Study Guide 7

FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.
0 10-July-2020
Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2
7
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
MODULE OVERVIEW
More than 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by a very important solution—seawater. It is likely that
without seawater, no life would exist on Earth. At its simplest, seawater is mostly H 2O. But about 3.5% of
seawater is dissolved solids, mostly NaCl but other ions as well. Because it is highly likely that life on Earth
originated in the oceans, it should not be surprising that many bodily fluids resemble seawater—especially
blood.
Most ions are more abundant in seawater than they are in blood, with some notable exceptions. There is
far more hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3−) in blood than in seawater; indeed, it is the third most common ion in
blood. This difference is significant because the HCO 3− ion and some related species [CO32−, CO2 (aq)] have
an important role in controlling the acid-base properties of blood. Although there is a negligible amount of the
two hydrogen phosphate ions (HPO42− and H2PO4−) in seawater, there is a small amount in blood, where these
ions affect acid-base properties. Another notable difference is that blood has a negligible amount of the sulfate
ion (SO42−), but this ion is present in seawater.
Gold is present in seawater—but only a tiny amount. A current estimate of the amount of gold is about 1
part per every 1 × 1013 parts of seawater, which makes the extraction of gold from seawater unfeasible.
However, it does mean that there are about 1.4 × 1014 g of gold in the world’s oceans!
A solution is a homogeneous mixture—a mixture of two or more substances that are so intimately mixed
that the mixture behaves in many ways like a single substance. Many chemical reactions occur when the
reactants are dissolved in solution. In this chapter, we will introduce concepts that are applicable to solutions
and the chemical reactions that occur in them.
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Compare the solution process in terms of solute-solute, solute-solvent, and solvent-solvent interactions.
2. Calculate the concentration of solution as molarity, mole fraction, weight percent, parts per million,
parts per billion, and molality.
3. Convert one concentration unit to another.
4. Differentiate saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions.
5. Recall some uses of colloids in food preparation, industry, and pharmaceutical products.
6. Explain how pressure, temperature and solute-solvent interactions affect solubility.
7. Explain how concentration of solutions affect vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing point, and osmotic
pressure.
8. Differentiate colloids from solutions.
LEARNING CONTENTS (THE SOLUTION PROCESS)
SOLUTION FORMATION
We have learned that solutions can be formed in a variety of combinations using solids, liquids, and
gases. We also know that solutions have constant compositions, which can be varied to a point. Not all
combinations, however, form solutions. Why is it that oil and water will not form a solution, but vinegar and water
will? Why can table salt be dissolved in water but not in vegetable oil? The reasons why solutions form will be
explored in this lesson, along with a discussion of why water is used most frequently to dissolve substances of
various types.
Compound Structure and Solution Formation
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev. 0 10-July-2020
Recall that a polar molecule is one that has a partially positive end and a partially negative end,
while non-polar molecules have charges that are evenly distributed throughout the molecule. In fact,
during the study of the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR), you learned that the
chemical structures themselves have built in molecular polarity.
In solution chemistry, we can predict when solutions will form using the saying, “like dissolves
like.” This expression means that solubility is based on the two parts of a solution having similar
intermolecular forces. For example, suppose you are dissolving methanol in water. Both methanol and
water are polar molecules that can form a solution because they both have permanent dipoles (partially
positive and partially negative parts of the molecules) that allow the molecules of both substances to be
attracted to the other. We say these substances are miscible, which means these two can dissolve in
each other and make a solution. If they are immiscible, they are unable to be mixed together.
The same is true for the case of a non-polar substance such as carbon tetrachloride being
dissolved in another non-polar substance like pentane. London-dispersion forces are the intermolecular
forces that hold the carbon tetrachloride together as a liquid and allow pentane to be a liquid at room
temperature. Since both of these substances have the same intermolecular forces, when they are mixed
together, a solution will be formed.
In a polar solvent, the molecules of solvent are attracted to each other by the partial charges on
the ends of the molecules. When a polar solute is added, the positive polar ends of the solute molecules
attract the negative polar ends of the solvent molecules and vice versa. This attraction allows the two
different types of molecules to form a solution. If a non-polar solute is added to a polar solvent, the non-
polar solute molecules are unable to disrupt the solvent molecules. The polarity of the solvent molecules
make the solvent molecules more attracted to each other rather than to the non-polar solute. As a result,
the solute and solvent are immiscible. For example, if we were to add table salt, NaCl, to either carbon
tetrachloride, we would find that the salt would not dissolve. Since carbon tetrachloride has no permanent
dipoles in its molecules, there is no attraction among the charged ions in NaCl and the uncharged
molecules of the solvent.
Water is often referred to as the “universal solvent.” The term “universal” is used to describe the
fact that water can dissolve many types and kinds of substances. For instance, table salt, NaCl, is an
ionic compound, but it easily makes a solution with water. This is true for many ionic compounds. Water
also readily dissolves table sugar, a polar covalent compound, and other polar compounds, such as
vinegar and corn syrup. Even some non-polar substances dissolve in water to a limited degree. Oxygen
gas, a non-polar molecule, can dissolve in water and be taken up by fish through their gills. Carbon
dioxide, another non-polar gas, is also soluble in water. Many drinks, such as sodas, beers, seltzer water,
and champagne contain carbon dioxide. To keep as much gas in solution as possible, the sodas are kept
under pressure.
Ionic Compounds in Solution
When a solid is formed between a metal and a nonmetal, the ions in the solid are held together by
the attraction of the positive metal cation to the negative nonmetal anion. The attraction of oppositely
charged particles is called electrostatic attraction. For example:
Na + ionization energy → Na+ + e-

