than studentswho had
Instructor3 (m = 92.43,sd: 5.50).Studentswho had Instructor2 (m:86.43,
sd : 10.92) were not significantly different from either of the other two
groups.

If we had conductedthe Ocrcr lriir
analysis using PRETEST as 95$ Conlldanc0 Inloml tol
our dependent variable in- N Sld Ddaton Sld Eiror LMf Bo u n d Uooer gound
stead of FINAL, we would 200 63.1r 29 10.605r8 4.00819 5333r a 7? 95r 3 1700 78 00
300 1 592857 7
6.5501 2.at5t1 53 2278 55 3a36 r9.00 71 00
have received the following Tolel 21 633333 I 92935 I ga€sa 592587 67 3979 at 0 0 79 00
output:
All:'Vl
The ANOVA was not signifi-
cant. so there is no need to re- sumof
fer to the Multiple Compari- wrlhinOroups

210.667
135a.000 t8
120 333
15222
1 600 229
sons table. Given this result, Tol.l t 594667 20
we may statethe following:

The pretest means of students who took a course from three different
instructors were compared using a one-way ANOVA. No significant
differencewas found (F'(2,18)= 1.60,p >.05).The studentsfrom the three
different classesdid not differ significantlyat the start of the term. Students
who had Instructor I had a mean scoreof 67.57 (sd : 8.38). Studentswho
had Instructor2 had a mean scoreof 63.14(sd : 10.61).Studentswho had
lnstructor3 had a meanscoreof 59.29(sd = 6.55).
68
Practice Exercise
UsingPracticeDataSet I in AppendixB, determineif the averagemathscoresof
of
are significantlydifferent.Write a statement
single,married,and divorcedparticipants
results.
Section6.6 Factorial ANOVA
Description
The factorialANOVA is one in which thereis morethan one independentvari-
able.A 2 x 2 ANOVA, for example,hastwo independentvariables,eachwith two lev-
els.A 3 x 2 x 2 ANOVA hasthreeindependentvariables.Onehasthreelevels,andthe
othertwo havetwo levels.FactorialANOVA is very powerfulbecauseit allowsus to as-
sesstheeffectsof eachindependentvariable,plustheeffectsof the interaction.
Assumptions
FactorialANOVA requiresall of the assumptions of one-wayANOVA (i.e.,the
dependentvariable mustbe at the interval or ratio levelsand normallydistributed).In
variablesshouldbe independent
addition,theindependent of eachother.
.SPSSData Format
SPSSrequiresonevariablefor the dependentvariable,andone variablefor each
independent variable.If we haveanyindependent asmulti-
variablethatis represented
ple variables(e.g., PRETESTand POSTTEST),we must use the repeated-measures
ANOVA.
Runningthe Command
This exampleuses the GRADES.savI Rnalyze Graphs USiUas llilindow Halp
data file from earlierin this chapter.Click Ana- Repsrts
lyze, then GeneralLinear Model. then Univari- DescrbtiwStatFHcs
ate.
!!{4*,l This will bring up the main dialog

?**" I box for Univariate ANOVA. Select the
-..fP:.J dependent variable and place it in the
fi*"qrJ DependentVariableblank (use FINAL for
R{'dsr! F.dclt}
!t,, I this example). Select one of your inde-
9*ll pendent variables (INSTRUCT, in this
case) and place it in the Fixed Factor(s)
box. Place the secondindependent vari-
able (REQUIRED) in the Fixed Factor(s)
box. Having defined the analysis, now click

Options.
When the Options dialog box comes up,
move INSTRUCT, REQUIRED, and INSTRUCT
x REQUIRED into the Display Means for blank.
This will provide you with means for each main
effect and interaction term. Click Continue.
If you were to selectPost-Hoc,SPSSwould
run post-hoc analysesfor the main effects but not
for the interaction term. Click OK to run the
analvsis.
1 .IN S T R U C T
Reading the Output
ariable:FINAL At the bottom of the

95oloConfidencelnterval output, you will find the means
Lower Upper for each main effect and in-
I NS T R U C T Mean Std. Error Bound Bound teraction you selected with the
1 .UU 79.583 3.445 72.240 86.926 Optionscommand.
2.00 86.208 3.445 78.865 93.551 There were three
3.00 92.083 3.445 84.740 99.426 instructors, so there is a mean
FINAL for each instructor. We
2. REQUIRED also have means for the two
ariable:FINAL values of REQUIRED. FinallY,
95%Confidence Interval we have six means representing
Lower Upper the interaction of the two
REOUIRED Mean Std.Error Rorrnd Bound variables (this was a 3 x 2
,UU 84.667 3.007 78.257 91.076 design).
1.00 87.250 2.604 81.699 92.801 Participants who had
Instructor I (for whom the class
was not required) had a mean final exam score of 79.67. Studentswho had Instructor I
(for whom it was required)had a mean final exam scoreof 79.50,and so on.
The example we just 3. IN S TR U C T' R E QU IR E D
ran is called a two-way
Variable:FINAL
ANOVA. This is becausewe Interval
95%Confidence
had two independent vari- Lower Upper
ables. With a two-way INSTRUCTREQUIRED Mean Std.Error Bound Bound
ANOVA, we get three an- 1.00 .00 79.667 5.208 68.565 90.768
1.00 79.500 4.511 69.886 89. 114
swers: a main effect for
2.00 .00 84.667 5.208 73.565 95.768
INSTRUCT, a main effect 4.511 78.136 97.364
1.00 87.750
for REQUIRED, and an in- 3.00 .00 89.667 5.208 78.565 100.768
teraction result for 1.00 94.500 4.511 84.886 104.114
INSTRUCT ' REQUIRED
(seetop ofnext page).
70
Tests of Between-SubjectsEffects
Dependent
Variable:FINAL
635.8214 5
Intercept 1s1998.893 1 151998.893 1867.691 .000
INSTRUCT 536.357 2 268.179 3.295 .065
REQUIRED 34.32'l 1 34.321 .422 .526
INSTRUCT ' REQUIRED 22.071 2 11.036 .136 .874
Error 1220.750 15 81.383
Total 157689.000 21
CorrectedTotal 1856.571 20
a. R Squared= .342(Adjusted =
R Squared .123)
The source-table above gives us these three answers (in

the INSTRUCT,
REQUIRED, and INSTRUCT * REQUIRED rows). In the
example,none of the main ef-
fects or interactions was significant.tn the statementsof results,
you must indicate two
degreesof freedom (effect and residual/error),the significance'level, ^F,
and a verbal state-
ment for each of the answers(three, in this case).uite
that most statisticsbooks give a
much simpler version of an ANOVA sourcetable where the
CorrectedModel, Intercept,
and CorrectedTotal rows are not included.

If we had obtainedsignificantresultsin this example,we
could statethe following
(Theseare fictitious results.For the resultsthat correspona
to the example above, please
seethe sectionon phrasingresultsthat are not significant):
A 3 (instructor) x 2 (requiredcourse)between-subjects factorial ANOVA
was calculatedcomparingthe final exam scoresfor participants
who had one
of three instructorsand who took the courseeither as a required
courseor as
an elective. A significant main effect for instructor was found (F(2,15) :
l0.ll2,p < .05). studentswho had InstructorI had higher
final .*u- r.o16
(m = 79.57,sd:7.96) thanstudents who had Instructor3 (m:92.43, sd:
5.50). Studentswho had Instructor2 (m : g6.43,sd :'10.92)
weie not
significantlydifferent from eitherof the other two groups.A significant
main
effect for whetheror not the coursewas requiredwas found (F(-1,15):3g.44,
p < .01)'Studentswho took the coursebecauseit was required
did better(z :
9l '69, sd : 7.68)thanstudentswho took thecourseas an electi (m :
ve 77.13,
sd:5.72). The interaction wasnot significant(F(2,15)= l.l5,p >.05). The
effect of the instructorwas not influencedby whetheror not the
studentstook
the coursebecauseit was required.
Note that in the above exampre,we would have had to conduct
Tukey,s HSD to
determinethe differencesfor INSTRUCT (using thePost-Hoc
command).This is not nec-
7l
t Variable:FINAL
Typelll
Sumof Mean
Source Souares df Souare F siq.
uorrecleoMooel 635.8214 5 127.164 1.563 .230
Intercept 151998.893 1 151998.893 1867.691 .000
INSTRUCT 536.357 2 268.179 3.295 .065
REQUIRED 34.321 1 34.321 .422 .526
INSTRUCT - REQUIRED 22.071 2 11.036 .136 .874
Error 1220.750 1E
81.383
Total 157689.000 21
CorrectedTotal 't856.571 20
a. R Squared= .342(AdjustedR Squared= .123)
The source table above gives us these three answers (in the INSTRUCT,
REQUIRED, and INSTRUCT * REQUIRED rows). In the example,none of the main ef-
fects or interactions was significant.In the statementsof results,you must indicatef', two
degreesof freedom (effect and residual/error),the significance level, and a verbal state-
ment for each of the answers(three,in this case).Note that most statisticsbooks give a
much simpler versionof an ANOVA sourcetable where the CorrectedModel, Intercept,
and CorrectedTotal rows are not included.
Phrasing Results That Are Signifcant

If we had obtainedsignificantresultsin this example,we could statethe following
(Theseare fictitious results.For the resultsthat correspondto the exampleabove,please
seethe sectionon phrasingresultsthat arenot significant):
A 3 (instructor) x 2 (required course)between-subjects factorial ANOVA
was calculatedcomparingthe final exam scoresfor participantswho had one
of three instructorsand who took the courseeither as a requiredcourseor as
an elective. A significant main effect for instructor was found (F(2,15\ :
l0.l 12,p < .05). Studentswho had InstructorI had higher final exam scores
(m : 79.57,sd : 7.96) than studentswho had Instructor3 (m : 92.43,sd :
5.50). Studentswho had Instructor 2 (m : 86.43, sd : 10.92) were not
significantlydifferent from eitherof the othertwo groups.A significantmain
effect for whetheror not the coursewas requiredwas found (F'(1,15):38.44,
p < .01). Studentswho took the coursebecauseit was requireddid better(ln :
91.69,sd:7.68) thanstudentswho took the courseas an elective(m:77.13,
sd : 5.72).The interactionwas not significant(,F(2,15): I . 15,p > .05).The
effect of the instructorwas not influencedby whetheror not the studentstook
the coursebecauseit was required.
Note that in the above example,we would have had to conduct Tukey's HSD to
determinethe differencesfor INSTRUCT (using the Post-Hoc command).This is not nec-
71
Chapter6 Parametriclnferential Statistics
essaryfor REQUIREDbecauseit hasonly two levels(andonemustbe differentfrom the

other).

Our actualresultswerenot significant,sowe canstatethe following:
A 3 (instructor)x 2 (requiredcourse)between-subjects factorial ANOVA
wascalculatedcomparingthe final examscoresfor participantswho hadone
of threeinstructorsand who took the courseas a requiredcourseor as an
elective.The maineffectfor instructorwasnot significant(F(2,15): 3.30,p
> .05).The maineffectfor whetheror not it wasa requiredcoursewasalso
not significant(F(1,15)= .42,p > .05).Finally,the interaction
wasalsonot
=
significant(F(2,15) .136,p > .05). Thus, it appearsthat neitherthe
instructornor whetheror not thecourseis requiredhasany significanteffect
on finalexamscores.
Practice Exercise
Using PracticeDataSet 2 in AppendixB, determineif salariesare influencedby
or an interactionbetweensexandjob classification.
sex,job classification, Write a state-
mentof results.
ANOVA
Section6.7 Repeated-Measures
Description
Repeated-measuresANOVA extendsthe basicANOVA procedureto a within-
subjectsindependentvariable (whenparticipants providedatafor morethanonelevelof
/ test when more thantwo
an independentvariable).It functionslike a paired-samples
levelsarebeingcompared.
Assumptions
The dependentvariableshouldbe normallydistributedandmeasured on an inter-
of the dependentvariable shouldbe from the
val or ratio scale.Multiple measurements
same(or related)participants.
Data Format
SP,S^S
At leastthreevariablesarerequired.Eachvariablein the SPSSdatafile shouldrep-
resenta singledependentvariableat a singlelevelof theindependent variable'Thus,an
analysisof a designwith four levelsof an independentvariable would requirefour vari-
ablesin the SPSSdatafile.
If any variablerepresents effect,usethe Mixed-Design
a between-subjects ANOVA
commandinstead.
72
Runningthe Command
ThisexampleusestheGRADES.sav sample
data set. Recall that GRADES.sav includesthree
sets of grades-PRETEST, MIDTERM, and
FINAL-that represent threedifferenttimesduring '@
!8*vxido"'
the semester.This allowsus to analyzethe effects t{!idf-!de r $.dryrigp,,,
)
of time on the test performanceof our sample f,txrd*r
gp{|ssriori
population(hencethe within-groupscomparison). tSoar garlrr! Cffiporur&'..
Click Analyze,then GeneralLinear Model, then

RepeatedMeasures.
Note that this procedure requires an optional module. If you do not have this
command, you do not have the proper module installed. This procedure is NOT included
in the student version o/SPSS.
After selectingthe command, you will be
W,;, -xl presented with the Repeated Measures Define
Factor
Ui**tSubioct Nanc ffi* ,,.,. I Factor(s)dialog box. This is where you identify the
qllcv6ls:
Nr,nrbar l3* B"*, I within-subjectfactor (we will call it TIME). Enter 3
cr,ca I for the numberof levels (threeexams) and click Add.
Hsl Now click Define. If we had more than one
independent variable that had repeatedmeasures,
we could enter its name and click Add.
You will be presentedwith the Repeated
Mea*lxaNsre: I Measures dialog box. Transfer PRETEST,
MIDTERM, and FINAL to the lhthin-Subjects
--J Variables section. The variable names should be
l
tl
orderedaccordingto when they occurredin time (i.e.,
the values of the independent variable that they
represent).
h{lruc{ l'or I
-Ff? l
-9v1"I
-ssl
U"a* | cro,r"*.I nq... I pagoq..I S""a.. I geb*.. I
Click Options,and SPSSwill computethe meansfor the TIME effect (seeone-way

