bicm-101

Fundamentals of Plant Biochemistry &

Biotechnology
Course In-charge: Dr. Tithli Sadhu
Lecture: 02
(Water)
1
• Water is the most abundant substance in living systems, making up
70% or more of the weight of most organisms.
• The first living organisms doubtless arose in an aqueous environment,
and the course of evolution has been shaped by the properties of the
aqueous medium in which life began.
• The attractive forces between water molecules and the slight tendency
of water to ionize are of crucial importance to the structure and
function of biomolecules.
• The water molecule and its ionizing products H+ and OH-, profoundly
influence the structure, self-assembly, and properties of all cellular
components, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
• Each hydrogen atom of a water molecule shares an electron pair with the central oxygen atom.
• The geometry of the molecule is dictated by the shapes of the outer electron orbitals of the oxygen
atom, which are similar to the sp3 bonding orbitals of carbon. These orbitals describe a rough
tetrahedron, with a hydrogen atom at each of two corners and unshared electron pairs at the other
two corners.
• The H-O-H bond angle is 104.5, slightly less than the 109.5 of a perfect tetrahedron because of
crowding by the nonbonding orbitals of the oxygen atom.
• The oxygen nucleus attracts electrons more strongly than does the hydrogen nucleus (a proton);
that is, oxygen is more electronegative. The sharing of electrons between H and O is therefore
unequal; the electrons are more often in the vicinity of the oxygen atom than of the hydrogen.
• The result of this unequal electron sharing is two electric dipoles in the water molecule, one along
each of the H-O bonds; each hydrogen bears a partial positive charge (δ+) and the oxygen atom
bears a partial negative charge equal to the sum of the two partial positives (2δ+).
• As a result, there is an electrostatic attraction between the oxygen atom of one water molecule
and the hydrogen of another, called a hydrogen bond
1.Ionization of water:
Water has a simple molecular structure. It is composed of one oxygen atom and
two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to the oxygen via a
shared pair of electrons. Oxygen also has two unshared pairs of electrons. Thus
there are 4 pairs of electrons surrounding the oxygen atom, two pairs involved in
covalent bonds with hydrogen, and two unshared pairs on the opposite side of the
oxygen atom. Oxygen is an "electronegative" or electron "loving" atom compared
with hydrogen.
Water is a "polar" molecule, meaning that there is an uneven distribution of
electron density. Water has a partial negative charge (δ-) near the oxygen atom due
to the unshared pairs of electrons, and partial positive charges (δ+) near the
hydrogen atoms.
An electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charge near the hydrogen
atoms and the partial negative charge near the oxygen results in the formation of a
hydrogen bond. The ability of ions and other molecules to dissolve in water is due
to polarity.
The unique physical properties, including a high heat of vaporization, strong
surface tension, high specific heat, and nearly universal solvent properties of water
are also due to hydrogen bonding.
2. Water- Universal Solvent
Water is called the universal solvent because more substances
dissolve in water than in any other chemical. It is water's
chemical composition and physical attributes that make it
such an excellent solvent.
This has to do with the polarity of each water molecule. The
hydrogen side of each water molecule carries a slight positive
electric charge, while the oxygen side carries a slight negative
electric charge. This helps water dissociate (separate) ionic
compounds into their positive and negative ions. The positive
part of an ionic compound is attracted to the oxygen side of
water while the negative portion of the compound is attracted
to the hydrogen side of the water. Despite being called the
universal solvent, water doesn't dissolve everything. Most of the
hydroxides exhibit low solubility in water. Also, nonpolar
molecules don't dissolve very well in water, including many
organic compounds, such as fats and waxes. It is called the
universal solvent because it dissolves the most substances, not
because it dissolves every single compound.
3. Water- hydrophobic interaction
Hydrophobicity is a phenomenon of great importance in biology, chemistry, and
biochemistry. Hydrophobic interactions describe the relations between water
and hydrophobes (low water-soluble molecules). Hydrophobes are nonpolar molecules
and usually have a long chain of carbons that do not interact with water molecules.
The mixing of fat and water is a good example of this particular interaction.
The common misconception is that water and fat doesn’t mix because the Van
der Waals forces that are acting upon both water and fat molecules are too weak.
However, this is not the case. The behavior of a fat droplet in water has more to do
with the enthalpy and entropy of the reaction than its intermolecular forces.
Hydrophobic interactions affect many processes in water, for example,
complexation, surfactant aggregation, and coagulation. These interactions play a
pivotal role in the formation and stability of proteins or biological membranes.
Causes of Hydrophobic Interactions
American chemist Walter Kauzmann discovered that nonpolar substances like
fat molecules tend to clump up together rather than distributing itself in a
water medium, because this allow the fat molecules to have minimal contact
with water.