I + e- → I- + energy of electron affinity
Na+ + I- → NaI + energy
NaI is therefore held together by electrostatic attraction
Electrostatic attraction is quite strong, so compounds with this type of bonding have high melting
and boiling points. Recall that ionic compounds do not form molecules. Instead, the empirical formula
represents the lowest whole number ratio of the ions involved in the compound.
Example:

Which of the compounds below would contain an electrostatic attraction as bonds between ions?
a. MgCl2
b. Al2O3
c. CH4
Solution:
MgCl2 and Al2O3 would contain electrostatic attraction because they are both ionic, but CH4 is not.
It does not form bonds by the transfer of electrons but instead by sharing electrons, so it does not have
ions for electrostatic attraction.
Since ionic compounds can dissolve in polar solutions, specifically water, we can extend this
concept to say that ions themselves are attracted to the water molecules because the ions are attracted
to the polar water molecule. When you dissolve table salt in a cup of water, the table salt dissociates into
sodium ions and chloride ions, as seen in the equation below:
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
The sodium ions get attracted to the partially negative ends of the water molecule, and the chloride
ions get attracted to the partially positive end of the water molecule. The process of water molecules
attaching to ions is called hydration. The same is true for any ionic compound dissolving in water. The
ionic compound will separate into positive and negative ions, and the positive ion will be attracted to the
partially negative end of the water molecules (oxygen) while the negative ion will be attracted to the
partially positive end of the water molecules (hydrogen).
Covalent Compounds in Solution
Covalent compounds have a different type of attraction occurring between the solute and solvent
molecules. Unlike ionic compounds, which result from the transfer of electrons, covalent compounds
result from the sharing of electrons between atoms. As a result, there are no distinct charges associated
with the atoms in covalent compounds.
In CO2, each oxygen atom shares two of its electrons with carbon and the carbon shares two of its
electrons with each oxygen atom. Look at the figure below:
Image source: https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-

d%3A1711b2b6c5082cd0493aeeaea0672db5e4a3a19949c92eca93de9071%2BIMAGE_TINY%2BIMAGE_TINY.1
This sharing of valence electrons represents covalent bonding. However, the electrons are not
shared equally. Recall that elements with a greater electronegativity have a stronger attraction for shared
electrons. Therefore, they can pull the electrons closer to themselves and away from the element that
has a smaller electronegativity. For carbon, the electronegativity value is 2.5, and for oxygen it is 3.5.
The result in this molecule is that the electrons are pulled closer to oxygen than carbon. The resultant
structure is represented below.

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The bonds in this molecule are polar, but the molecule is non-polar overall because the shifting
of the shared electrons toward the oxygen atoms are in equal but opposite directions. As a result, there
is no overall dipole moment on the molecule.
As ionic solids dissolve into solution, these solids separate into ions. Molecular compounds,
however, are held together with covalent bonds, which are not readily broken. For example, when you
dissolve a spoonful of sugar into a glass of water, the intermolecular forces between the sugar
molecules are disrupted but the intramolecular bonds are not. The sugar will not separate into carbon
ions, hydrogen ions, and oxygen ions. The sugar molecules remain intact, but because of their polar
properties, they can interact with the polar water molecules to form a solution. You can write the
following equation for the dissolution of sugar in water:
C12H22O11 (s) → C12H22O11 (aq)

Example:
Which compounds will dissolve in solution to separate into ions?

a. LiF
b. P2F5
c. C2H5OH
Solution:
LiF will separate into ions when dissolved in solution:
LiF (aq) → Li+ (aq) + F- (aq)

P2F5 and C2H5OH are both covalent and will stay as molecules in a solution.
Electrolytes and Non-Electrolytes
In the late 1800s, Arrhenius classified ionic compounds that dissolved in water as electrolytes.
They are considered to be electrolytes because they conduct electricity in water solution. According to
Arrhenius (and current theory), the ions in solution provide the charged particles needed to conduct
electricity. Look at the equation below for the dissociation of NaCl.
NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Once the solid NaCl is added to the water, it dissolves, which means that the ions move away
from their crystalline structure and are now dispersed throughout the water molecules. If two electrodes
were to be immersed into a solution of NaCl (aq), the Na+ (aq) ions would move toward one electrode
and the Cl-(aq) ions would move toward the second electrode. This movement of ions allows the electric
current to flow through the solution. Therefore, NaCl (aq) will behave as an electrolyte and conduct
electricity because of the presence of Na+ (aq) and Cl- (aq) ions. The more ions that are present in the
solution, the stronger the electrolyte solution is.
Example:
Which of the following will form electrolyte solutions and conduct electricity?
a. CaF2 (aq)
b. C6H12O6 (aq)
c. KOH (aq)
Solution:
CaF2 (aq) and KOH (aq) are solutions that contain positive cations and negative anions that would
separate when dissolved in water. Since ions are separated in solution, they are electrolytes and will
conduct electricity.