ANOVA for more detailsabouthow to do this). Click OK to run the command.
/J
Readingthe Output
This procedureusesthe GLM command. fil sesso,.rtput
GLM standsfor "GeneralLinearModel." It is a H &[ GeneralLinearModel
Title
very powerful command,and many sectionsof
Notes
outputarebeyondthe scopeofthis text (seeout- Wlthin-Subject s Factors
put outlineat right). But for the basicrepeated- MultivariateTests
measures ANOVA, we are interested only in the Mauchly'sTes{ol Sphericity
Testsof l{ithin-SubjectsEffects. Note that the Testsol Wthin-SubjectsEflecls
SPSSoutputwill includemanyothersectionsof Tesisol \ /lthin-SubjectsContrasts
output,whichyou canignoreat thispoint. Tests ol Between-Subjects Ellec{s
Tests of WrllrilFstil)iects Effecls

Measure:
MEASURE
1
TypelllSum
Source ofSouares df MeanSouare F Siq.
time Sphericity Assumed 5673.746 2 2836.873 121.895 000
Gre e n h o u s e -Ge
i s se r 5673.746 1.211 4685.594 121.895 000
Huynh-Feldt 5673.746 1.247 4550.168 121.895 000
Lower-bound 5673.746 1.000 5673.746 121.895 000
Error(time)SphericityAssumed 930.921 40 23.273
Greenhouse-Geisser 930.921 24.218 38.439
Huynh-Feldt 930.921 24.939 37.328
Lower-bound 930.921 20.000 46.546
The TPesls
of l{ithin-SubjectsEffectsoutput shouldlook very similar to the output
from the otherANOVA commands. In the aboveexample,the effect of TIME has an F
value of 121.90with 2 and 40 degreesof freedom(we use the line for SphericityAs-
sumed).It is significantat less than the .001 level. When describingtheseresults,we
shouldindicatethetypeof test,F value,degrees of freedom,andsignificancelevel.
Phrasing ResultsThatAre Significant

Because the ANOVA resultsweresignificant,we needto do somesortof post-hoc
analysis.One of the main limitationsof SPSSis the difficulty in performingpost-hoc
analysesfor within-subjects
factors.With SPSS,the easiestsolutionto this problemis to
conduct protected dependentt testswith repeated-measures ANOVA. Thereare more
powerful(andmoreappropriate) post-hocanalyses, but SPSSwill not computethem for
us.For moreinformation,consultyour instructoror a moreadvanced statisticstext.
To conductthe protectedt tests,we will comparePRETESTto MIDTERM,
MIDTERM to FINAL, andPRETESTto FINAL, usingpaired-samples I tests.Because we
areconductingthreetestsand,therefore,inflatingour Type I error rate,we will usea sig-
nificancelevelof .017(.05/3)instead
of .05.
74
Paired Samples Test
PairedDifferences
950/o Confidence
Intervalof the
std. Std.Error l)ifferance sig
Mean Dcvietior Mean Lower UoDer df {2-tailed)
Yatr 1 l,KE I E5 |
-15.2857 3 .9 6 41 .8650 -17.0902 - 1 3 . 4 8 1 3 -'t7.670 20 .000
M IDT ERM
Pai 2 PRETEST
. F INAL -22.8095 8.97s6 1 . 9 5 8 6 -26.8952 -18.7239 -11.646 20 .000
P a i r3 M IDT ERM
. F INAL -7.5238 6.5850 1 . 4 3 7 0 - 1 0 . 5 231 4.5264 -5.236 20 .000
The three comparisonseachhad a significancelevel of less than.017, so we can

concludethat the scoresimproved from pretestto midterm and again from midterm to fi-
nal. To generatethe descriptive statistics, we have to run the Descriptivescommand for
eachvariable.
Becausethe resultsof our exampleabovewere significant,we could statethe fol-
lowing:
A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA was calculatedcomparingthe exam
scoresof participantsat three different times: pretest,midterm, and final. A
significant effect was found (F(2,40) : 121.90,p < .001). Follow-up
protectedI testsrevealedthat scoresincreasedsignificantlyfrom pretest(rn :
63.33,sd: 8.93)to midterm(m:78.62, sd:9.66), andagainfrom midterm
to final (m = 86.14,sd:9.63).

With resultsthat are not significant,we could statethe following (the F valueshere
havebeenmadeup for purposesof illustration):
A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA was calculatedcomparingthe exam
scoresof participantsat threedifferent times: pretest,midterm, and final. No
significant effect was found (F(2,40) = 1.90, p > .05). No significant
differenceexistsamongpretest(m: 63.33,sd = 8.93),midterm(m:78.62,
sd:9.66), andfinal(m:86.14, sd: 9.63)means.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 3 in Appendix B. Determine if the anxiety level of partici-
pants changedover time (regardlessof which treatmentthey received) using a one-way
repeated-measuresANOVA and protecteddependentI tests.Write a statementof results.
Section 6.8 Mixed-Design ANOVA
Description
The mixed-designANOVA (sometimescalled a split-plot design) teststhe effects
of more than one independentvariable. At leastone of the independentvariables must
75
be within-subjects(repeatedmeasures).
At leastone of the independentvariables must be
between-subjects.
Assumptions
The dependent variable shouldbe normally distributedand measuredon an inter-
val or ratio scale.
SPSS Data Format

The dependent variable shouldbe representedas one variable for each level of the
within-subjectsindependentvariables.Anothervariableshouldbe presentin the datafile
for each between-subjectsvariable. Thus, a 2 x 2 mixed-designANOVA would require
three variables,two representingthe dependent variable (one at each level), and one rep-
resentingthe between-subjectsindependentvariable.
Running the Command

The GeneralLinear Model commandruns lAnqtr:l g{hs Udear Add-gnr Uhdorn
the Mixed-Design ANOVA command. Click Ana- Rqprto
r oitc|hfiy. $rtBtlca
lyze, then General Linear Model, then Repeated i T.d*t
Measures. Note that this procedure requires an Cocpa''UF46 )
optional module. If you do not have this com- @ )
ilrGdtilod6b
mand, you do not have the proper module in- iifr.{*r }
stalled. This procedure is NOT included in the &rfcrgon l
tAdhraf i
st u dent versi on o/,SPSS.
The RepeatedMeasures command
shouldbe used if any of the independent
variables are repeatedmeasures(within-
gfitsrf*|drvdbbht
IK
subjects). ter I
s*i I
This example also uses the t*.,
GRADES.sav data file. Enter PRETEST, 34 1
MIDTERM, and FINAL in the lhthin-
Subjects Variables block. (See the
RepeatedMeasuresANOVA command in
Section 6.7 for an explanation.) This
exampleis a 3 x 3 mixed-design.There
are two independent variables (TIME
and INSTRUCT), each with three levels.
mT-
We previously enteredthe information for Uoo*..I cotrl... I 8q... I Podg*. I Sm.. | 8e4.. I
TIME in the RepeatedMeasures Define

Factorsdialog box.
We needto transferINSTRUCT into the Between-Subjects Factor(s) block.
Click Options and selectmeansfor all of the main effectsand the interaction (see
one-way ANOVA in Section6.5 for more details about how to do this). Click OK to run
the command.
76
Readingthe Output
As with the standardrepeated measures command,the GLM procedureprovidesa
lot of output we will not use.For a mixed-design ANOVA, we are interestedin two sec-
f Effects.
tions.The first is Testsof Within-Subjects
Tests ot Wrtlrilr-SuuectsEflects
M eas u re :
Typelll Sum
S our c e of Squares df MeanS ouare F sis
time sphericity Assumed 6
5673.74 -
2 2836.873 817.954 000
Gre e n h o u s e -Ge i s s el 5673.746 1.181 4802.586 817.954 000
Huynh-Feldt 6
5673.74 1.356 4' t83.583 817.954 000
Lower-bound 6
5673.74 1.000 5673.746 817.954 000
time' instruct Sphericily Assumed 806.063 4 201.516 58.103 .000
0 re e n h o u s e -Ge i s s e r 806.063 2.363 341.149 58.103 .000
Huynh-Feldt 3
806.06 2.f' t2 297.179 58.103 .000
Lower-bound 806.063 2.000 403.032 58.103 .000
Erro(time) Sphericity Assumed 124857 36 3.468
Gre e n h o u sGee- isser 124.857 21.265 5.871
Huynh-Feldt 124.857 24.41'.| 5.115
Lower-bound 124.857 18.000 6.S37
This sectiongives two of the threeanswerswe need (the main effect for TIME and
the interactionresult for TIME x INSTRUCTOR). The secondsectionof output is Testsof
Between-subjectsEffects (sample output is below). Here, we get the answersthat do not
contain any within-subjects effects. For our example, we get the main effect for
INSTRUCT. Both of thesesectionsmust be combinedto oroduce the full answer for our
analysis.
Testsot Betryeen-Sill)iects
Eltecls
Me a s u reM:EA SU R1E
ransformed Variable:
Typelll Sum
S o u rc e of Squares df MeanS ouare F Siq.
Intercepl 3 6 4 19 2 .0 6 3 I
364192.063 1500.595 .000
inslrucl 18 .6 9 8 2 9.349 .039 .962
En o r 43 6 8 .5 7 1 18 242.6S 8
If we obtain significant effects, we must perform some sort of post-hoc analysis.

Again, this is one of the limitations of SPSS.No easyway to perform the appropriatepost-
hoc test for repeated-measures (within-subjects)factors is available. Ask your instructor
for assistance with this.
When describingthe results,you should include F, the degreesof freedom,and the
significancelevel for eachmain effect and interaction.In addition,somedescriptivesta-
tistics must be included(eithergive meansor includea figure).

There are three answers(at least) for all mixed-designANOVAs. Pleasesee Sec-
tion 6.6 on factorial ANOVA for more detailsabouthow to interpretand phrasethe results.
77
For the aboveexample,we could statethe following in the resultssection(note that this
assumesthat appropriatepost-hoctestshave beenconducted):
A 3 x 3 mixed-designANOVA was calculatedto examinethe effectsof the
instructor(Instructors1,2, and,3)and time (pretest,midterm, and final) on
scores.A significant time x instructor interactionwas present(F(4,36) =
58.10, p <.001). In addition,the main effect for time was significant
(F(2,36): 817.95,p < .001). The main effect for instructor was not
significant(F(2,18): .039,p > .05).Upon examinationof the data,it appears
that Instructor3 showedthe most improvementin scoresover time.
With significant interactions, it is often helpful to provide a graph with the de-
scriptive statistics.By selectingthe Plotsoption in the main dialog box, you can make
graphsof the interaction like the one below. Interactionsadd considerable complexityto
the interpretationof statisticalresults.Consult a researchmethodstext or ask your instruc-
tor for more help with interactions.
ilme
E@rdAs f Crtt"-l -l
-
I, I lffi---_ -z
- - cd.r_J o0
sw&t.tc -3
- x
-==- E
i
s.Cr&Plob: I
L:J r---r
- .
ia
E
, ,,,:;',,1.
"l ","11::::J I
!
-gr!I
E
t
UT
2(Il
inrt?uct
Phrasing Results That Are Not SigniJicant

If our resultshad not beensignificant,we could statethe following (note that the .F
valuesare fictitious):
A 3 x 3 mixed-designANOVA was calculatedto examinethe effectsof the
instructor(lnstructors1,2, and 3) and time (pretest,midterm, and final) on
scores.No significant main effects or interactionswere found. The time x
instructor interaction(F(4,36) = 1.10,p > .05), the main effect for time
(F(2,36)= I .95,p > .05),andthe main effectfor instructor(F(2,18): .039,p
> .05) were all not significant.Exam scoreswere not influencedby either
time or instructor.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 3 in AppendixB. Determineif anxiety levels changedover
time for each of the treatment(CONDITION) types. How did time changeanxiety levels
for eachtreatment?Write a statementof results.
78
Section6.9 Analysisof Covariance
Description
Analysis of covariance(ANCOVA) allows you to remove the effect of a known
covariate. In this way, it becomesa statisticalmethod of control. With methodological
controls (e.g., random assignment),internal validity is gained.When such methodologi-
cal controlsare not possible,statisticalcontrolscan be used.
ANCOVA can be performed by using the GLM command if you have repeated-
measuresfactors. Becausethe GLM commandis not included in the Base Statisticsmod-
ule, it is not includedhere.
Assumptions
ANCOVA requiresthatthe covariatebe significantlycorrelatedwith the depend-
ent variable.The dependentvariableandthecovariateshouldbe at theinterval or ratio
levels.In addition.bothshouldbe normallydistributed.
SPS,SData Format
The SPSSdatafile mustcontainonevariablefor eachindependentvariable,one
variablerepresenting
thedependentvariable,andat leastonecovariate.
Running the Command

The Factorial ANOVA commandis tsr.b"" GrqphrUUnbr,wrndowl.lab
usedto run ANCOVA. To run it, click Ana- Reports
lyze, then General Linear Model, then Uni- Dascrl$lveSt$stks
variate. Follow the directionsdiscussedfor
factorial ANOVA, using the HEIGHT.sav
sampledata file. Placethe variableHEIGHT
as your DependentVariable.Enter SEX as
your Fixed Factor, then WEIGHT as the Co-
variate.This last stepdeterminesthe differ- Dogrdrfvdirt{c t{od.L. I
encebetweenregularfactorialANOVA and l-.:-r
-
[7m- c**-1
ANCOVA. Click OK to run theANCOVA. llr,.. I
|'rii l.ri I
*l*:" I
till q&,, I
Crd{'r.t{r}
td
f-;-'l wlswc0't
l '|ffi
j.*.1,q*J*lgl
79
Reading the Output

The outputconsistsof onemain sourcetable(shownbelow).This tablegivesyou
the main effects and interactionsyou would have receivedwith a normal factorial
ANOVA. In addition,thereis a row for eachcovariate.In our example,we haveonemain
effect(SEX)andonecovariate(WEIGHT).Normally,we examinethe covariateline only
to confirmthatthecovariateis significantlyrelatedto thedependentvariable.
Drawing Conclusions
This sampleanalysiswas performedto determineif malesand femalesdiffer in
height,afterweightis accounted for. We knowthatweightis relatedto height.Ratherthan
matchparticipants or usemethodological controls,we canstatisticallyremovethe effectof
weight.
When giving the resultsof ANCOVA, we must give F, degreesof freedom,and
significancelevelsfor all main effects,interactions,and covariates.If main effectsor
interactions are significant,post-hoctests must be conducted.Descriptive statistics
(meanandstandarddeviation)for eachlevelof theindependentvariable shouldalsobe
given.
Va ri a b l e :H EIGH T
Typelll
Sumof Mean
Source Souares df S orrare F Siq.
9orrecreoMooel 215.0274 2 1U /.D 'tJ 100.476 .000
lntercept 5.580 I 5.580 5.215 .040
WEIGHT 1 1 9.964 1 1't9.964 112.112 .000
SEX 66.367 1 66.367 62.023 .000
Error 1 3.911 13 1.070
Total 7 1 9 1 9.000 16
CorrectedTotal 228.938 15
a. R Squared= .939(AdjustedR Squared= .930)
Theaboveexample
obtained
a significant
result,sowecouldstatethefollowing:
A one-waybetween-subjects ANCOVA wascalculatedto examinethe effect
of sexon height,covaryingout theeffectof weight.Weightwassignificantly
relatedto height(F(1,13): ll2.ll,p <.001). The maineffectfor sexwas
significant(F(1,13): 62.02,p< .001),with malessignificantl!taler (rn:
69.38,sd:3.70) thanfemales (m = 64.50,sd = 2.33\.

