Name: _______​Emoni Ford​_________

AP Biology Study Guide

Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds
Elements and Compounds
1. What are the 6 elements of life?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Sulfur.
2. What four elements make up 96% of all living matter?
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen.
3. What is the difference between an ​essential element ​and a ​trace element​?
essential element - ​A chemical element that are required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce.
trace element - ​An element indispensable for life but in extremely minute quantities.

2.2 An elements properties depend on the structure of its atoms.

4. Below are two models of an atom of helium, showing the electrons, protons, neutrons, and atomic
nucleus. Label the diagrams below and define the terms that you label. Determine which is an electron
cloud model and which is the Bohr energy level model.

5. What is the atomic number of helium? ___​2​______ Its atomic mass? __​4​______

6. The difference between the mass number and the atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of
___​neutrons​_______. An atom of phosphorus , contains _​15​___ protons, _​15​___ electrons, and
_​16​___ neutrons.
The atomic mass of phosphorus is approximately _​31​___.

7. What is an isotope, and what is “special” (useful) about radioactive isotopes?

Consider this entry in the periodic table for carbon.

8. What is the atomic mass? atomic number?

the atomic mass is 12 and the atomic number is 6.
9. How many electrons does carbon have? neutrons?
Carbon has 6 electrons and neutrons.
10. Which is the only subatomic particle that is directly involved in the chemical reactions between atoms?
Electrons.
11. What determines the chemical behavior of an atom?
Protons.
12. Here is an electron distribution diagram for sodium:
a. How many valence electrons does it have? ___​1​___ Circle the valence electron(s).
b. How many protons does it have? ___​11​___

Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms
13. What is a chemical bond?
An attraction between 2 atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons, or the presenc of
opposite charges on the atoms.
14. What type of bond is seen in O​2​?
Explain what this means.
a covalent bond, which means that the 2 atoms 1 or more pairs of valence electrons.
15. What is meant by ​electronegativity​?
The attraction of a given item for the electron of a covalent bond.
16. Compare ionic bonds with covalent bonds?
they are both
17. Explain the difference between a ​nonpolar covalent bond ​and a ​polar covalent bond.​
An ionic bond is a chemical bond resulting from the attraction of oppositely charged ions, while a
covalent bond is also a chemical bond it is in when 2 atoms share 1 or more pairs of valence electrons.

18. Make an electron distribution diagram of water.

 In a water molecule, which element is most electronegative? Why is water considered a ​polar ​molecule?
Label the regions in your drawing above that are more positive or more negative. (This is a very important
concept. Spend some time with this one!)
Water is considered a polar molecule because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, and therefore
the shared electrons are pulled more toward oxygen.
19. What is a ​hydrogen bond​? Indicate where the hydrogen bond occurs in this figure.
20. In regard to the three types of chemical bonds, discuss the relative strength of each.
1. Covalent bonds - Strong - share electrons
2. Ionic bonds - moderate - gain/lose electrons
3. Hydrogen bonds - weak - between oppositely charged covalent bonds

21. What is the difference between a structural and molecular formula?

The molecular formulas show the number of each type of atom in the molecule while the structural
formulas show the arrangement of the atoms and the covalent bonds between them

22. Based on the reading, what is an example, in a living system, of how

molecular shape is critical?

Endorphins are signaling molecules made by the pituitary gland that bind to the receptors, relieving pain
and producing euphoria during times of stress, like intense exercise. Opiates have shapes similar to
endorphins and mimic them by binding to endorphin receptors in the brain. This is why opiates and
endorphins have similar effects. So, if we could synthesize molecules that mimic these shapes, you might be
able to treat diseases instead of just painkillers.

2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds.

23. Draw a simple chemical reaction and label the reactants and the products.

Reactants Products

2.5 Hydrogen bonding gives water properties that help make life possible on earth.
24. Study the water molecules at the right. On the central molecule,
label oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H).
Oxygen is the white and Hydrogen is the Red.
25. Why is water considered polar?
Water is polar, with partial positive charges on the hydrogens, and a partial negative charge on the
oxygen, this is because oxygen is more electronegative, meaning that it is better than hydrogen at attracting
oppositely charged electrons.

26. Now, add ​+ ​and ​– ​signs to indicate the charged regions of

​ olecule. Then, indicate the hydrogen bonds.
each m

27. Explain ​hydrogen bonding​.

A weak chemical bond formed when a partial positively charged hydrogen atom from a polar covalent bond
in one molecule is attracted to the partial negatively charged atom of another molecule.

Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s fitness for life are ...
cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing, and versatility as a solvent.
Hydrogen bonding accounts for the unique properties of water. Let’s look at several.
Cohesion
28. Distinguish between ​cohesion ​and ​adhesion​.
Cohesion - the linking together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds
Adhesion - The clinging of one substance to another, such as water to cell walls, by means of hydrogen
bonds.
29. How is it that water can be pulled up into the leaves of a tree?
Through Transpiration
30. Describe what surface tension is and explain what feature of hydrogen bonds causes it.

Surface tension - A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.
The hydrogen bonds in water give it an unusually high surface tension, making it behave as though it were
coated with an invisible film.

31. Which property explains the ability of a raft spider to walk on water?
The spider in​ ​takes advantage of the surface tension of water to walk across a pond without breaking the
surface.

Moderation of Temperature
32. Water has high ​specific heat​. What does this mean?
Water’s high heat capacity ( Specific Heat) is a property of it’s Hydrogen Bonding. This means that when
heat it’s absorbed hydrogen bonds are broken and water molecules move freely, and when it’s temperature
is decreased the hydrogen bonds are formed and release a considerable amount of energy.

33. How does water’s specific heat compare to alcohol’s?

waters specific heat is unusually high at 1 cal/g•°C, whereas alcohol's specific heat is is 0.6 cal/g•°C.
34. Explain how hydrogen bonding contributes to water’s high specific heat.
heat must be absorbed in order to break hydrogen bonds and heat is released when hydrogen bonds form.
So lots of heat is used to disrupt hydrogen bonds before water molecules can move faster. the temperature
of water goes down, lots of hydrogen bonds form, and release energy as heat.

35. Summarize how water’s high specific heat contributes to the moderation of temperature.
bodies of water can absorb tons of heat from the sun. when it gets colder outside, the water can
warm the air, which makes a milder climate and stabilizes ocean temperatures.

How is this property important to life?

This is important to life because marine life has a favorable environment and keeps temperature
fluctuations within limits that permit life.

36. Define ​evaporation​.

the transformation from a liquid to a gas
What is ​heat of vaporization​?
quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1g of it to convert to gas
Explain at least three effects of this property on living organisms.
-moderates earth's climate (helps us live)
-accounts for severity of steam burns
-releases heat and forms rain
- the sweat in humans

Expansion upon Freezing

37. Ice floats! So what? Consider what would happen if ponds and other bodies of water accumulated ice
at the bottom. Describe why this property of water is important.
ice is less dense as a solid than a liquid. so if ice sank, eventually all ponds and bodies of water would freeze
over and kill life. the ice stays on so that it doesn't freeze beneath and life can exist under the ice.

Water - Solvent of Life

38. Review and define these terms:
solvent ​- part of solution that is present in the largest amount and dissolves a solute
solution ​- a homogeneous mixture of a solvent and solute
solute ​- part of a solution that is present in the lesser amount and is dissolved by the solvent
39. Consider coffee to which you have added sugar. Which is the solvent? The solute?
Coffee is the solvent and sugar is the solute
40. Explain why water is such a fine solvent.
molecules as large as proteins can dissolve in water as well as biological fluids, sap, and liquid in cells
41. Define ​hydrophobic a​ nd ​hydrophilic.​

Hydrophobic - having no affinity for water; repels water

Hydrophillic - having an affinity for water; can dissolve in water, but not always

Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms

42. Label the diagram below to demonstrate the dissociation (ionization) of the water molecule and then
relate this diagram to pH.

43. What two ions form when water dissociates?

H+ and OH-

You should have answered “hydronium (H​3​O+) and hydroxide ions (OH–)” in the preceding question. However,
by convention, we will represent the hydronium ion as ​H+.

44. What is the concentration of each ion in pure water at 25​o​C?

10^-7 M
45. Water, which is neutral with a pH of 7, has an equal number of H+ and OH– ions. Now, define
acid - a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
base - a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

46. The carbonic acid/bicarbonate system is an important biological buffer. Label the molecules and ions
in this equation and indicate which is the H+ donor and which is the acceptor.

In which direction will this reaction proceed….

a. when the pH of a solution begins to fall?
HCO-3 + H+ . pH fall as it becomes it’s conjugate acid
b. when the pH rises above normal level?
H2CO3 . pH rises as it becomes it’s conjugate base
47. Even a slight change in pH can be harmful! How do ​buffers
moderate pH change?

it accepts hydrogen ions from the solution when they are in excess and donates hydrogen ions to the
solution when they are depleting

48. Exercise will result in the production of CO​2​, which will

acidify the blood. Explain the buffering system that minimizes
blood pH changes.

Carbonic acid dissociates to yield a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion. the chemical equilibrium regulates
pH. if H+ concentration falls, the reaction goes to the right and more carbonic acid dissociates and
replenishes hydrogen ions.