Calcium fluoride: CaF2(s) →Ca2 + (aq) + 2 F-(aq)

Potassium hydroxide: KOH(s) → K+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
C6H12O6 (aq) is not an ionic compound but a covalent compound. This means that when it dissolves in
water it stays together as a molecule and is a non-electrolyte.
C6H12O6 (s) → C6H12O6 (aq)
Conduction is the result of ions moving through a solution. With covalent compounds, there are no ions
moving around in solution; therefore, they are classified as non-electrolytes. Non-electrolytes are
solutions that do not conduct electricity. If you were to connect a conductivity meter to these solutions,
there would be no reading the wires were placed in a solution containing a non-electrolyte.
THE EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN THE FORMATION OF SOLUTION

As was the case for gaseous substances, the kinetic molecular theory may be used to explain the
behavior of solids and liquids. In the following description, the term particle will be used to refer to an atom,
molecule, or ion. Note that we will use the popular phrase “intermolecular attraction” to refer to attractive forces
between the particles of a substance, regardless of whether these particles are molecules, atoms, or ions.
Consider these two aspects of the molecular-level environments in solid, liquid, and gaseous matter:
• Particles in a solid are tightly packed together and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they
are close together with no regular arrangement; in a gas, they are far apart with no regular arrangement.
• Particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions and do not generally move in relation to one another;
in a liquid, they move past each other but remain in essentially constant contact; in a gas, they move
independently of one another except when they collide.
The differences in the properties of a solid, liquid, or gas reflect the strengths of the attractive forces
between the atoms, molecules, or ions that make up each phase. The phase in which a substance exists
depends on the relative extents of its intermolecular forces (IMFs) and the kinetic energies (KE) of its
molecules. IMFs are the various forces of attraction that may exist between the atoms and molecules of a
substance due to electrostatic phenomena, as will be detailed in this module. These forces serve to hold
particles close together, whereas the particles’ KE provides the energy required to overcome the attractive
forces and thus increase the distance between particles.
Forces between Molecules
Under appropriate conditions, the attractions between all gas molecules will cause them to form
liquids or solids. This is due to intermolecular forces, not intramolecular forces. Intramolecular forces
are those within the molecule that keep the molecule together, for example, the bonds between the
atoms. Intermolecular forces are the attractions between molecules, which determine many of the
physical properties of a substance. The strengths of these attractive forces vary widely, though usually
the IMFs between small molecules are weak compared to the intramolecular forces that bond atoms
together within a molecule. For example, to overcome the IMFs in one mole of liquid HCl and convert it
into gaseous HCl requires only about 17 kilojoules. However, to break the covalent bonds between the
hydrogen and chlorine atoms in one mole of HCl requires about 25 times more energy—430 kilojoules.
Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_IntravInter.jpg

Dispersion Forces
One of the three van der Waals forces is present in all condensed phases, regardless of the
nature of the atoms or molecules composing the substance. This attractive force is called the London

dispersion force in honor of German-born American physicist Fritz London who, in 1928, first
explained it. This force is often referred to as simply the dispersion force. Because the electrons of an
atom or molecule are in constant motion (or, alternatively, the electron’s location is subject to quantum-
mechanical variability), at any moment in time, an atom or molecule can develop a
temporary, instantaneous dipole if its electrons are distributed asymmetrically. The presence of this
dipole can, in turn, distort the electrons of a neighboring atom or molecule, producing an induced
dipole. These two rapidly fluctuating, temporary dipoles thus result in a relatively weak electrostatic
attraction between the species—a so-called dispersion force like that illustrated in the figure below.
Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_DispForces.jpg
Dispersion forces that develop between atoms in different molecules can attract the two
molecules to each other. The forces are relatively weak, however, and become significant only when
the molecules are very close. Larger and heavier atoms and molecules exhibit stronger dispersion
forces than do smaller and lighter atoms and molecules. F 2 and Cl2 are gases at room temperature
(reflecting weaker attractive forces); Br2 is a liquid, and I2 is a solid (reflecting stronger attractive forces).
Trends in observed melting and boiling points for the halogens clearly demonstrate this effect, as seen
in the table below.
Atomic Melting
Halogen Molar Mass Boiling Point
Radius Point
fluorine, F2 38 g/mol 72 pm 53 K 85 K
chlorine, Cl2 71 g/mol 99 pm 172 K 238 K
bromine, Br2 160 g/mol 114 pm 266 K 332 K
iodine, I2 254 g/mol 133 pm 387 K 457 K
astatine, At2 420 g/mol 150 pm 575 K 610 K
The increase in melting and boiling points with increasing atomic/molecular size may be
rationalized by considering how the strength of dispersion forces is affected by the electronic structure
of the atoms or molecules in the substance. In a larger atom, the valence electrons are, on average,
farther from the nuclei than in a smaller atom. Thus, they are less tightly held and can more easily form
the temporary dipoles that produce the attraction. The measure of how easy or difficult it is for another
electrostatic charge (for example, a nearby ion or polar molecule) to distort a molecule’s charge
distribution (its electron cloud) is known as polarizability. A molecule that has a charge cloud that is
easily distorted is said to be very polarizable and will have large dispersion forces; one with a charge
cloud that is difficult to distort is not very polarizable and will have small dispersion forces.
Example 1
Order the following compounds of a group 14 element and hydrogen from lowest to highest boiling
point: CH4, SiH4, GeH4, and SnH4. Explain your reasoning.
Solution
Applying the skills acquired in the chapter on chemical bonding and molecular geometry, all of these
compounds are predicted to be nonpolar, so they may experience only dispersion forces: the smaller