If the covariateis not significant,we needto repeatthe analysiswithoutincluding
thecovariate(i.e.,run a norrnalANOVA).
For ANCOVA resultsthat are not significant,you could statethe following (note
thattheF valuesaremadeup for thisexample):
80
A one-waybetween-subjects ANCOVA was calculatedto examinethe effect

of sex on height,covaryingout the effect of weight. Weight was significantly
relatedto height(F(1,13)= ll2.ll, p <.001). The main effectfor sexwas not
significant(F'(1,13)= 2.02,p > .05),with malesnot beingsignificantlytaller
(m : 69.38, sd : 3.70) than females (m : 64.50, sd : 2.33\, even after
covaryingout the effect of weight.
Practice Exercise
Using Practice Data Set 2 in Appendix B, determine if salariesare different for
males and females.Repeatthe analysis,statisticallycontrolling for years of service.Write
a statementof resultsfor each.Compareand contrastyour two answers.
Section6.10 MultivariateAnalysisof Variance(MANOVA)
Description
Multivariatetestsare thosethat involve more than one dependentvariable. While
it is possible to conduct severalunivariatetests (one for each dependent variable), this
causesType I error inflation.Multivariatetestslook at all dependentvariables at once,
in much the sameway that ANOVA looks at all levels of an independent variable at
once.
Assumptions
MANOVA assumesthat you havemultipledependentvariables that are relatedto
each other. Each dependent variable should be normally distributedand measuredon an
interval or ratio scale.
SPSS Data Format

The SPSSdatafile shouldhavea variablefor eachdependentvariable. One addi-
independent variable. It is also pos-
tional variable is required for eachbetween-subjects
sible to do a MANCOVA, a repeated-measures MANOVA and a repeated-measures
MANCOVA as well. Theseextensionsrequire additionalvariablesin the data file.
Running the Command

Note that this procedure requires an optional module. If you do not have this
command, you do not have the proper module installed. This procedure is NOT included
in the student version o/SPSS.
The following data representSAT and GRE scoresfor 18 participants.Six partici-
pants receivedno specialtraining, six receivedshort-termtraining before taking the tests,
and six receivedlong-term training. GROUP is coded0 : no training, I = short-term,2 =
lons-term.Enter the dataand savethem as SAT.sav.
8l
Chapter6 Parametriclnferential Statistics
SAT GRE GROUP

580 600 0
520 520 0
500 510 0
410 400 0
650 630 0
480 480 0
500 490 I
640 650 I
500 480 I
500 510 I
580 570 I
490 500 I
520 520 2
620 630 2
550 560 2
500 510 2
540 560 2
600 600 2
Locate the Multivariate commandby ffi; gaphs t$ltt6t Ad$tfrs WNry

clickingAnalyze,thenGeneralLinearModel, RrW I
: , Wq$nv*st*rus )
thenMultivariate. i ,1$lie t
)
(onddc )
Bsrysrsn )
Iqkrcc cocporpntr'.,
Lgdrcs ,
This will bring up the main dialog

box. Enter the dependentvariables (GRE
and SAT, in this case)in theDependentVari-
ables blank. Enter the independent vari-
able(s)(GROUP,in this case)in the Fixed
Factor(s)blank. Click OK to run the com-
mand.
Readingthe Output
in two primarysectionsof output.The first onegivesthe results
We are interested
of the multivariatetests.The sectionlabeledGROUPis the one we want. This tells us
whetherGROUPhadan effecton anyof our dependentvariables.Fourdifferenttypesof
multivariatetestresultsaregiven.The mostwidely usedis Wilks'Lambda.Thus,the an-
swerfor theMANOVA is a Lambdaof .828,with 4 and28 degrees of freedom.Thatvalue
is not significant.
82
hIIltiv.T i.ile Teslsc
Efiecl Value F Hypothesis

df Enordf sis.
Intercept Pillai'sTrace .988 569.1 87. 2.000 4.000 000
Wilks'Lambda .012 569.1 97. 2.000 4.000 000
Hotelling's
Trace 81.312 569.187: 2.000 4.000 000
Roy'sLargestRoot 81.312 569.1 87! 2.000 4.000 000
group Pillai's
Trace 1t4 .713 4.000 30.000 590
Wilks'Lambda 828 .693: 1.000 28.000 603
Holelling's
Trace 206 .669 4.000 26.000 619
Roy'sLargestRool 196 't.469b 2.000 15.000 261
a. Exactstatistic
b. Theslatistic
is an upperbound
onFthatyields
a lowerbound
onthesignificance
level.
c. Design:Intercept+group
The secondsectionof output we want gives the resultsof the univariatetests

(ANOVAs)for eachdependentvariable.
Tests ot BelweerFs[l)iectsEflects
Typelll Sum
S our c e Dependen Vta ri a b l e of Squares df Mean
Suuare F Sio.
ConecledModel sat 3077.778' 2 1538.889 .360 .703
gre 5200.000b 2 2600.000 .587 .568
Intercept sat 5 2 05688.889 1 5205688.889 1219.448 .000
gre 5 2 48800.000 1 5248800.000 1185.723 .000
group sat 307t.t78 2 1538.889 .360 .703
gre 5200.000 I 2600.000 .597 .568
Enor sal 64033.333 15 4268.889
gre 66400.000 15 4426.667
Total sat 5272800.000 18
g te 5320400.000 18
Corrected Total sat 67111.111 4'
ta
qre 71600.000 17
a. R S qu a re=d .0 4 6(A d j u s teRd S q u a re=d -.081)
b. R S qu a re d = .0 7(Ad
3 j u s teRdSq u a re d=051)
-
Drawing Conclusions
We interpretthe resultsof the univariatetestsonly if the group Wilks'Lambdais
significant.Our resultsare not significant,but we will first considerhow to interpretre-
sultsthataresignificant.
83

If we had received
llldbl.Ielrc
the following output instead, Ertscl value d] Frr6t dl Sr d
we would have had a Inlercepl PillaIsTrace .989 613.592. 2.000 t.000 .000
Wilks'Lambda .0tI 6a3.592. 2.000 r.000 .000
significant MANOVA, and Holsllln0's
T€cs 91.912 6t3.592. 2 000 1.000 .000
RoYsLargsslRoot 91.912 613.592. 2.000 {.000 .000
we could statethe following: group piilai's Trec€ .579 1 n{o | 000 30.000 032
Wllks'Lambda .123 3.157. I 000 28.000 011
HolellingbTrace 1.t01 I 000 26.000 008
Roy's Largsst Rool t .350 't0.t25r 2.000 I 5.000 002
a Exatlslalistic
b. Thestausticis an uppsrboundon F halyisldsa lffisr boundonthesiqnitcancB
lml
c. Desi0n:
Intercepl+0roup
Ieir oaSrtrocs|alEl. Effoda

Typelll gum
Sourca OsoandahlVa.i dl xean si0
corected todet sat 62017.tt8' 2 31038.889 t.250 006
gf8 963tt att! 2 13'1t2.222 9.r 65 002
htorc€pt Sat 5859605.556 5859605.556 I 368.711 000
ue 5997338.889 5997338.8S9I 314.885 000
gfoup sal 620tt.t78 2 31038.089 |.250 006
ore 863aral a 431t2.222 9.t65 002
Erol sat 61216 667 15 4281.11 ',l
0rs 6S| |6 667 15 1561.,|'rr
T0lal 5985900.000 18
ote 6152r00 000
Cor€cled Tolal sal 126291.444
0re 151761 1|1 l7
A one-wayMANOVA wascalculated examiningthe effectof training(none,

short-term,long-term)on MZand GREscores.A significanteffectwasfound
(Lambda(4,28) = ,423,p: .014).Follow-upunivariateANOVAs indicated
thatSATscoresweresignificantlyimprovedby training(F(2,15): 7.250,p :
.006).GRE scoreswere also significantlyimprovedby training(F(2,15):
9'465,P = '002).
Phrasing ResultsThat Are Not Significant

The actualexamplepresented
wasnot significant.Therefore,
we couldstatethefol-
lowingin theresultssection:
A one-wayMANOVA wascalculated examiningtheeffectof training(none,
short-term,or long-term)on SIZ andGREscores.No significanteffect was
found (Lambda(4,28) = .828,p > .05).NeitherSAT nor GRE scoreswere
significantlyinfluenced
by training.
84
Chapter7
NonparametricInferentialStatistics
Nonparametric testsareusedwhenthecorresponding parametricprocedure is inap-
propriate.Normally,this is becausethe dependentvariable is not interval- or ratio-
scaled.It can alsobe becausethe dependentvariable is not normallydistributed.If the
statisticsmayalsobe appropriate.
dataof interestarefrequencycounts,nonparametric
Section7.1 Chi-square Goodnessof Fit
Description
The chi-squaregoodness whetheror not sampleproportions
of fit testdetermines
values.For example,it couldbe usedto determineif a die is "loaded"
matchthe theoretical
or fair. couldalso usedto comparethe proportionof childrenborn with birth defects
It be
to the populationvalue (e.g.,to determineif a certainneighborhood has a statistically
higher{han-normal rateof birth defects).
Assumptions
We needto makevery few assumptions. Thereareno assumptionsaboutthe shape
for eachcategoryshouldbe at leastl, andno
of the distribution.The expectedfrequencies
morethan20%o shouldhaveexpectedfrequencies
of thecategories of lessthan5.
Data Format
SP,S,S
onlya singlevariable.
SPSSrequires
Runningthe Command
We will createthe following dataset and call it COINS.sav.The following data
theflippingof eachof two coins20 times(H is codedasheads,T astails).
represent
C o i NI: H T H H T H H T H HHTTTHTHTTH
C O i N 2:T T H H T H T H TTHHTH HTHTHH
Namethe two variablesCOINI andCOIN2,andcodeH as I andT as 2. The data
file thatyou createwill have20 rowsof dataandtwo columns,calledCOINI andCOIN2.
85
Chapter7 NonparametricInferentialStatistics
To run the Chi-Square comman{

click Analyze,then Nonparametric Tests, ,le*l 1-l RePsts )
Dascri*hrcststistict I
then Chi-Square. This will bring up the :Y,:f Cdmec lih€nt l
main dialog box for the Chi-SquareTest. 6nsrdlhcir$,lo*l t
Transfer the variable COINI into Csrd*c t
RiErcrskn ,
the Test Variable List. A "fair" coin has d.$dfy I
an equal chance of coming up heads or O*ERadwllon ,
tails. Therefore, we will leave the E'"r- ft.k t
pected Values setto All categories equal. @tkfta 5*b, )

We could test a specific set of Qudry{onbd }
proportions by entering the relative fre- ROCCt vi,,.
Tail akrdoprdc* 5unphg.,.
quencies in the Expected Values area. KMgerdant Sffrpbs,,,
Click OK to run the analysis. 2Rddldtudcs",,
i Haad
KRd*ad Ssrpbs,,.
i***- xeio'
.r...X
pKl
n3nI
iryd I
i E$cOrURutClc
' 3Ll
; 6 Garrna*c
r (. Usarp.dirdrarr0o
l
: : . i) iir ' l I
i
i r t , t , i, t I
Reading the Output