The image indicates that when the hydrophobes come together,

they will have less contact with water. They interact with a total
of 16 water molecules before they come together and only 10
atoms after they interact.
Strength of Hydrophobic Interactions
Hydrophobic interactions are relatively stronger than other weak intermolecular forces
(i.e., Van der Waals interactions or Hydrogen bonds). The strength of Hydrophobic
Interactions depend on several factors including (in order of strength of influence):
1.Temperature: As temperature increases, the strength of hydrophobic interactions
increases also. However, at an extreme temperature, hydrophobic interactions will
denature.

2.Number of carbons on the hydrophobes: Molecules with the greatest number of

carbons will have the strongest hydrophobic interactions.

3.The shape of the hydrophobes: Aliphatic organic molecules have stronger

interactions than aromatic compounds. Branches on a carbon chain will reduce the
hydrophobic effect of that molecule and linear carbon chain can produce the largest
hydrophobic interaction. This is so because carbon branches produce steric hindrance,
so it is harder for two hydrophobes to have very close interactions with each other to
minimize their contact to water.
Colligative Properties of Water
The property of a solution that is dependent on the ratio between
the total numbers of solute particles (in the solution) to the total
number of solvent particles is called its colligative property.
Colligative properties are not dependent on the chemical nature of
the solution’s components. Thus, colligative properties can be
linked to several quantities that express the concentration of a
solution, such as molarity, normality, and molality.
The four colligative properties of a solution are:
✓ Relative lowering of vapour pressure
✓ Boiling point elevation (rise)
✓ Freezing point depression (lowering)
✓ Osmotic pressure
DETAILS: PDF
Electrolyte:
Electrolytes are minerals that carry an electrical charge when dissolved in water. Your
body retains electrolytes from the foods you eat and the fluids you drink. These
minerals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, are distributed
through your body and use their electrical energy to facilitate important bodily
functions including:
•Balance the amount of water in your body
•Balance your body’s pH level
•Move nutrients into your cells
•Move wastes out of your cells
•Regulate your nerves, muscles, heart, and brain functionality
•Help rebuild damaged tissue
Many times, sports drinks and waters that are infused with electrolytes will reference
(or target) athletes in their marketing. That’s because when a person exercises and
sweats, they lose valuable electrolytes in the process that need to be refreshed. A good
balance of electrolytes isn’t just important for those playing sports. We need
electrolytes in our bodies to do everything: walk, breathe, even think! Without
electrolytes in our brains, our nerve cells don’t communicate very well.
Electrolyte WATER:
Electrolyte water is infused with electrically-charged minerals, such as sodium,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Sometimes, electrolyte water may be
referred to as mineral water or alkaline water.
Sea water and tap water even contain electrolytes in the form of various kinds of
salt. Obviously, drinking salt water isn’t recommended; it’s having the right
balance of minerals that is vital to promoting health. On average, 34 ounces (1
liter) of tap water contain 2–3% of the reference daily intake (RDI) for sodium,
calcium and magnesium but little to no potassium.
In contrast, the same amount of popular electrolyte-enhanced sports drinks
packs up to 18% of the RDI for sodium and 3% of the RDI for potassium but
little to no magnesium or calcium.
Electrolyte drinking water is specifically designed to improve hydration and
other bodily functions by having optimal concentrations of only the most
beneficial electrolytes. Electrolyte waters, like sports drinks, have added
electrolytes for greater hydration, but sports drinks often contain large amounts
of sugar and calories.
Unless it’s labeled “distilled,” your regular bottled water provides at least a small
amount of electrolytes, and many products contain trace amounts for taste.
What Are the Benefits of Electrolyte Water?
Water comprises up to 60 percent of the human adult body. When you lose even a
small amount of this 60 percent, your body can’t perform all its essential functions.
When you become dehydrated, electrolytes step in to regulate hydration levels.
In some circumstances, electrolyte levels in your blood can become too low, causing
an imbalance. An imbalance in electrolytes can have a harmful effect on your health.
Symptoms can include:
•Fatigue
•Fast or irregular heartbeat
•Numbness and tingling
•Confusion
•Muscle weakness and cramping
•Headaches
•Convulsions
Physical properties of water