the molecule, the less polarizable and the weaker the dispersion forces; the larger the molecule, the
larger the dispersion forces. The molar masses of CH4, SiH4, GeH4, and SnH4 are approximately 16
g/mol, 32 g/mol, 77 g/mol, and 123 g/mol, respectively. Therefore, CH 4 is expected to have the lowest
boiling point and SnH4 the highest boiling point. The ordering from lowest to highest boiling point is
expected to be CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4.
Dipole – Dipole Interactions
Recall that on chemical bonding and molecular geometry, polar molecules have a partial
positive charge on one side and a partial negative charge on the other side of the molecule—a
separation of charge called a dipole. Consider a polar molecule such as hydrogen chloride, HCl. In the
HCl molecule, the more electronegative Cl atom bears the partial negative charge, whereas the less
electronegative H atom bears the partial positive charge. An attractive force between HCl molecules
results from the attraction between the positive end of one HCl molecule and the negative end of
another. This attractive force is called a dipole-dipole attraction—the electrostatic force between the
partially positive end of one polar molecule and the partially negative end of another, as illustrated in
the figure below.
Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_DipDip.jpg
The effect of a dipole-dipole attraction is apparent when we compare the properties of HCl
molecules to nonpolar F2 molecules. Both HCl and F2 consist of the same number of atoms and have
approximately the same molecular mass. At a temperature of 150 K, molecules of both substances
would have the same average KE. However, the dipole-dipole attractions between HCl molecules are
sufficient to cause them to “stick together” to form a liquid, whereas the relatively weaker dispersion
forces between nonpolar F2 molecules are not, and so this substance is gaseous at this temperature.
The higher normal boiling point of HCl (188 K) compared to F 2 (85 K) is a reflection of the greater
strength of dipole-dipole attractions between HCl molecules, compared to the attractions between
nonpolar F2 molecules. We will often use values such as boiling or freezing points, or enthalpies of
vaporization or fusion, as indicators of the relative strengths of IMFs of attraction present within different
substances.
Example 2
Predict which will have the higher boiling point: N2 or CO. Explain your reasoning.
Solution
CO and N2 are both diatomic molecules with masses of about 28 amu, so they experience similar
London dispersion forces. Because CO is a polar molecule, it experiences dipole-dipole attractions.
Because N2 is nonpolar, its molecules cannot exhibit dipole-dipole attractions. The dipole-dipole
attractions between CO molecules are comparably stronger than the dispersion forces between
nonpolar N2 molecules, so CO is expected to have the higher boiling point.
Hydrogen Bonding
Nitrosyl fluoride (ONF, molecular mass 49 amu) is a gas at room temperature. Water (H 2O,
molecular mass 18 amu) is a liquid, even though it has a lower molecular mass. We clearly cannot
attribute this difference between the two compounds to dispersion forces. Both molecules have about
the same shape and ONF is the heavier and larger molecule. It is, therefore, expected to experience
more significant dispersion forces. Additionally, we cannot attribute this difference in boiling points to
differences in the dipole moments of the molecules. Both molecules are polar and exhibit comparable
dipole moments. The large difference between the boiling points is due to a particularly strong dipole-
dipole attraction that may occur when a molecule contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a fluorine,