The output consistsof two sec- cotNl
tions. The first sectiongives the frequen-
Observed Expected
cies (observed1f) of each value of the
N N Residual
variable. The expectedvalue is given,
Head 11 10.0 1. 0
along with the differenceof the observed
Tail 9 10.0 -1. 0
from the expectedvalue (called the re-
Total 20
sidual).In our example,with 20 flips of a
coin, we shouldget l0 of eachvalue.
The second section of the
Test Statistics output gives the resultsof the chi-
squaretest.
coinl
unt-uquareo .200
df 1
Asymp. Sig. .655

a. 0 cells(.0%)haveexpected
frequencies
lessthan
5. The minimumexpectedcellfrequency
is 10.0.
86
Drawing Conclusions
A significantchi-square testindicatesthat the datavary from the expected
A testthatis not significaniindicatesthatthedata values.
areconsistent with theexpectedvalues.
Phrasing ResultsThat Are Significant
In describingtheresults,you shouldstatethe v.alue
of chi-square (whosesymbolis
the
1'1' degrees.of dt.aot, it.'rignin.ance level,anaa description
ample'with a significantchi-square of the results.For ex-
(for,a sample'different
from the exampleabove,such
asif we haduseda "loaded"die),we courdstati
the foilowing:
A chi-square goodness of fit testwascalculated comparingthe frequencyof
occurrence of eachvalueof a die.It washypothesized thateachvaluewould
occuran equalnumberof times.Significanideviation
nor trtr rtypothesized
valueswasfoundfXlSl :25.4g,p i.OS).Thedie
appearsto be.,loaded.,,
Notethatthisexampleuseshypothetical values.
Phrasing ResultsThatAre NotSignificant
If the analysisproducesno significantdifference,
as in the previousexample,we
couldstatethefollowing:
A chi-squaregoodnessof fit testwascalculated
comparingthe frequencyof
occulrence
of headsandtailson a coin.It washypothesized
would occur an equalnumberof times.No significant thateachvalue
deviationfrom the
hypothesized
valueswasfound(xre): .20,p rlOsl. The coin
fair. apfearsto be
Practice Exercise
Use Practice Data Set 2 in Appendix B. In the entire population from which the
sample was drawn , 20yo of employees are clerical, 50Yo are technical, and 30%oare profes-
sional.Determinewhetheror not thesampledrawnconformsto thesevalues.HINT: Enter
therelative proportionsof thethreesamplesin order(20, 50, 30) in the"ExpectedValues"
afea.
Section 7.2 Chi-Square Test of Independence
Description
The chi-squaretest of independencetests whether or not two variables are inde-
pendent of each other. For example, flips of a coin should be independent events, so
knowing the outcome of one coin toss should not tell us anything about the secondcoin
toss.The chi-squaretest of independenceis essentiallya nonparametricversion of the in-
teraction term in ANOVA.
87
Drawing Conclusions
A significant chi-squaretest indicatesthat the data vary from the expectedvalues.
A test that is not significantindicatesthat the dataare consistentwith the expectedvalues.
Phrosing Results That Are Significant

In describingthe results,you shouldstatethe value of chi-square(whosesymbolis
1t;, th" degreesof freedom,the significance level, and a descriptionof the results.For ex-
ample, with a significant chi-square(for a sampledifferent from the example above,such
as if we had useda "loaded"die), we could statethe following:
A chi-squaregoodnessof fit test was calculatedcomparingthe frequencyof
occunenceof eachvalue of a die. It was hypothesizedthat eachvalue would
occur an equal numberof times. Significantdeviationfrom the hypothesized
valueswas foundC6:25.48,p < .05).The die appearsto be "loaded."
Note that this exampleuseshypotheticalvalues.

If the analysisproducesno significantdifference,as in the previousexample,we
could statethe following:
A chi-squaregoodnessof fit test was calculatedcomparingthe frequencyof
occurrenceof headsand tails on a coin. It was hypothesizedthat eachvalue
would occur an equal number of times. No significant deviation from the
hypothesizedvalueswas found (tttl: .20,p > .05).The coin appearsto be
fair.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in Appendix B. In the entire populationfrom which the
samplewas drawn, 20o of employeesare clerical, 50Yoaretechnical, and30o/oare profes-
sional. Determinewhetheror not the sampledrawn conformsto thesevalues.HINT: Enter
the relativeproportionsof the threesamplesin order(20, 50,30) in the "ExpectedValues"
area.
Section7.2 Chi-SquareTestof Independence
Description
The chi-squaretest of independencetests whether or not two variables are inde-
pendentof each other. For example,flips of a coin should be independent events, so
knowing the outcome of one coin toss should not tell us anything about the secondcoin
toss.The chi-squaretest of independenceis essentiallya nonparametricversion of the in-
teraction term in ANOVA.
87
Assumptions
Very few assumptionsare needed.For example,we make no assumptionsaboutthe
shapeof the distribution. The expectedfrequenciesfor each categoryshould be at least l,
and no more than 20o/oof the categoriesshouldhave expectedfrequenciesof lessthan 5.
Data Format
.SP,SS
At leasttwo variablesare required.
Running the Command

The chi-square test of independenceis a llfr}1,* qrg" l.[fltias llllnds* Heb
component of the Crosstabscommand. For more Rpports
details, see the section in Chapter 3 on frequency fraqrerrhs,,,
distributionsfor more than one variable. Compali l&nllt
This exampleusesthe COINS.savexample. ' 6nn*rEll."f,rsarMMd
ConeJat*
COINI is placed in the Row(s) blank, and COIN2 Reqn*e$uh R*lo;,.
is placedin the Column(s)blank. Clarsfy P+ P{att,,.
. OaioRrductlon *QPlotr,.,
Scala
*:51
.!rd I
siJ
H'b I
$,iii1ilr'tirir
':l
Click Statistics.then check the Chi- p&ffi |- Cqrddionc
square box. Click Continue. You may also , x\ire- Or*ut -*-, -
want to click Cel/s to select expected fre- f CedilgacycodlU*r

i
il* larna
.w . l
, H +l
[-
quenciesin addition to observedfrequencies, f FiadCrrm#rv
, : i f- lalar'd
Llrnbda f Kcnddrldr!
as we will do on the next page.Click OK to ruTa'rvYY i lrYa'*o
run the analysis. -Ndridblrttavc -- '. f-
[qea
f-Eta , TnFr
- *, f- Uatcru
l- Coc*rgrfs l{do}Hlcse6l d.ridbs
'ld
'| '.r '' .::'t':,:;, l t-
88
Readingthe Output
The output consistsof two COINI' GOIN2Crosstabulatlon
parts.The first part gives you the corN2
counts.In this example,the actual Head Tail Total
golNl Fleao uounl 4 11
and expectedfrequencies are shown Expected 11.0
becausethey were selectedwith the 6.1 EN
Count
Cel/soption. Tail Count 4 Y
Expected
5.0 4.1 9 .0
Count
I
?r{t$t,,,.l!{h I l?ry1!,,, Total Count
Expected
11 I 20
11.0 on 20.0
Count
!
Ccrr*c fq.rrt I
Note that you can also use the Cells option to
,--!
;l? 0b*cvcd : Cr"* |
display the percentagesof each variable that are each
1v rxpccico
fron I value. This is especiallyuseful when your groups are
N
P"cc*$or Rrdd'Alc different sizes.
i
il* npw i if uttlaltddtu I
The secondpart of the output gives the results
;l" Colrm I lf $.n*rtu I of the chi-squaretest.The most commonlyusedvalue
t|* ral I ll* n4,a"e*aru*Auco I
1.,..-...-..-..--,..----".*.J
i.-*-..--.--.--.'***--*--***-l is the Pearson chi-square, shown in the first row
: N o d r l c $a W{ t*t - ' - ""- "- ^ ' - " ' - "- l
(valueof .737).
i r no,"u.or"or*r l^ 8o.ndc..trradtr
i
I f Trurlccalcorntr l. Innc*cr*vralrf*
|
I r Xor4.r*rprr I
Chi-SquareTests
Asymp.Sig ExactSig, ExactSig.
Value df (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided)
PearsonL;nr-!'quare {3t" I .391
ContinuityCorrectiorf 165 1 .684
LikelihoodRatio 740 1
.390
Fisher'sExactTest .653 .342
Linear-by-Linear .403
700 I
Association
N of ValidCases 20
a' ComputedonlYfor a 2x2lable
b. 3 cells(75.0%)haveexpectedcountlessthan 5. The minimumexpectedcountis 4.
05.
Drawing Conclusions
A significantchi-squaretest resultindicatesthat the two variablesare not inde-
pendent.A valuethatis not significantindicatesthatthe variablesdo not vary significantly
from independence.
89

In describingthe results,you shouldgive the valueof chi-square, the degreesof
freedom,the significancelevel,and a description of the For
results. example,with a sig-
nificantchi-square(for a datasetdifferentfrom the one discussed above),we couldstate
thefollowing:
A chi-squaretestof independencewascalculatedcomparingthe frequencyof
heartdiseasein menandwomen.A significantinteraction wasfound(f(l) :
23.80,p < .05).Men weremorelikely to get heartdisease (68%)thanwere
women(40%\
Notethatthis summarystatement assumesthata testwasrun in whichparticipants'sex,as
wascoded.
well aswhetheror not theyhadheartdisease,

A chi-squaretestthatis not significantindicatesthatthereis no significantdepend-
enceof onevariableon the other.The coin exampleabovewasnot significant.Therefore,
we couldstatethefollowing:
A chi-squaretest of independencewas calculatedcomparing the result of
flipping two coins.No significantrelationshipwas found (I'(l) = .737,p>
events.
.05).Flipsof a coinappearto be independent
Practice Exercise
A researcherwantsto knowwhetheror not individualsaremorelikely to helpin an
emergencywhen they are indoorsthan when they are outdoors.Of 28 participantswho
wereoutdoors,19helpedand9 did not.Of 23 participants who wereindoors,8helpedand
15 did not. Enterthesedata,and find out if helpingbehavioris affectedby the environ-
ment.The key to this problemis in the dataentry.(Hint: How many participantswere
there,andwhatdo you knowabouteachparticipant?)
Section7.3 Mann-Whitnev UTest
Description
The Mann-WhitneyU testis thenonparametric equivalentof the independentt test.
samplesarefrom thesamedistribution.The Mann-
It testswhetheror not two independent
WhitneyU testis weaker thanthe t test,and the / testshouldbe usedif you
independent
canmeetits assumptions.
Assumptions
The Mann-WhitneyU testusesthe rankingsof the data.Therefore,the datafor the
two samplesmustbe at leastordinal. Thereareno assumptionsaboutthe shapeof the dis-
tribution.
90
!il;tIFfFF".
,SPS,S
Data Format
This command requiresa singlevariablerepresenting
thedependentvariableand
a second
variableindicating
groupmembership.
Running the Command

This example will use a new data
file. It representsl2 participantsin a series
of races. There were long races, medium
races, and short races. Participants either
had a lot of experience (2), some
experience(l), or no experience(0).
Enter the data from the figure at
right in a new file, and savethe data file as
RACE.sav. The values for LONG.
MEDIUM, and SHORT represent the
results of the race, with I being first place
and 12 being last.
I Andy* qaphr U*lx WMw lbb To run the command,click Analyze, then Non-
i
I
R.po.ti ,
[6 gl*l parametric Tests, then 2 Independent Samples. This
Doroht*o1raru.r ,
Cd||olaaMcrfE t willbring up the maindialog box.
| 6on ralthccl'lodd I Enter the dependentvariable (LONG, for this
j C*ru|*c )
r Rooa!33hn example) in the Test Variable List blank. Enter the in-
cta*iry )'
i
j DatrRoddton )
dependentvariable (EXPERIENCE)as the Grouping
' Sada ) Variable.Make surethat Mann-WhitneyU is checked.
:@e@
J llrsSarfr t
O$squr.,..
thd|*rl... Click Define Groupsto selectwhich two groups
I Q.s*y Cr*rd t Rur... you will compare.For this example,we will compare
I BOCCuv.,,, 1-sdTpbX-5,..
nl 3 those runners with no experience(0) to those runners
' --- rl@ttsstpht,.,
nl ei--'
e Rlnand5{ndnr,,,
with a lot of experience(2). Click OK to run the
n]' rf KRdetcdsrmplo*.,, analvsis.
bl 2:
liiiriil',,,
-5J
IKJ | &r*!r*l
C.,"* |
],TYTI ryl
GnuphgVadadr: fry* |
fffii0?r-* l*J
l ; ..' ,''r 1,
iTod Tiryc**-
il7 Mxn.\dWn6yu I_ Ko&nonsov'SrnirnovZ
I
l- Mosasa<tcnproactkmc l- W#.Wdrowfrznnrg
9l
Reading the Output

The output consistsof two Ranks
sections.The first sectiongivesde- exDenence N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
scriptive statisticsfor the two sam- rong .uu 4 o.cu Zb.UU
ples. Becausethe data are only re- 2.OO 4 2.50 10.00

Total 8
quiredto be ordinal, summaries re-
latingto their ranksareused.Those Test Statisticsb
participantswho had no experienceaveraged6.5 as
lono
their placein the race.Thoseparticipants with a lot of Mann-wnrrney
u .000
experience averaged 2.5astheirplacein therace. WilcoxonW 10.000
The secondsectionof the outputis the resultof z -2.309
the Mann-WhitneyU test itself. The value obtained Asymp.Sig.(2-tailed) .021
was0.0,with a significance levelof .021. ExactSig.[2'(1-tailed a
sis.)l .029
a. Notcorrectedfor ties.
b. Grouping
Variable:
experience
Drawing Conclusions
A significantMann-WhitneyU resultindicatesthatthetwo samplesaredifferentin
termsof theiraverageranks.