1. Latent heat of fusion:

Latent heat means energy absorbed or released by a substance during a
change in its physical state (phase) that occurs without changing its
temperature.
The amount of heat energy released or absorbed when a solid changing to
liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the latent heat
of fusion.
The latent heat of fusion of water is 80 cal/gram (or) 334.0 kJ/Kg.
Water has very high bond energy as it has hydrogen bonds, which require
significant energy to break it down.
2. Heat capacity:
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance by one degree Celsius. Every substance has its own specific
heat capacity, with the specific heat capacity of water being 1 cal/(g°C).

The specific heat capacity of water is much higher than that of other common
substances. This means that it takes a lot more heat to raise the temperature of
water compared to the amount of heat it would take to raise the temperature of
other substances. It is because of its hydrogen bonding among water molecules.
When heat is absorbed, hydrogen bonds are broken and water molecules can move
freely. When the temperature of water decreases, the hydrogen bonds are formed
and release a considerable amount of energy.

The high specific heat of water helps the earth's temperature remain moderate since
water traps heat during the day and releases it slowly at night. As a result, the
temperature on earth's surface does not vary very widely, ranging from extremes of
134°F to -129°F. For comparison, the moon has no liquid water and its
temperatures can range from 240°F to -290°F. (The lack of atmosphere on the
moon, along with other factors, also contributes to the wide range of temperature.)
3. Heat of vaporization:
Water also has an exceptionally high heat of vaporization due to its strong hydrogen bonding.
Vaporization occurs when a liquid changes to a gas, which makes it an endothermic reaction.
Water's heat of vaporization is 41 kJ/mol. Because the molecules of a liquid are in constant
motion and possess a wide range of kinetic energies, at any moment some fraction of them has
enough energy to escape from the surface of the liquid to enter the gas or vapor phase. This
process, called vaporization or evaporation, generates a vapor pressure above the liquid. The heat
of vaporization is the heat required to induce this phase change (liquid to gas).
Vapor pressure is inversely related to intermolecular forces, so those with stronger forces have a
lower vapor pressure. Water has very strong intermolecular forces, hence the low vapor pressure,
but it's even lower compared to larger molecules with low vapor pressures.
4. Viscosity:
Viscosity is the property of fluid having high resistance to flow. Water is very
much viscous because liquids with stronger intermolecular interactions are
usually more viscous than liquids with weak intermolecular interactions.
Water has very strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding and hence low vapor
pressure and therefore, water has very high viscosity.