oxygen, or nitrogen atom (the three most electronegative elements). The very large difference in
electronegativity between the H atom (2.1) and the atom to which it is bonded (4.0 for an F atom, 3.5
for an O atom, or 3.0 for a N atom), combined with the very small size of a H atom and the relatively
small sizes of F, O, or N atoms, leads to highly concentrated partial charges with these atoms.
Molecules with F-H, O-H, or N-H moieties are very strongly attracted to similar moieties in nearby
molecules, a particularly strong type of dipole-dipole attraction called hydrogen bonding. Examples of
hydrogen bonds include HF⋯HF, H2O⋯HOH, and H3N⋯HNH2, in which the hydrogen bonds are
denoted by dots. The figure below illustrates hydrogen bonding between water molecules.
Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_HBonding.jpg
Despite use of the word “bond,” keep in mind that hydrogen bonds are intermolecular attractive
forces, not intramolecular attractive forces (covalent bonds). Hydrogen bonds are much weaker than
covalent bonds, only about 5 to 10% as strong, but are generally much stronger than other dipole-dipole
attractions and dispersion forces.
Hydrogen bonds have a pronounced effect on the properties of condensed phases (liquids and
solids). For example, consider the trends in boiling points for the binary hydrides of group 15 (NH 3, PH3,
AsH3, and SbH3), group 16 hydrides (H2O, H2S, H2Se, and H2Te), and group 17 hydrides (HF, HCl,
HBr, and HI). The boiling points of the heaviest three hydrides for each group are plotted in the figure
below. As we progress down any of these groups, the polarities of the molecules decrease slightly,
whereas the sizes of the molecules increase substantially. The effect of increasingly stronger dispersion
forces dominates that of increasingly weaker dipole-dipole attractions, and the boiling points are
observed to increase steadily.
Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_HydrideBP1.jpg
If we use this trend to predict the boiling points for the lightest hydride for each group, we would
expect NH3 to boil at about −120 °C, H2O to boil at about −80 °C, and HF to boil at about −110 °C.
However, when we measure the boiling points for these compounds, we find that they are dramatically
higher than the trends would predict, as shown in the figure below. The stark contrast between our
naïve predictions and reality provides compelling evidence for the strength of hydrogen bonding.

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_HydrideBP2.jpg
Example 3
Consider the compounds dimethylether (CH3OCH3), ethanol (CH3CH2OH), and propane (CH3CH2CH3).
Their boiling points, not necessarily in order, are −42.1 °C, −24.8 °C, and 78.4 °C. Match each
compound with its boiling point. Explain your reasoning.
Solution
The VSEPR-predicted shapes of CH3OCH3, CH3CH2OH, and CH3CH2CH3 are similar, as are their
molar masses (46 g/mol, 46 g/mol, and 44 g/mol, respectively), so they will exhibit similar dispersion
forces. Since CH3CH2CH3 is nonpolar, it may exhibit only dispersion forces. Because CH3OCH3 is
polar, it will also experience dipole-dipole attractions. Finally, CH3CH2OH has an −OH group, and so it
will experience the uniquely strong dipole-dipole attraction known as hydrogen bonding. So the ordering
in terms of strength of IMFs, and thus boiling points, is CH 3CH2CH3 < CH3OCH3 < CH3CH2OH. The
boiling point of propane is −42.1 °C, the boiling point of dimethylether is −24.8 °C, and the boiling point
of ethanol is 78.5 °C.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
I. SOLUTION FORMATION
1. Thomas is making a salad dressing for supper using balsamic vinegar and oil. He shakes and shakes
the mixture but cannot seem to get the two to dissolve. Explain to Thomas why they will not dissolve.
2. Write the reactions for dissolving the following.

a. NaOH(s)
b. LiOH(s)
c. C5H10O4(s)
d. NH4Cl(s)
e. MgCl2(s)
II. THE EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN THE FORMATION OF SOLUTION
Check Your Learning

1. Order the following hydrocarbons from lowest to highest boiling point: C 2H6, C3H8, and C4H10.
2. Predict which will have the higher boiling point: ICl or Br 2. Explain your reasoning.