Our exampleaboveis significant,sowe couldstatethefollowing:
A Mann-Whitney Utestwascalculated examiningtheplacethatrunnerswith
varyinglevelsof experience took in a long-distance
race.Runnerswith no
experience
did significantlyworse(m place: 6.50)thanrunnerswith a lot of
(m place: 2.5A;U = 0.00,p < .05).
experience

If we conductthe analysison the short-distanceraceinsteadof the long-distance
race,we will getthefollowingresults,whicharenot significant.
Ranks T..t St tlttlct

shorl
exDerience N MeanRank Sumof Ranks Manrr-wtltnoy u /.cuu
short .00 4 4.63 18.50 Wilcoxon W 17.500
z -.145
2.00 4 4.38 17.50 Asymp. Sig. (2-tail6d) .885
Total I Exact Sig. [2'(1-tailed
.886
t
sis.)l
a. Not corscled for ties.
b GrouprngVanabb: sxporience
92
Therefore,we could statethe following:

A Mann-Whitney U test was used to examine the difference in the race
performance of runners with no experience and runners with a lot of
experiencein a short-distancerace.No significantdifferencein the resultsof
the racewas found (U :7.50,p > .05).Runnerswith no experienceaveraged
a placeof 4.63. Runnerswith a lot of experienceaveraged4.38.
Practice Exercise
Assumethat the mathematicsscoresin PracticeExercise I (Appendix B) are meas-
ured on an ordinal scale.Determineif youngerparticipants(< 26) have significantly lower
mathematicsscoresthan older participants.
Section7.4 Wilcoxon Test
Description
The Wilcoxontestis the nonparametric equivalentof the paired-samples (depend-
ent) t test.It testswhetheror not two relatedsamplesare from the samedistribution.The
Wilcoxontestis weakerthanthe independent I test,so the I testshouldbe usedif you can
meetits assumptions.
Assumptions
The Wilcoxontestis basedon thedifferencein rankings.The datafor the two sam-
plesmustbe at leastordinal. Thereareno assumptions
aboutthe shapeof thedistribution.
SP^SS
Data Format
The testrequirestwo variables.Onevariablerepresents
the dependentvariable at
onelevelof the independentvariable.The othervariablerepresentsthe dependentvari-
ableat thesecondlevelof theindependentvariable.
Running the Command

lrnil$ re*|r u*t Locate the command by clicking Analyze, then Non-
parametric Tests,then 2 Related Samples.This example uses
the RACE.savdataset.
Crrd*!
;l ; --f---"" This will
'.;,'{'
sd*
bring up the dia-
o*sqr'.., ' I log box for the
*!!fd... I r r r :t^^- .^
test.
ffi | wilcoxon m 9$l
-35+- li*.1;X.**".. I Note the similar- ,Hrl
itv hetween it and *
-.lggg*g,lggj=l lcucf8drcdom- - " -"-l f l.dltf. --- - ---
i ; .W tne dialog box ivti*r, : ip ulte!
'-
sip l- xrNdil :
, Vrnra2 ,I
for the dependentt test. If you have trouble,
oetm..I
(paired-
referto Section6.4 on the dependent
samples) I testin Chapter6.
93
Transferthe variablesLONG andMEDIUM as a pair andclick OK to run the test.

This will determineif the runnersperformequivalentlyon long- and medium-distance
races.
Readingthe Output
The outputconsistsof two parts.The first partgivessummarystatisticsfor thetwo
variables.The secondsectioncontainstheresultof theWilcoxontest(givenas4.
Ranks TestStatisticsb
Mean Sumof MEDIUM -
N Rank Ranks LONG
MEUTUM
- NegaUVe a z -1214
LONG Ranks
4 5.38 21.50
Asymp.
Positive D sig. .904
Ranks
5 4.70 23.50
(2-tailed)
Ties 3c a' Basedon
Total 12 negativeranks.
A . M ED IU M< L ON G b'wilcoxon
b. tr,lgOtUtr,it>
LONG SignedRanks
c . LON G = M ED IU M
Test
The exampleaboveshowsthatno significantdifferencewasfoundbetweenthe re-

sultsof the long-distance
andmedium-distance
races.

A significantresultmeansthat a changehasoccurredbetweenthe two measure-
ments.If thathappened,
we couldstatethefollowing:
A Wilcoxon test examinedthe resultsof the medium-distance and long-
distance wasfoundin theresults(Z = 3.40,p <
races.A significantdifference
.05).Medium-distance results.
resultswerebetterthanlong-distance
Notethattheseresultsarefictitious.

In fact,the resultsin the exampleabovewerenot significant,so we couldstatethe
following:
A Wilcoxon test examinedthe resultsof the medium-distance and long-
distance wasfoundin theresults(Z:4.121,
races.No significantdifference
p > .05).Medium-distance resultswerenot significantlydifferentfrom long-
distanceresults.
Practice Exercise
Use the RACE.savdata file to determinewhetheror not the outcomeof short-
races.Phraseyour results.
distanceracesis differentfrom thatof medium-distance
94
Section7.5 Kruskal-WallisIl Test
Description
The Kruskal-Wallis .F/ test is the nonparametric equivalent of the one-way
ANOVA. It testswhetheror not severalindependentsamplescome from the samepopula-
tion.
Assumptions
Becausethe test is nonparametric,there are very few assumptions.However, the
test doesassumean ordinal level of measurement for the dependentvariable. The inde-
pendentvariable shouldbe nominal or ordinal.
,SPS,S
Data Format
SPSSrequiresone variableto representthe dependentvariable and anotherto rep-
resentthe levelsof the independentvariable.
Running the Command

This exampleusesthe RACE.savdatafile. To run ffi
the command,click Analyze, then Nonparametric Tests,
Co,rpftlbfF )
then K IndependentSamples.This will bring up the main | 6;?Cl"tsilodd r
I
dialog box. i Canl*t
Ratatdan
i
Enter the independentvariable (EXPERIENCE) ; d # r t '
0d! ildrdoft I
as the Grouping Variable, and click Define Range to de- Ii scdi I
fine the lowest (0) and highest(2) values.Enter the de- l@
('$5*|..,.
J thr Sarbr l ffudd,,.
pendent variable (LONG) in the Test VariableList, and ) qr.nr(o.*rd t RrJf.,.
I nOCArs,., l-Samda(-5.,.
click OK.
2
(nC*dsdd.r.,,
RangpforEm{*tEVrri*lt
t c"{h.I
Mi{run l0
+ry{ |
Mrrdlrrrn la Hdp I
Ranks
Reading the Output
exoerience N MeanRank
The output consists of two parts. rong .uu 4 1 0. 5 0
The first part gives summary statisticsfor 1.00 4 6.50
each of the groups defined by the group- 2.00 4 2.50
ing (independent) variable. Total 12
95
The secondpart of the outputgivesthe results Test Statisticf,b

of the Kruskal-Wallistest(givenas a chi-squarevalue, lonq
but we will describeit as an II).The examplehereis a unr-uquare 9.846
significantvalueof 9.846. df 2
Asymp. Sig. .007
a' KruskalWallis
Test
b. GroupingVariable:experience
Drawing Conclusions
Like the one-wayANOVA, the Kruskal-Wallistest assumesthat the groupsare
equal.Thus,a significantresultindicatesthatat leastoneof the groupsis differentfrom at
leastone othergroup.Unlike the One-llayANOVAcommand,however,thereareno op-
tionsavailablefor post-hocanalysis.

Theexampleaboveis significant,sowe couldstatethe following:
A Kruskal-Wallistest was conductedcomparingthe outcomeof a long-
distancerace for nmnerswith varying levels of experience.A significant
resultwas found(H(2): 9.85,p < .01),indicatingthat the groupsdiffered
from eachother.Runnerswith no experienceaveraged a placementof 10.50,
while runnerswith someexperienceaveraged 6.50andrunnerswith a lot of
experienceaveraged2.50. The more experiencethe runnershad, the better
theyperformed.
Phrasing ResultsThqtAre Not Significant

If we conducted race,we would
the analysisusingthe resultsof the short-distance
getthefollowingoutput,whichis not significant.
Ranks Teet Statlstlc$'b
exoenence N MeanRank short

snon .uu 4 6.3E unFuquare .299
1.00 4 7.25 df 2
2.00 Asymp.Sig. .861
4 5.88
Total 12 a. KruskalWallisTest
b. GroupingVariable:
experience
This resultis not significant,sowe couldstatethe following:

A Kruskal-Wallistest was conductedcomparingthe outcomeof a short-
distancerace for runnerswith varying levelsof experience.No significant
differencewasfound(H(2):0.299,p > .05),indicatingthat the groupsdid
not differ significantlyfrom eachother.Runnerswith no experience
averaged
a placement of 6.38,while nmnerswith someexperience averaged7.25 and
nmnerswith a lot of experience averaged 5.88.Experiencedid not seemto
influencethe resultsof the short-distance
race.
96
Chapter7 NonparametricInfbrentialStatistics
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in AppendixB. Job classificationis ordinal (clerical<
technical< professional).
Determineif malesandfemaleshavedifferinglevelsofjob clas-
sifications.Phraseyourresults.
Section7.6 Friedman Test
Description
The Friedmantestis thenonparametric
equivalentof a one-wayrepeated-measures
ANOVA. It is usedwhenyou havemorethantwo measurements from relatedparticipants.
Assumptions
The testusesthe rankingsof thevariables,so the datamustbe at leastordinal. No
otherassumptionsarerequired.
SP,SSData Format
SPSSrequiresat leastthreevariablesin the SPSSdatafile. Eachvariablerepre-
sentsthedependentvariableat oneof thelevelsof theindependentvariable.
Running the Command

Locatethe commandby clickingAnalyze,then
NonparametricTests,thenK RelatedSamples.This will
bringup themaindialogbox.
f r;'ld{iv f* Cdi#ln
Placeall the variablesrepresenting the levelsof the independentvariable in the

TestVariablesarea.For this example,usethe RACE.savdatafile andthevariablesLONG,
MEDIUM. andSHORT.Click O1(.
97
Readingthe Output
The outputconsistsof two sections.The first sectiongivesyou summarystatistics
for eachof the variables.The secondsectionof the outputgivesyou the resultsof the test
as a chi-squarevalue. The examplehere has a value of 0.049 and is not significant
(Asymp.Sig.,otherwise knownasp,is .976,whichis greater than.05).
Ranks Test Statisticf
Mean 12
Rank Chi-Square| .049
LUNU 2.00 d f lz
MEDIUM 2.04 Asymp.Sis.
| .976
SHORT 1.96
a. Friedman
Test
Drawing Conclusions
The Friedmantest assumesthat the threevariablesare from the samepopulation.A
significantvalue indicatesthat the variablesare not equivalent.
If we obtained a significant result, we could state the following (these are hypo-
theticalresults):
A Friedman test was conductedcomparingthe averageplace in a race of
nrnnersfor short-distance, medium-distance, and long-distanceraces.A sig-
nificant differencewas found C@: 0.057,p < .05). The length of the race
significantlyaffectsthe resultsof the race.
PhrasingResultsThatAre Not Significant

In fact,theexampleabovewasnot significant,sowe couldstatethe following:
A Friedmantest was conductedcomparingthe averageplacein a raceof
runnersfor short-distance, medium-distance, and long-distance
races.No
significantdifferencewas founddg = >
0.049,p .05).The lengthof the
racedid not significantly
affecttheresultsof therace.
Practice Exercise
Usethedatain PracticeDataSet3 in AppendixB. If anxietyis measured on an or-
dinal scale,determineif anxietylevelschangedovertime.Phraseyour results.
98
Chapter8
$
't,
s
.fi
i$
TestConstruction
j
Section 8.1 ltem-Total Analvsis
Description
Item-totalanalysisis a way to assessthe internal consistencyof a data set. As
such,it is one of many testsof reliability. Item-totalanalysiscomprisesa numberof items
that make up a scaleor testdesignedto measurea singleconstruct(e.g.,intelligence),and
determinesthe degreeto which all of the items measurethe sameconstruct.It doesnot tell
you if it is measuringthe correctconstruct(that is a questionof validity). Before a test can
be valid, however,it must first be reliable.
Assumptions
All the itemsin the scaleshouldbe measuredon an interval or ratio scale.In addi-
tion, eachitem shouldbe normallydistributed.If your itemsare ordinal in nature,you can
conduct the analysisusing the Spearmanrho correlationinsteadof the Pearsonr correla-
tion.
SP.SSData Forrnat
SPSSrequiresone variablefor each item (or I Andyle Grrphs Ulilities Window Help
question)in the scale.In addition,you must have a RPpo*s
variablerepresentingthe total scorefor the scale. , Ds$rripllvoStatirlicc )
Ccmpar*Msans F
GtneralLinearMadel I
iilrliililrr'
Vuiabla* WRiqression
.q ! l )
!:*l', ." :
I"1l Conducting the Test
J13l
. ry1 PearsonItem-total analysisuses the
Coruelation command.
, Condation
Coalfubr*c To conduct it, open the
l|7 P"as* l- Kcndafsta* f- Spoamm
file you cre-
l * * - * _ _ . -_ ^ _ _ QUESTIONS.sav data
,'. Tsd ot SlJnific&cs ated in Chapter 2. Click Analyze,
I rr r'oorxaa f ona.{atud I then Coruelate, then Bivariate.
|7 nag ris{icsitqorrcldimr Place all questionsand the
total in the right-hand window, and
click OK. (For more help on conductingconelations,seeChapter5.) The total can be cal-
culatedwith the techniquesdiscussedin Chapter2.
99
Chapter8 Test Construction
Readingthe Output
The output consistsof a Correlatlons
correlation matrix containingall o1 o2 Q3 TOTAL
questionsand the total. Use the Lll l'oarson \,orrelallon 1.000 cll t to o/J
Sig. (2-tailed) .553 .282 .127

column labeledTOTAL, and lo- N 4 4 4 4
cate the correlationbetweenthe UZ PearsonCorrelalion -.447 1.000 -.229 - .130

Si9.(2-tailed) .553 .771 .870
total scoreand each question.In N 4 4 4 4
the exampleat right, QuestionI Q3 P€arsonCorrelation .718 ..229 1.000 .YZ O
Sig.(2-tailed) .?82 .771 .074

hasa correlationof 0.873with the N 4 4 4 4
totalscore.Question2 hasa corre- TOTAL PearsonConelation .873 -.130 .926 1 .000
lation of -0.130 with the total. Sig.(2-tailed) .127 .870
4
.074
4 4
N 4
Question3 has a correlationof
0.926with thetotal.
Interpreting the Output