5. Water has cohesive and adhesive properties:

Water molecules have strong cohesive forces due to their ability to form
hydrogen bonds with one another. Cohesive forces are responsible for surface
tension, the tendency of a liquid’s surface to resist rupture when placed under
tension or stress. Water also has adhesive properties that allow it to stick to
substances other than itself. These cohesive and adhesive properties are
essential for fluid transport in many forms of life. For example, they allow
nutrients to be transported to the top of a tree against the force of gravity.
6. Surface tension:
Surface tension is the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist
an external force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules. Since these
forces vary depending on the nature of the liquid (i.e. water vs. gasoline) or
solutes in the liquid (surfactants like detergent), each solution exhibits differing
surface tension properties. In a body of water, hydrogen bonds between water
molecules are constantly pulling the molecules in many different
directions. However, at the water's surface, the molecules are only being
pulled from side to side and down, with no hydrogen bonds pulling them
upwards. This results in a skin of water at the surface in which the molecules
are held together very tightly.
Surface tension is a measurement of the amount of force required to break
this skin on the surface of water. Other liquids have a surface tension as well,
but the surface tension in water is quite strong due to the hydrogen bonds.
7. Boiling and Freezing Points
The ability of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds, as shown below, causes
many of water's unique characteristics. Despite having a small molecular
weight, it has an incredibly big boiling point (100°C). This is because water
requires more energy to break its hydrogen bonds before it can then begin to
boil. The same concept is applied to the freezing point as well. The boiling and
freezing points of water enable the molecules to be very slow to boil or freeze,
this is important to the ecosystems living in water. If water was very easy to
freeze or boil, drastic changes in the environment would affect bodies of water
such as oceans or lakes, and cause all the organisms living in water to die. This
is also why sweat is able to cool our bodies.
8. Dielectric constant:
Dielectric constant (ϵr) is defined as the ratio of the electric permeability of
the material to the electric permeability of free space (i.e., vacuum) and its
value can derived from a simplified capacitor model.

At ambient condition, the dielectric constant of liquid water is around 78.4.

Water molecules are always associated with each other through as many as four
hydrogen bonds and this ordering of the structure of water greatly resists the
random thermal motions. Indeed it is this hydrogen bonding which is
responsible for its large dielectric constant.
9. Crystallization:
Crystallization can be defined as the solidification of a liquid substance into a
highly structured solid whose atoms or molecules are placed in a well-defined
three-dimensional crystal lattice.
Water of crystallization is the number of water molecules that combine
chemically in definite molecular proportion, with the concerned salt in the
crystalline state. This water is responsible for the geometric shape and colour
of the crystals.
The number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt is known
as the water of crystallization. For example, in hydrated Copper sulfate ( CuSO
4 · 5 H 2 O ), water molecules are present. So, the water of crystallization is in
this hydrated species.
10. Density
Density is the ratio of mass to volume and dense objects feel
heavier and tend to sink, while less dense objects feel lighter
and tend to float. The density of most objects changes slightly
as the temperature changes. In general, warmer temperatures
tend to make substances less dense because the greater random
kinetic energy makes the molecules spread out. The amount
that objects expand when heated is known as the coefficient of
expansion.

The density of water, once again, is a special case. Water is

most dense at 4°C, and as it cools or warms from this
temperature, the water expands slightly. This means that ice is
slightly less dense than cold water, which is why ice floats on
the surface of bodies of water. The floating ice slows the
freezing process by insulating the water underneath, which
contributes to the moderate temperatures on earth. In addition,
the layer of ice prevents many lakes from freezing solid,
allowing fish and other organisms to survive under the ice.
11. Capillary Action
Plants and trees couldn't thrive without capillary action. It helps
bring water up into the roots. With the help of adhesion and
cohesion, water can work its way all the way up to the branches
and leaves. Even if you've never heard of capillary action, it is
still important in your life. Capillary action is important for
moving water (and all of the things that are dissolved in it)
around. It is defined as the movement of water within the spaces
of a porous material due to the forces of adhesion, cohesion, and
surface tension. Capillary action occurs because water is sticky,
thanks to the forces of cohesion (water molecules like to stay
close together) and adhesion (water molecules are attracted and
stick to other substances). Adhesion of water to the walls of a
vessel will cause an upward force on the liquid at the edges and
result in a meniscus, which turns upward. The surface tension
acts to hold the surface intact. Capillary action occurs when
adhesion to the walls is stronger than the cohesive forces
between the liquid molecules. The height to which capillary
action will take water in a uniform circular tube (below) is
limited by surface tension.
The attraction of water molecules to the sides of a narrow vessel
(adhesion) is stronger than the cohesion drawing water
molecules together. The result is capillary action, in which the
force of adhesion pulls the fluid upwards.