3. Ethane (CH3CH3) has a melting point of −183 °C and a boiling point of −89 °C. Predict the melting and
boiling points for methylamine (CH3NH2). Explain your reasoning.
LEARNING CONTENTS (SATURATION AND SOLUBILITY)
Imagine adding a small amount of salt to a glass of water, stirring until all the salt has dissolved, and
then adding a bit more. You can repeat this process until the salt concentration of the solution reaches its natural
limit, a limit determined primarily by the relative strengths of the solute-solute, solute-solvent, and solvent-
solvent attractive forces discussed in the previous two modules of this chapter. You can be certain that you
have reached this limit because, no matter how long you stir the solution, undissolved salt remains. The
concentration of salt in the solution at this point is known as its solubility.
The solubility of a solute in a particular solvent is the maximum concentration that may be achieved
under given conditions when the dissolution process is at equilibrium. Referring to the example of salt in water:
NaCl(s) ⇋ Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
When a solute’s concentration is equal to its solubility, the solution is said to be saturated with that
solute. If the solute’s concentration is less than its solubility, the solution is said to be unsaturated. A solution
that contains a relatively low concentration of solute is called dilute, and one with a relatively high concentration
is called concentrated.
If we add more salt to a saturated solution of salt, we see it fall to the bottom and no more seems to
dissolve. In fact, the added salt does dissolve, as represented by the forward direction of the dissolution
equation. Accompanying this process, dissolved salt will precipitate, as depicted by the reverse direction of the
equation. The system is said to be at equilibrium when these two reciprocal processes are occurring at equal
rates, and so the amount of undissolved and dissolved salt remains constant. Support for the simultaneous
occurrence of the dissolution and precipitation processes is provided by noting that the number and sizes of the
undissolved salt crystals will change over time, though their combined mass will remain the same.
Solutions may be prepared in which a solute concentration exceeds its solubility. Such solutions are
said to be supersaturated, and they are interesting examples of nonequilibrium states. For example, the
carbonated beverage in an open container that has not yet “gone flat” is supersaturated with carbon dioxide
gas; given time, the CO2 concentration will decrease until it reaches its equilibrium value.
Solutions of Gases in Liquids
In an earlier module of this chapter, the effect of intermolecular attractive forces on solution formation
was discussed. The chemical structures of the solute and solvent dictate the types of forces possible and,
consequently, are important factors in determining solubility. For example, under similar conditions, the water
solubility of oxygen is approximately three times greater than that of helium, but 100 times less than the solubility
of chloromethane, CHCl3. Considering the role of the solvent’s chemical structure, note that the solubility of
oxygen in the liquid hydrocarbon hexane, C6H14, is approximately 20 times greater than it is in water.
Other factors also affect the solubility of a given substance in a given solvent. Temperature is one such
factor, with gas solubility typically decreasing as temperature increases as shown in the figure below. This is
one of the major impacts resulting from the thermal pollution of natural bodies of water.

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_11_03_gasdissolv.jpg
When the temperature of a river, lake, or stream is raised abnormally high, usually due to the discharge
of hot water from some industrial process, the solubility of oxygen in the water is decreased. Decreased levels
of dissolved oxygen may have serious consequences for the health of the water’s ecosystems and, in severe
cases, can result in large-scale fish kills in the figure below.
Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_11_03_O2dissolv.jpg
The solubility of a gaseous solute is also affected by the partial pressure of solute in the gas to which
the solution is exposed. Gas solubility increases as the pressure of the gas increases. Carbonated beverages
provide a nice illustration of this relationship. The carbonation process involves exposing the beverage to a
relatively high pressure of carbon dioxide gas and then sealing the beverage container, thus saturating the
beverage with CO2 at this pressure. When the beverage container is opened, a familiar hiss is heard as the
carbon dioxide gas pressure is released, and some of the dissolved carbon dioxide is typically seen leaving
solution in the form of small bubbles in the figure below. At this point, the beverage is supersaturated with
carbon dioxide and, with time, the dissolved carbon dioxide concentration will decrease to its equilibrium value
and the beverage will become “flat.”
Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_11_03_beverage.jpg

For many gaseous solutes, the relation between solubility, Cg, and partial pressure, Pg, is a
proportional one:
Cg = kPgCg = kPg
where k is a proportionality constant that depends on the identities of the gaseous solute and solvent,
and on the solution temperature. This is a mathematical statement of Henry’s law: The quantity of an
ideal gas that dissolves in a definite volume of liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas.
Example 1
At 20 °C, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water exposed to gaseous oxygen at a partial
pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 torr) is 1.38 × 10 −3 mol L−1. Use Henry’s law to determine the solubility of oxygen
when its partial pressure is 20.7 kPa (155 torr), the approximate pressure of oxygen in earth’s atmosphere.
Solution
According to Henry’s law, for an ideal solution the solubility, Cg, of a gas (1.38 × 10−3 mol L−1, in this case) is
directly proportional to the pressure, Pg, of the undissolved gas above the solution (101.3 kPa, or 760 torr, in
this case). Because we know both Cg and Pg, we can rearrange this expression to solve for k.
Now we can use k to find the solubility at the lower pressure.
Note that various units may be used to express the quantities involved in these sorts of computations.
Any combination of units that yield to the constraints of dimensional analysis are acceptable.
Solutions of Liquids in Liquids
We know that some liquids mix with each other in all proportions; in other words, they have infinite
mutual solubility and are said to be miscible. Ethanol, sulfuric acid, and ethylene glycol are examples of liquids
that are completely miscible with water. Two-cycle motor oil is miscible with gasoline.
Liquids that mix with water in all proportions are usually polar substances or substances that form
hydrogen bonds. For such liquids, the dipole-dipole attractions (or hydrogen bonding) of the solute molecules
with the solvent molecules are at least as strong as those between molecules in the pure solute or in the pure
solvent. Hence, the two kinds of molecules mix easily. Likewise, nonpolar liquids are miscible with each other