Item-totalcorrelationsshouldalwaysbe positive.If you obtaina negativecorrela-
tion, that questionshouldbe removedfrom the scale(or you may considerwhetherit
shouldbe reverse-keyed).
Generally,item-totalcorrelationsof greaterthan 0.7 are considereddesirable.
Thoseof lessthan 0.3 are considered weak.Any questionswith correlationsof lessthan
0.3 shouldbe removedfrom thescale.
Normally,theworstquestionis removed,thenthetotal is recalculated.
After theto-
the item-totalanalysisis repeatedwithout the questionthat was re-
tal is recalculated,
moved.Then,if anyquestions havecorrelationsof lessthan0.3,the worstoneis removed,
andtheprocessis repeated.
When all remainingcorrelationsare greaterthan 0.3, the remainingitems in the
scaleareconsidered to be thosethatareinternallyconsistent.
Section8.2 Cronbach's Alpha
Description
Cronbach's alphais a measure of internalconsistency. As such,it is oneof many
testsof reliability. Cronbach'salphacomprisesa numberof itemsthat makeup a scale
designedto measurea singleconstruct(e.g.,intelligence), and determines the degreeto
whichall the itemsaremeasuring the sameconstruct.It doesnot tell you if it is measuring
the correctconstruct(thatis a questionof validity). Beforea testcanbe valid,however,it
mustfirst be reliable.
Assumptions
on an interval or ratio scale.In addi-
All the itemsin thescaleshouldbe measured
tion, eachitem shouldbe normallydistributed.
100
Data Format
,SP,SS
SPSSrequiresonevariablefor eachitem(or question)in the scale.
Running the Command

This example uses the QUEST- Udtbr Wh&* tbb
IONS.savdatafile we first createdin Chapter )
2. Click Analyze,thenScale,then Reliability f:
Analysis. ;
This will bring up the maindialogbox l,
it.
for Reliability Analysis.Transferthe ques- )
tions from your scaleto the Itemsblank,and )
click OK. Do not transferany variablesrepre'
sentingtotal scores.
Notethatwhenyou changethe oP-

tionsunderModel,additionalmeasures of
ql (e.9.,
internal consistency can
split-half)
*
q3 be calculated.
Readingthe Output
RelLrltilityStntistics
In this example,the reliability coefficientis 0.407.
Numberscloseto 1.00are very good,but numberscloseto Cronbach's
0.00representpoorinternal consistency. Aloha N of ltems
.407 3
Section8.3 Test-RetestReliability
Description
Test-retestreliabilityis a measureof temporal stability. As such,it is a measure
of reliability. Unlikemeasures of internal consistencythattell you theextentto whichall
of the questionsthat makeup a scalemeasurethe sameconstruct,measures of temporal
overtime and/orovermultiple
stability tell you whetheror not the instrumentis consistent
administrations.
Assumptions
The total scorefor the scaleshouldbe an interval or ratio scale.The scalescores
shouldbe normallydistributed.
l 0l
.SP,S,S
Data Format
SPSSrequiresa variablerepresenting thetotalscorefor the scaleat the timeof first
administration.A secondvariablerepresenting thetotal scorefor the sameparticipants at a
differenttime (normallytwo weekslater)is alsorequired.
Running the Command

The test-retestreliabilitycoefficientis simplya Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientfor
the relationshipbetweenthetotal scoresfor the two administrations.To computethe coef-
ficient,follow the directionsfor computinga Pearsoncorrelationcoefficient(Chapter5,
Section5.1).Usethetwo variablesrepresenting of thetest.
thetwo administrations
Readingthe Output
The correlationbetweenthe two scoresis the test-retestreliabilitycoeffrcient.It
shouldbe positive.Strongreliability is indicatedby valuescloseto 1.00.Weakreliability
is indicated
by valuescloseto 0.00.
Section 8.4 Criterion-Related Validitv
Description
Criterion-related validity determinesthe extentto which the scaleyou are testing
correlateswith a criterion.For example,ACT scoresshouldcorrelatehighly with GPA. If
theydo, thatis a measure of validity forACT scores.If theydo not,thatindicatesthatACT
scoresmaynot be valid for theintendedpurpose.
Assumptions
All of the sameassumptions for the Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientapplyto meas-
uresof criterion-related
validity(intervalor ratio scales,normal distribution,etc.).
.SP,S,S
Data Format
Two variablesarerequired.Onevariablerepresentsthetotal scorefor the scaleyou
aretesting.Theotherrepresents
thecriterionyou aretestingit against.
Running the Command

Calculatingcriterion-related
validity involvesdeterminingthe Pearsoncorrelation
valuebetweenthe scaleandthecriterion.SeeChapter5, Section5.1 for completeinforma-
tion.
Readingthe Output
The correlationbetweenthe two scoresis the criterion-relatedvalidity coefficient.
It shouldbe positive.Strongvalidity is indicatedby valuescloseto 1.00.Weakvalidity is
indicatedby valuescloseto 0.00.
102
AppendixA
Effect Size
Many disciplines are placing increasedemphasison reporting effect size. While
statisticalhypothesistestingprovidesa way to tell the odds that differencesare real, effect
sizesprovide a way to judge the relative importanceof thosedifferences.That is, they tell
us the size of the differenceor relationship.They are alsocritical if you would like to esti-
matenecessarysamplesizes,conducta power analysis,or conducta meta-analysis. Many
professionalorganizations(e.g.,the AmericanPsychologicalAssociation)are now requir-
ing or strongly suggestingthat effect sizesbe reportedin addition to the resultsof hypothe-
sis tests.
Becausethere are at least 4l different types of effect sizes,reach with somewhat
different properties,the purposeof this Appendix is not to be a comprehensiveresourceon
effect size, but ratherto show you how to calculatesomeof the most common measuresof
effectsizeusingSPSS15.0.
Co h e n ' s d
One of the simplest and most popular measuresof effect size is Cohen's d.
Cohen's d is a memberof a classof measurements called"standardized meandifferences."
In essence, d is the differencebetweenthe two meansdivided by the overall standard de-
viation.
It is not only a popularmeasureof effect size,but Cohenhasalso suggested a sim-
ple basisto interpretthe value obtained.Cohen'suggested that effect sizesof .2 aresmall,
.5 are medium,and .8 are large.
We will discussCohen's d as the preferredmeasureof effect size for I tests.Unfor-
tunately,SPSSdoes not calculateCohen's d. However,this appendixwill cover how to
calculateit from the output that SPSSdoesproduce.
EffectSizefor Single-Sample
t Tests
Although SPSSdoesnot calculateeffect size for the single-sample
/ test,calculat-
ing Cohen's d is a simplematter.
' Kirk, R.E. (1996). Practicalsignificance:A conceptwhose time has come. Educational & Psychological
Measurement,56, 7 46-7 59.
' Cohen,J. (1992). A power primer. PsychologicalBulletin, t t 2, 155-159.
103
Appendix A Effect Size
T-Test Cohen's d for a single-sampleI test is equal

to the mean differenceover the standard de-
Om'S$da sltb.tr
std Std Eror

viation. If SPSSprovidesus with the follow-
LENOIH 0
xoan
16 qnnn
Dflalon
| 9?2
Ygan
ing output,we calculated as indicatedhere:
D
o'r..Srt!- Iad
d-
sD
TsstValuo= 35
95$ Conld6nca
lhlld.t ottho .90
slg Igan d-
71r'
d (2-lailsd)
I
Dill6f6nao
sooo I l 5 5 F- 0 7
uo00r t.t972
d = .752
In this example,using Cohen's guidelinesto judge effect size, we would have an effect
size betweenmedium and large.
EffectSizefor Independent-Samplest Tests

Calculatingeffectsizefromtheindependent
t testoutputis a little morecomplex
becauseSPSSdoesnot provideus with the pootedstandard deviation. The uppersection
of the output, however, does provide us with the information we need to calculateit. The
output presentedhere is the sameoutput we worked with in Chapter6.
Group Statlltlcr
Std.Error
morntno N Mean Std. Oeviation Mean
graoe No z UZ.SUUU J.JJIDJ Z,SUUUU
yes 2 78.0000 7.07107 s.00000
(n ,-1 )s , 2+ (n , -l)s r2
S pooled =
n r+ n r-2
- tlr.Sr552+ (2 -t)7.07| (
rp o o te d-\ /12
2+ 21
S pool"d =
Spooted= 5'59
Once we have calculatedthe pooled standard deviation (spooud),

we can calculate
Cohen'sd.
, x ,-x ,
Q=- -
S pooled
, - 78.00
82.50
o =-
5.59
d =.80
104
So, in this example,using Cohen's guidelinesfor the interpretationof d, we would have

obtaineda large effect size.
EffectSizefor Paired-Samples
t Tests
As you have probably learned in your statisticsclass, a paired-samplesI test is
really just a specialcaseof the single-sampleI test.Therefore,the procedurefor calculat-
ing Cohen's d is also the same.The SPSSoutput,however,looks a little different,so you
will be taking your valuesfrom different areas.
Pair€dSamplosTest
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Intervalof the
f)iffcrcnne
std. Std.Error sig
Mean f)eviatior Mean Lower Upper df (2-tailed)
YAlt 1 |'KE ttss I
. FINAL -22.809s A OTqA 1.9586 -26.8952 -18.7239 11.646 20 .000
,D
u --
JD
- 22.8095
8.9756
d = 2.54
Notice that in this example,we representthe effect size (d; as a positive number
eventhoughit is negative.Effect sizesare alwayspositivenumbers.In this example,using
Cohen'sguidelinesfor the interpretationof d, we have found a very large effect size.
12(Coefficient of Determination)
While Cohen's d is the appropriatemeasureof effect size for / tests, correlation
and regressioneffect sizes should be determinedby squaringthe correlation coefficient.
This squaredcorrelationis called the coefficient of determination. Cohen' suggestedhere
that correlationsof .5, .3, and.l corresponded to large,moderate,and small relationships.
Thosevaluessquaredyield coefficientsof determination of .25,.09, and .01 respectively.
It would appear,therefore,that Cohen is suggestingthat accounting for 25o/oof the vari-
ability representsa large effbct, 9oha moderateeffect, and lo/oa small effect.
EffectSizefor Correlation
Nowhere is the effect of sample size on statisticalpower (and therefore signifi-
cance) more apparentthan with correlations.Given a large enoughsample,any correlation
can becomesignificant.Thus, effect size becomescritically important in the interpretation
of correlations.
'Cohen, J. (1988). Statisticalpower analysisfor the behavioral sciences(2"d ed). New Jersey:Lawrence
Erlbaum.
105
The standardmeasureof effect size for correlationsis the coefficient of determi-

nation (r2) discussedabove. The coefficient should be interpretedas the proportion of
variance in the dependent variable that can be accountedfor by the relationshipbetween
the independentand dependentvariables.While Cohenprovidedsomeusefulguidelines
for interpretation,each problem should be interpretedin terms of its true practical signifi-
cance. For example,if a treatmentis very expensiveto implement,or has significant side
effects,then a larger correlationshould be required before the relationshipbecomes"im-
portant." For treatmentsthat are very inexpensive,a much smaller correlationcan be con-
sidered"important."
To calculatethe coefficientof determination, simply take the r value that SPSS
providesand squareit.
EffectSizefor Regression
TheModelSummary sec- ModelSummary
tion of the output reports R2 for
you. The example output here Std. Error
shows a coefficient of determi- Adjusted of the
Model R R Souare R Souare Estimate
nation of .649, meaningthat al- .8064 .649 .624 16.1 480
most 65% (.649\ of the variabil- a. Predictors:
(Constant),
HEIGHT
ity in the dependentvariable is
accountedfor by the relationship
betweenthe dependent and in-
dependentvariables.
Eta SquaredQtz)
A third measureof effect size is Eta Squared (ry2).Eta Squared is usedfor Analy-
sis of Variancemodels.The GLM (GeneralLinear Model) functionin SPSS(the function
that runs the proceduresunderAnalyze-General Linear Model) will provide Eta Squared
(tt').
Eta Squared has an interpretationsimilar to a squaredcor-
relationcoefficient1l1.lt represents the proportionof the variance tt SS"ik",
n, --
accountedfor by the effect.-Unlike ,2, ho*euer, which represents Sqr," . SS*
onlylinearrelationships,,72canrepresentanytypeofrelationship.
Effect Sizefor Analysis of Variance

For mostAnalysisof Varianceproblems,you shouldelectto reportEta Squared
asyour effectsizemeasure.SPSSprovidesthis calculationfor you as part of the General
LinearModel(GLIrl)command.
To obtainEta Squared,you simplyclick on theOptionsbox in the maindialog
box for the GLM commandyou arerunning(this worksfor Univariate,Multivariate,and
RepeatedMeasuresversionsof the commandeventhoughonly the Univariateoption is
presented here).
106
Onceyou haveselectedOptions,a new

dialog box will appear.One of the optionsin
that box will be Estimatesof ffict sze. When
you select that box, SPSSwill provide Eta
Squaredvaluesaspartofyour output.
l-[qoral*
|- $FdYr|dg
f A!.|it?ld
rli*dr
f'9n drffat*l
Cr**l.|tniliivdrra5:
tl l c,,*| n* |
Testsot EetweerF$iltectsEftcct3
Dependenl Variable:
score
TypelllSum PadialEta
Source nf Sdila!es df tean Souare F si q, Souared
u0rrecleo M00el 1 0 .4 5 0 r 2 5.225 19.096 .000 761
Inlercepl 91.622 4
I s't.622 331.862 .000 965
gr0up 1 0 .4 5 0 1
5.225 1S .096 .000 761
Enor 3 .2 8 3 12 .274
Total 1 0 5 .0 0 0 15
CorrectedTotal 1 3 .7 3 3 't4
a. R Squared= .761(Adiusied R Squared= .721)
In the examplehere,we obtainedan Eta Squaredof .761for our main effectfor

groupmembership. Becausewe interpretEta Squaredusingthe sameguidelinesas,', we
wouldconcludethatthisrepresents
alargeeffectsizefor groupmembership.
107
Appendix B PracticeExerciseData Sets
PracticeData Set2
A survey of employeesis conducted.Each employeeprovides the following infor-
mation: Salary (SALARY), Years of Service (YOS), Sex (SEX), Job Classification
(CLASSIFY), and EducationLevel (EDUC). Note that you will haveto code SEX (Male:
l, Female: 2) and CLASSIFY (Clerical: l, Technical: 2, Professional
: 3).
ll*t:g - Jrs$q
Numsric
lNumedc
SALARY YOS SEX CLASSIFY EDUC

35,000 8 Male Technical 14
18,000 4 Female Clerical l0
20,000 I Male Professional l6
50,000 20 Female Professional l6
38,000 6 Male Professional 20
20,000 6 Female Clerical 12
75,000 17 Male Professional 20
40,000 4 Female Technical 12
30,000 8 Male Technical 14
22,000 l5 Female Clerical 12
23,000 16 Male Clerical 12
45,000 2 Female Professional l6
PracticeData Set3
Participantswho havephobiasare given one of threetreatments(CONDITION).
at threeintervals-beforetreatment(ANXPRE),
Their anxietylevel (1 to l0) is measured
one hour after treatment(ANXIHR), and againfour hoursafter treatment(ANX4HR).
Notethatyou will haveto codethevariableCONDITION.
4lcondil ,Numeric
i'-
7l '* '"
ll0
Appendix B Practice Exercise Data Sets
ANXPRE ANXIHR ANX4HR CONDITION

8 7 7 Placebo
t0 l0 l0 Placebo
9 7 8 Placebo
7 6 6 Placebo
7 7 7 Placebo
9 4 5 ValiumrM
l0 6 I ValiumrM
9 5 5 ValiumrM
8 3 5 ValiumrM
6 3 4 ValiumrM
8 5 3 ExperimentalDrug
l0 9 4 ExperimentalDrug
lll
AppendixC
Glossary
everypossibleoutcome.
All Inclusive.A set of eventsthat encompasses
Alternative Hypothesis. The oppositeof the null hypothesis,normally showing that there
is a true difference. Generallv. this is the statementthat the researcherwould like to
support.
Case ProcessingSummary. A sectionof SPSSoutput that lists the number of subjects

usedin the analysis.
Coefficient of Determination. The value of the correlation, squared. It provides the

proportionof varianceaccountedfor by the relationship.
Cohen's d. A common and simple measureof effect size that standardizesthe difference
betweengroups.
Correlation Matrix. A section of SPSS output in which correlationcoefficientsare

reportedfor allpairs of variables.
Covariate. A variable known to be relatedto the dependentvariable,but not treatedas an

independentvariable.Used in ANCOVA as a statisticalcontrol technique.
Data Window. The SPSSwindow that containsthe data in a spreadsheetformat. This is

the window usedfor running most commands.
Dependent Variable. An outcome or response variable. The dependent variable is

normally dependenton the independentvariable.
Descriptive Statistics. Statisticalproceduresthat organizeand summarizedata.
$ nialog Box. A window that allows you to enter information that SPSS will use in a
$ command.
t
* Oichotomous with onlytwo levels(e.g.,gender).
Variables.Variables
il
I DiscreteVariable. A variablethat can have only certainvalues(i.e., valuesbetween
'f *hich thereis no score,like A, B, C, D, F).
I'
i Effect Size. A measurethat allows one to judge the relative importanceof a differenceor
. relationshipby reportingthe size of a difference.
Eta Squared (q2).A measureof effectsizeusedin Analysisof Variancemodels.
I 13
AppendixC Glossary
Grouping Variable. In SPSS,the variableusedto representgroup membership.SPSS

often refersto independent
variablesas groupingvariables;SPSSsometimesrefersto
groupingvariablesasindependentvariables.
IndependentEvents.Two eventsareindependent if informationaboutoneeventgivesno

informationaboutthe secondevent(e.g.,two flips of a coin).
IndependentVariable.Thevariablewhoselevels(values)determinethe groupto whicha

subjectbelongs.A true independentvariable is manipulatedby the researcher.See
GroupingVariable.
Inferential Statistics.Statisticalproceduresdesignedto allow the researcherto draw

inferencesabouta populationon thebasisof a sample.
Interaction.With morethanone independent variable,an interactionoccurswhena level

of oneindependentvariableaffectstheinfluenceof anotherindependent variable.
Internal Consistency.A reliabilitymeasurethat assesses

the extentto which all of the
itemsin an instrumentmeasurethesameconstruct.
Interval Scale. A measurement scale where items are placed in mutually exclusive
categories,with equal intervalsbetweenvalues.Appropriatetransformationsinclude
counting,sorting,andaddition/subtraction.
Levels.The valuesthata variablecanhave.A variablewith threelevelshasthreepossible

values.
Mean.A measure
of centraltendencywherethesumof thedeviationscoresequalszero.
Median.A measureof centraltendencyrepresenting the middleof a distributionwhenthe

dataaresortedfrom low to high.Fifty percentof thecasesarebelowthe median.
Mode. A measureof centraltendencyrepresentingthe value (or values)with the most

subjects(thescorewith thegreatestfrequency).
Mutually Exclusive. Two events are mutually exclusivewhen they cannot occur
simultaneously.
Nominal Scale. A measurement scalewhere items are placed in mutually exclusive

categories.
Differentiationis by nameonly (e.g.,race,sex).Appropriatecategories
include
"same"or "different." Appropriatetransformationsincludecounting.
NormalDistribution.A symmetric,
unimodal,
bell-shaped
curve.
Null Hypothesis.The hypothesisto be tested,normally in which there is no tnre

difference.It is mutuallyexclusiveof thealternative
hypothesis.
n4
Appendix
C Glossary
Ordinal Scale. A measurementscale where items are placed in mutually exclusive

categories, in order. Appropriate categories include "same," "less," and "more."
Appropriatetransformationsinclude countingand sorting.
Outliers. Extreme scoresin a distribution. Scoresthat are very distant from the mean and
the rest of the scoresin the distribution.
Output Window. The SPSSwindow that containsthe resultsof an analysis.The left side
summarizesthe resultsin an outline. The right side containsthe actual results.
Percentiles(Percentile Ranks). A relative scorethat gives the percentageof subjectswho

scoredat the samevalue or lower.
Pooled Standard Deviation. A single value that representsthe standarddeviation of two

groupsofscores.
Protected Dependent / Tests. To preventthe inflation of a Type I error, the level needed
to be significantis reducedwhen multipletestsare conducted.
Quartiles. The points that define a distribution into four equal parts. The scoresat the
25th,50th,and 75th percentileranks.
Random Assignment. A procedurefor assigningsubjectsto conditionsin which each

subjecthasan equalchanceofbeing assignedto any condition.
Range. A measureof dispersionrepresentingthe number of points from the highestscore

through the lowest score.
Ratio Scale. A measurementscale where items are placed in mutually exclusive

categories, with equal intervals between values, and a true zero. Appropriate
transformationsinclude counting,sorting,additiott/subtraction,
and multiplication/division.
Reliability. An indication of the consistencyof a scale. A reliable scale is intemally

consistentand stableover time.
Robust. A test is said to be robust if it continuesto provide accurateresultseven after the

violationof someassumptions.
Significance. A difference is said to be significant if the probability of making a Type I

error is less than the acceptedlimit (normally 5%). If a difference is significant, the null
hypothesisis rejected.
Skew. The extent to which a distribution is not symmetrical.Positive skew has outliers on
the positive(right) sideof the distribution.Negativeskew hasoutlierson the negative(left)
sideof the distribution.
Standard Deviation. A measureof dispersion representinga special type of average

deviation from the mean.
I 15
AppendixC Glossary
Standard Error of Estimate.The equivalentof the standarddeviationfor a regression

line with a standard
line.The datapointswill be normallydistributedaroundthe regression
deviationequalto the standarderrorof the estimate.
StandardNormal Distribution. A normaldistributionwith a meanof 0.0 anda standard

deviation
of 1.0.
String Variable. A stringvariablecancontainlettersandnumbers.Numericvariablescan

containonly numbers.Most SPSScommands will not functionwith stringvariables.
Temporal Stability. This is achievedwhen reliability measureshave determinedthat

scoresremainstableovermultipleadministrations
of the instrument.
Tukey's HSD. A post-hoccomparisonpurportedto reveal an "honestly significant

difference"(HSD).
erroneouslyrejectsthe null
Type I Error. A Type I error occurswhen the researcher
hypothesis.
Type II Error. A Type II erroroccurswhenthe researcher fails to rejectthe

erroneously
null hypothesis.
Valid Data.DatathatSPSSwill usein its analyses.
Validity. An indicationof theaccuracyof a scale.
Variance.A measure
of dispersion deviation.
equalto thesquaredstandard
l16
AppendixD
SampleDataFilesUsedin Text
A varietyof smalldatafiles areusedin examplesthroughoutthis text. Hereis a list
of whereeachappears.
COINS.sav
Variables: COINI
COIN2
Enteredin Chapter7
GRADES.sav
Variables: PRETEST
MIDTERM
FINAL
INSTRUCT
REQUIRED
Enteredin Chapter6
HEIGHT.sav
Variables: HEIGHT
WEIGHT
SEX
Enteredin Chapter4
QUESTIONS.Sav
Variables: Ql
Q2 (recodedin Chapter2)
Q3
TOTAL (addedin Chapter2)
GROUP(addedin Chapter2)
Enteredin Chapter2
Modifiedin Chapter2
tt7
AppendixD SampleDataFilesUsedin Text
RACE.sav
Variables: SHORT
MEDIUM
LONG
EXPERIENCE
Enteredin Chapter7
SAMPLE.sav
Variables: ID
DAY
TIME
MORNING
GRADE
WORK
TRAINING (addedin Chapter1)
Enteredin ChapterI
Modifiedin ChapterI
SAT.sav
Variables: SAT
GRE
GROUP
Enteredin Chapter6
Other Files
For somepracticeexercises,
seeAppendixB for neededdatasetsthatarenot usedin any
otherexamplesin thetext.
l18
AppendixE
Informationfor Users
of EarlierVersionsof SPSS
Thereare a numberof differences betweenSPSS15.0and earlierversionsof the
software.Fortunately,mostof themhavevery little impacton usersof this text. In fact,
r{
mostusersof earlierversionswill be ableto successfully
usethis text withoutneedingto
ril reference
this appendix.
Variable nameswere limited to eight characters.

Versionsof SPSSolderthan 12.0arelimitedto eight-character variablenames.The
othervariablenamerulesstill apply.If you areusingan olderversionof SPSS,you needto
makesureyou useeightor fewerlettersfor yourvariablenames.
The Data menu will look different.

The screenshotsin the text where the Data
Dsta TlrBfqm rn4aa€ getu t
menu is shown will look slightly different if you are
using an older version of SPSS.These missing or
renamedcommandsdo not have any effect on this oe&reoacs,.,
r hertYffd,e
text, but the menusmay look slightly different. l|]lrffl Clsl*t
If you are using a version of SPSS earlier GobCse",,
than 10.0,the Analyzemenu will be called Statistics
instead.
Graphing functions.
Prior to SPSS12.0,the graphingfunctionsof SPSSwerevery limited.If you are
using a version of SPSSolder than version 12.0, third-partysoftwarelike Excel or
SigmaPlotis recommended for theconstructionof graphs.If you areusingVersion14.0of
thesoftware,useAppendixF asan alternativeto Chapter4, whichdiscusses graphing.
l 19
Appendix E Information for Usersof Earlier Versionsof SPSS
Variableiconsindicatemeasurement
type.
In versions of SPSS earlier
than 14.0,variableswere represented
in dialog boxes with their variable
label and an icon that represented
whether the variable was string or
numeric (the examplehere shows all
variablesthat were numeric).
Starting with Version 14.0,
SPSS shows additional information
about each variable. Icons now rep-
resentnot only whether a variable is
numeric or not, but also what type of
measurementscale it is. Nominal
variables are representedby the & f Mlcrpafr&nlm
/srsinoPtrplecnft
icon. Ordinal variables are repre- / itsscpawei[hura
sentedby the dfl i.on. Interval and /v*tctaweir**&r
/TimanAccAolao
ratio variables(SPSSrefers to them
$ Cur*ryU Orlgin
1c I
as scale variables) are represented ClNrmlcnu clrnaaJ
bv the d i"on. dq$oc.t l"ylo.:J
It liqtq'ftc$/droyte
4*r.-r-l qql{.,I
sqFr*u.,|
SeveralSPSSdata filescan now be openat once.