because there is no appreciable difference in the strengths of solute-solute, solvent-solvent, and solute-solvent
intermolecular attractions. The solubility of polar molecules in polar solvents and of nonpolar molecules in
nonpolar solvents is, again, an illustration of the chemical axiom “like dissolves like.”
Two liquids that do not mix to an appreciable extent are called immiscible. Layers are formed when we
pour immiscible liquids into the same container. Gasoline, oil, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, some paints, and
many other nonpolar liquids are immiscible with water. The attraction between the molecules of such nonpolar
liquids and polar water molecules is ineffectively weak. The only strong attractions in such a mixture are between
the water molecules, so they effectively squeeze out the molecules of the nonpolar liquid. The distinction
between immiscibility and miscibility is really one of degrees, so that miscible liquids are of infinite mutual
solubility, while liquids said to be immiscible are of very low (though not zero) mutual solubility.
Two liquids, such as bromine and water, that are of moderate mutual solubility are said to be partially
miscible. Two partially miscible liquids usually form two layers when mixed. In the case of the bromine and water
mixture, the upper layer is water, saturated with bromine, and the lower layer is bromine saturated with water.
Since bromine is nonpolar, and, thus, not very soluble in water, the water layer is only slightly discolored by the
bright orange bromine dissolved in it. Since the solubility of water in bromine is very low, there is no noticeable
effect on the dark color of the bromine layer.
Solutions of Solids in Liquids
The dependence of solubility on temperature for a number of inorganic solids in water is shown by the solubility
curves in the figure below. Reviewing these data indicate a general trend of increasing solubility with
temperature, although there are exceptions, as illustrated by the ionic compound cerium sulfate.
Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_11_03_solubility.jpg
The temperature dependence of solubility can be exploited to prepare supersaturated solutions of

certain compounds. A solution may be saturated with the compound at an elevated temperature (where the
solute is more soluble) and subsequently cooled to a lower temperature without precipitating the solute. The
resultant solution contains solute at a concentration greater than its equilibrium solubility at the lower
temperature (i.e., it is supersaturated) and is relatively stable. Precipitation of the excess solute can be initiated
by adding a seed crystal (see the video in the Link to Learning earlier in this module) or by mechanically agitating
the solution. Some hand warmers, such as the one pictured below, take advantage of this behavior.

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_11_03_handwarmer.jpg
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Check Your Learning
1. Exposing a 100.0 mL sample of water at 0 °C to an atmosphere containing a gaseous solute at 20.26

kPa (152 torr) resulted in the dissolution of 1.45 × 10 −3 g of the solute. Use Henry’s law to determine
the solubility of this gaseous solute when its pressure is 101.3 kPa (760 torr).
LEARNING CONTENTS (FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY)
Take some sand and check out to dissolve it in a cup of water. The sand won't dissolve; in other words,
it's insoluble. If you were to require a teaspoon of table salt or sugar and conduct identical experiment, the result
would vary. Salt and sugar are both soluble in water.
Solubility is the maximum amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a
specific temperature. There are two direct factors that affect solubility: temperature and pressure. Temperature
affects the solubility of both solids and gases, but pressure only affects the solubility of gases. Surface area
does not affect how much of a solute will be dissolved, but it is a factor in how quickly or slowly the substance
will dissolve. In this section, we will explore all three of these factors and how they affect the solubility of solids
and gases.
The Solute – Solvent Interaction
The relation between the solute and solvent is very important in determining solubility. Strong
solute-solvent attractions equate to greater solubility while weak solute-solvent attractions equate to
lesser solubility. In turn, polar solutes tend to dissolve best in polar solvents while non-polar solutes
tend to dissolve best in non-polar solvents. In the case of a polar solute and non-polar solvent (or vice
versa), it tends to be insoluble or only soluble to a miniscule degree. A general rule to remember is,
"Like dissolves like."
Common-Ion Effect
The common-ion effect is a term that describes the decrease in solubility of an ionic
compound when a salt that contains an ion that already exists in the chemical equilibrium is added to
the mixture. This effect best be explained by Le Chatelier’s principle. Imagine if the slightly soluble ionic
compound calcium sulfate, CaSO4, is added to water. The net ionic equation for the resulting chemical
equilibrium is the following:
CaSO4(s) ⇌ Ca2+ (aq) + SO2−4(aq)

Calcium sulfate is slightly soluble; at equilibrium, most of the calcium and sulfate exists in the
solid form of calcium sulfate.
Suppose the soluble ionic compound copper sulfate (CuSO 4) were added to the solution.