Versionsof SPSSolder than 14.0 could have only one data file open at a time.
Copying data from one file to another entailed a tedious process of copying/opening
files/pastingletc.Starting with version 14.0, multiple data files can be open at the same
time. When multiple files are open,you can selectthe one you want to work with using the
Windowcommand.
md* Heb
t|sr
$$imlzeA[ Whdows
lCas,sav [Dda*z] - S55 DctoEdtry
t20
AppendixF
GraphingDatawithSPSS13.0and14.0
This appendixshouldbe usedas an alternativeto Chapter4 whenyou are us-
ing SPSS13.0or 14.0.Theseproceduresmay alsobe usedin SPSS15.0,if de-
sired,by selectingLegacyDialogsinsteadof ChortBuilder.
GraphingBasics
In addition to the frequency distributions,the measuresof central tendency and
measuresof dispersiondiscussedin Chapter3, graphing is a useful way to summarize,or-
ganize,and reduceyour data. It has been said that a picture is worth a thousandwords. In
the caseof complicateddatasets,that is certainlytrue.
With SPSSVersion 13.0 and later,it is now possibleto make publication-quality
graphsusing only SPSS.One importantadvantageof using SPSSinsteadof other software
to createyour graphs(e.9., Excel or SigmaPlot)is that the data have alreadybeen entered.
Thus, duplicationis eliminated,and the chanceof making a transcriptionerror is reduced.
Editing SP,S,SGraphs
Whatever command you use
tl 9:.1tl 1bl rl .l @l kl D l ol rl : j
to create your graph, you will
probably want to do some editing to
make it look exactly the way you 8L
want. In SPSS,you do this in much
the sameway that you edit graphsin l
,
other software programs (e.9., l
Excel). In the output window,

select your graph (thus creating
handles around the outside of the
entire object) and righrclick. Then,
click SPSSChart Object, then click
Open. Alternatively, you can
double-click on the graph to open it
for editing.
t21
AppendixF GraphingDatawith SPSS13.0and 14.0
Whenyou openthe graphfor editing,theChartEditor HSGlHffry;'

window and the correspondingProperties window will appear.
I* -l ql ryl
OnceChartEditoris open,you caneasilyedit eachelementof the graph.To select

just click on therelevantspoton the graph.For example,to selectthe element
an element,
representing
the title of the graph,click somewhereon the title (the word "Histogram"in
theexamplebelow).
Once you have selectedan element,you can tell that the correctelementis selected
becauseit will havehandlesaroundit.
If the item you have selectedis a text element(e.g.,the title of the graph),a cursor
will be presentand you can edit the text as you would in word processingprograms.If you
would like to changeanotherattributeof the element(e.g., the color or font size), use the
Propertiesbox (Text propertiesare shownabove).
t22
With a little practice,you can makeexcellentgraphs

usingSPSS.Onceyour graphis formattedthe way you want
it, simplyselectFile,thenClose.
Data Set
For the graphingexamples,we will usea new set of
data.Enterthe databelowand savethe file as HEIGHT.sav.
The data representparticipants' HEIGHT (in inches),
WEIGHT(in pounds), andSEX(l : male,2= female).
HEIGHT WEIGHT SEX

66 150 r
69 155 I
73 160 I
72 160 I
68 150 l
63 140 l
74 165 I
70 150 I
66 110 2
64 100 2
60 9 52
67 ll0 2
64 105 2
63 100 2
67 ll0 2
65 105 2
Checkthat you haveenteredthe datacorrectlyby calculatinga mean for eachof

the threevariables(click Analyze,thenDescriptiveStatistics,thenDescriptives).Compare
yourresultswith thosein thetablebelow.
Descrlptlve Statlstlcs
std.
N Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation
ntrt(,n I 'to OU.UU I1.U U oo.YJ/0 J .9U O/
WEIGHT 16 95.00 165.00 129.0625 26.3451
SEX 16 1.00 2.00 1.s000 .5164
Valid N
(listwise)
16
123
Bar Charts,PieCharts,and Histograms
Description
Bar charts,pie charts,and histogramsrepresentthe number of times each scoreoc-
curs by varying the height of a bar or the size of a pie piece.They are graphicalrepresenta-
tions of the frequencydistributionsdiscussedin Chapter3.
Drawing Conclusions
The Frequenciescommandproducesoutput that indicatesboth the number of cases
in the sample with a particular value and the percentageof caseswith that value. Thus,
conclusionsdrawn should relate only to describing the numbers or percentagesfor the
sample.If the dataare at leastordinal in nature,conclusionsregardingthe cumulativeper-
centages and/orpercentilescan alsobe drawn.
SPSS Data Format

You needonlv one variableto usethis command.
Running the Command

The Frequenciescommand will produce I gnahao Qr4hs $$ities
graphical frequency distributions.Click Analyze, Regorts
then Descriptive Statistics,then Frequencies.You @
will be presentedwith the main dialog box for the : lauor i BrsirbUvss,;.
Comps?U6ar1s Explorc.,,
Frequenciescommand, where you can enter the ' Eener.lllnEarlrlodsl ) 9or*abr,.,
variables for which you would like to create r'txedModds ) &dtlo...
graphsor charts.(SeeChapter3 for other options Qorrelate ;
availablewith this command.)
Click the Chartsbuttonat the bot-

tro
ps8l
tom to produce frequencydistributions.
This will give you the Frequencies:
Charts
8"". I dialogbox.
."-41
E
C hartTl p- " .' ---* ,
I C " ,tt "5l
c[iffi . kj
(e sachalts
: q,l s r ur ' : -i
,i ., 1
l* rfb chilk ,,,, I , j
r llrroclu* ,' '1
.u-,,,,:,
l- :+;:'.n . i
There are three types of charts under this com-
mand: Bar charts, Pie charts, andHistograms.For each rChatVdues' :
type, the f axis can be either a frequency count or a , 15 Erecpencias f Porcer*ag$ :
percentage(selectedthrough the Chart Valuesoption). l -, - - ::- ,-
i
You will receivethe chartsfor any variablesse-

lectedin the main Frequenciescommanddialog box.
124
Output
The bar chart consistsof a hrleht
Y axis, representing the
frequency, and an X axis, repre-
senting each score. Note that the
only values representedon the X 1.5
axis are those with nonzero
frequencies(61, 62, and 7l are c
a
not represented). f
s
a
1.0
66.00 67.00 68.00

h.llht
The pie chart shows the percentageof

: ea
t 61@ the whole that is representedby eachvalue.
llil@
I 65@
os@
I r:@
o 4@
g i9@
o i0@
a i:@
B rro
o :aa
ifr The Histogramcommandcreatesa

groupedfrequencydistribution.The range
of scores is split into evenly spaced
groups.The midpoint of each group is
plotted on the X axis, and the I axis
represents the numberof scoresfor each
group.
If you selectLl/ithNormal Curve,a
normal curve will be superimposed over
the distribution.This is very useful for
helping you determineif the distribution M.Sffi
td. 0.v. . 1.106?:
ff.l$
you haveis approximately normal. h{ghl
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set I in Appendix B. After you have enteredthe data,constructa
histogramthat representsthe mathematicsskills scoresand displaysa normal curve, and a
bar chart that representsthe frequenciesfor the variableAGE.
t25
Scatterplots
Description
Scatterplots(also called scattergramsor scatterdiagrams)display two values for
eachcasewith a mark on the graph.The Xaxis representsthe value for one variable.The /
axis representsthe value for the secondvariable.
Assumptions
Both variablesshouldbe interval or ratio scales.If nominal or ordinal data are
used,be cautiousaboutyour interpretationof the scattergram.
.SP,t^tData Format
You needtwo variablesto perform this command.
Running the Command

I gr"pl,u Stllities Add-gns :
You can produce scatterplotsby clicking Graphs, then
I
Scatter/Dot.This will give you the first Scatterplotdialog box. i
Selectthe desiredscatterplot(normally,you will select Simple
Scatter),then click Define. !
xl
*t
m
m
Simpla
Scattal
0veday
Scattel
ffi
ffi
Mahix
Scattel
3,0
Scatter
ffi sittpt"
lelLl Oot
li Definell
-
q"rylJ
,
Helo I
ffil;|rlil',r
m
s.fd
3*J
,- 9dMrk6by
qej
| ,J l-- *fl
,- L*dqs.bx
IJ T--
P*lb - This will give you the main Scatterplot
8off,
dialog box. Enter one of your variablesas the I
rl[- axis and the secondas the X axis. For example,
I ti ...:
C*trK using the HEIGHT.sav data set, enter HEIGHT

rI[- as the f axis and WEIGHT as the X axis. Click
oK.
I l*tCrtc - -' '
I'u;i**
L":# .
126
Output
X andI levels.
Theoutputwill consistof a markfor eachsubjectat theappropriate
74.00
r20.m
Adding a Third Variable

Even though the scatterplotis a two-
dimensionalgraph,it canplot a third variable. fa, I
To makeit do so,enterthethird variablein the e- l
at.l
SetMarkers by field.In our example,we will ccel
enterthe variable SEX in the ^SelMarkers by x*l
space.
Now our outputwill havetwo different
sets of marks. One set representsthe male
participants,and the secondset representsthe
femaleparticipants.Thesetwo setswill appear
in differentcolorson your screen.You canuse
the SPSSchart editor to make them different
shapes, asin thegraphthatfollows.
t27
Graph
sox
aLm
o 2.6
72.00
70.00
58.00
c
.9
I
s
56.00
o
64.00 oo
o
52.00
!00.00 120.m 110.@ r60.00

wrlght
Practice Exercise
to examinethe rela-
UsePracticeDataSet2 in AppendixB. Constructa scatterplot
tionshipbetweenSALARY andEDUCATION.
Advanced Bar Charts
Description
You canproducebar chartswith theFrequencies command(seeChapter4, Section
4.3). Sometimes,
however,we are interestedin a bar chartwherethe I axis is not a fre-
quency.To producesucha chart,we needto usetheBar Chartscommand.
SPS,SData Format
At leasttwo variablesare neededto performthis command.Thereare two basic
kinds of bar charts-thosefor between-subjects
designsand thosefor repeated-measures
designs.Usethe between-subjects methodif onevariableis the independentvariableand
the otheris the dependentvariable.Use the repeated-measures
methodif you havea dependentvariable for eachvalueof the G"dr tJt$ths Mdsns
independentvariable(e.g.,you wouldhavethreevariablesfor a €pkrv
designwith three valuesof the independentvariable). This IrfCr$We
Map )
normallyoccurswhenyou takemultipleobservations overtime.
128
]1
Running the Command

Click Graphs,thenBar for eithertypeof bar chart.
This will openthe Bar Chartsdialog box. If you haveone
independentvariable, selectSimple.If you have more
thanone,selectClustered.
If you are usinga between-subjects design,select
Summariesfor groups of cases.If you are using a re-
peated-measures design, select Summariesof separate
variables.
If you are creatinga repeatedmeasures graph,you
will seethe dialog box below.Move eachvariableoverto
theBars Representarea,and SPSSwill placeit insidepa-
rentheses followingMean.This will give you a graphlike
the one below at right. Note that this exampleusesthe
GRADES.sav dataenteredin Section6.4 (Chapter6).
lr#
I t*ls
o rhd
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeDataSet I in AppendixB. Constructa bar graphexaminingthe rela-
tionshipbetweenmathematics skills scoresandmaritalstatus.Hint: In the BarsRepresent
area.enterSKILL asthevariable.
t29

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A Step-by-Step Guide

to Analysis and Interpretotion

lhre Thsn 2 L€wls

'| fro.! Itn I

ConsultingEditors:GeorgeBumrss,JoseL. Galvan,MatthewGiblin,DeborahM. Oh,

providedby CherylAlcorn,RandallR. Bruce,KarenM. Disner,

Coverdesignby RobertKibler andLarryNichols.

Copyright@2008,2006,2004,2002,1999 by FredPyrczak, All rights

AppendixA Effect Size 103

AppendixC Glossary lt3

AppendixD SampleDataFilesUsedin Text tt7

AppendixE Informationfor Usersof EarlierVersionsof SPSS l19

AppendixF GraphingDatawith SPSS13.0and 14.0 t2l

Section1.3 Defining Variables

Fb m u9* o*.*Trqll t!-.G q".E u?x !!p_Ip

In additionto namingand labelingthe variable,you havethe option of definingthe

F.E*UaUar Qgtr Irrddn An hna gnphr Ufrrs Hhdow E*

Thepreviousdata window canbe changedto look insteadlike the screenshot

Section1.5 RunningYour First Analysis

To calculatea mean (average),we are asking the computerto summarizeour data

We want to compute the mean for the l:rt.Ij

variable called GRADE. Thus, we need to select in

Section1.6 Examiningand PrintingOutput Files

N Mlnlmum Hadmum Xsrn Std. Dwiation

ffiffi?iffi rr---*.* r*4

Clicking on a statisticalprocedurealso selectsall of the output for that command.

Section1.7 ModifyingData Files

. mfuUiewffi rb$ Vbw / l{ l

Section2.1 Variablesand DataRepresentation

overemphasized. Just because ht6x0tMn a

SPSS will compute a statistic for

use it. Later in the text, when specificstatisticalproceduresare discussed,the conditions

Section2.2 Transformationand Selectionof Data

You can specify which cases(partici-

tion criteria, which appearon the right side of

foKl aar I c-"rl x* |

By default,All caseswill be selected.The most common way to selecta subsetis

SelectCasesdialog box. Then,click OK to returnto the data window. I

The casesthat were not selectedwill be markedwith a diagonalline through the i{

2- 1901.m MpnMed/i mornino

Computing a New Variable

Now you will calculatethe total score for

After clicking the Compute Variable

iii:Hffiliji:.: two sides of an equation that SPSS

3.n0 3.0n 4,n0 10.00

their total score.We want to create

This will bring up the

GROUP.as shownbelow. I rygJ**l-H+ |

To help keep track of variablesthat have

column in the TOTAL row. This is especially ;rln I r-":-'-'1**

many recodedvariables. I r nryrOr:frr**"L

8 on the left in the Range, LOWEST through rT..".''..."...-

value blank and a I in the Value field under New I ir:L-_-

variable (GROUP) will have been added and ; r {:ei.* gf-ll

Section3.1 FrequencyDistributions and PercentileRanks

Creating a Frequency Distribution

This will bring up the main dialog r5117gl

Output for a Frequency Distribution

valuesin column threebecausethe total

numberof recordswould have beenreducedby the numberof recordswith missing values.

D eterm ining P ercenti Ie Ranl<s

you have selectedall your requiredstatistics, Oi$.r$pn " 0idthfim'

Statistics Outputfor Percentile Ranl<s

Fb m u9* o.Trqll t!-.G q".E u?x !!p_Ip

F.EUaUar Qgtr Irrddn An hna gnphr Ufrrs Hhdow E

ffiffi?iffi rr---. r*4

Statisticsoption for the Frequenciescommandis i0hxioo".'*-' oidrlatin -- --

y"J .t I r, |