Copper sulfate is soluble; therefore, its only important effect on the net ionic equation is the addition of
more sulfate (SO42-) ions.
CuSO4(s) ⇌ Cu2+(aq) + SO2−4(aq)
The sulfate ions dissociated from copper sulfate are already present (common to) in the mixture
from the slight dissociation of calcium sulfate. Thus, this addition of sulfate ions places stress on the
previously established equilibrium. Le Chatelier's principle dictates that the additional stress on this
product side of the equilibrium results in the shift of equilibrium towards the reactants side in order to
alleviate this new stress. Because of the shift toward the reactant side, the solubility of the slightly
soluble calcium sulfate is reduced even further.
The Effect of Pressure on Solubility
The second factor, pressure, affects the solubility of a gas in a liquid but never of a solid
dissolving in a liquid. When pressure is applied to a gas that is above the surface of a solvent, the gas
will move into the solvent and occupy some of the spaces between the particles of the solvent. A good
example is carbonated soda. Pressure is applied to force the CO2 molecules into the soda. The
opposite is also true. When the gas pressure is decreased, the solubility of that gas is also decreased.
When you open a can of carbonated beverage, the pressure in the soda is lowered, so the gas
immediately starts leaving the solution. The carbon dioxide stored in the soda is released, and you can
see the fizzing on the surface of the liquid. If you leave an open can of soda out for a period of time,
you may notice the beverage becoming flat because of the loss of carbon dioxide.
This gas pressure factor is expressed in Henry’s law. Henry’s law states that, at a given
temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the
liquid. An example of Henry’s Law occurs in scuba diving. As a person dives into deep water, the
pressure increases and more gases are dissolved into the blood. While ascending from a deep-water
dive, the diver needs to return to the surface of the water at a very slow rate to allow for all of the
dissolved gases to come out of the blood very slowly. If a person ascends too quickly, a medical
emergency may occur due to the gases coming out of blood too quickly. This is called having the
“bends.”
The Effect of Temperature on Solubility
Temperature has a direct effect on solubility. For the majority of ionic solids, increasing the
temperature increases how quickly the solution can be made. As the temperature increases, the
particles of the solid move faster, which increases the chances that they will interact with more of the
solvent particles. This results in increasing the rate at which a solution occurs.
Temperature can also increase the amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent.
Generally speaking, as the temperature is increased, more solute particles will be dissolved. For
instance, when you add table sugar to water, a solution is quite easily made. When you heat that
solution and keep adding sugar, you find that large amounts of sugar can be added as the temperature
keeps rising. The reason this occurs is because as the temperature increases, the intermolecular forces
can be more easily broken, allowing more of the solute particles to be attracted to the solvent particles.
There are other examples, though, where increasing the temperature has very little effect on how much
solute can be dissolved. Table salt is a good example: you can dissolve just about the same amount of
table salt in ice water as you can in boiling water.
For all gases, as the temperature increases, the solubility decreases. The kinetic molecular
theory can be used to explain this phenomenon. As the temperature increases, the gas molecules move
faster and are then able to escape from the liquid. The solubility of the gas, then, decreases.
Looking at the graph below, ammonia gas, NH3, shows a sharp decline in solubility as the
temperature increases, whereas all of the ionic solids show an increase in solubility as the temperature
increases.


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1
A graph for the solubility of oxygen gas, O2, would be very similar to the one for NH3(g); in other
words, oxygen gas would decrease in solubility as the temperature rises. Conversely, the colder the
temperature, the greater amount of O2(g) would be dissolved.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolution
A. Surface area
Surface area does not affect the amount of solute that will dissolve, but it does affect the solute’s
rate of dissolution. Thus, in order to make a solid solute dissolve faster, we frequently powder it, thereby
increasing the surface area. This is why powdered coffee dissolves faster than granulated coffee even
without stirring.
B. Rate of Stirring
The rate at which a solute dissolves can be increased by stirring the mixture. This process
brings fresh solvent into contact with the solute and so permits a faster rate of dissolution.
C. Temperature
Generally, solubility increases with increasing temperature for most cases of solid in liquid. The
increase in temperature causes an increase in kinetic energy of the solute, solvent and the solution
thus facilitating rapid interaction with one another.
Saturated, Unsaturated and Supersaturated Solutions
Solutions can also be classified as saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated. When a small
amount of sugar is mixed in a glass of water, all the sugar will dissolve. If more and more sugar is
added while stirring, a point is reached when some sugar will settle at the bottom of the glass even with
continued rapid stirring. This type of solution is said to be saturated. Thus, a saturated solution is one
that contains as much of the solute as it can hold at a given temperature. An unsaturated solution
contains less solute than it has the capacity to dissolve.
The third type, the supersaturated solution contains more solute than is present in a saturated solution.
This is a rather unstable condition. In this case, the excess solid will eventually separate from the

solution as a precipitate in a process known as precipitation or as crystals in a process known as

crystallization. Crystals have bigger granules than precipitate. Tawas or alum crystals are prepared
as supersaturated solutions.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Review Questions
1. Under which of the following sets of conditions would the solubility of CO2(g) be lowest? The pressure given
is the pressure of CO2(g) above the solution.
a) 5.0 atm and 75∘C
b) atm and 75∘C
c) 5.0 atm and 25∘C
d) atm and 25∘C
e) atm and 25∘C
LEARNING CONTENTS (EXPRESSING SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS)
In order to clearly understand solutions, we must know how much of the solute is present in the solution
and also how to control the amounts of solute used to bring about a saturated, unsaturated or supersaturated
solution.
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or
solution. For simplicity of the discussion, we will assume the solute is a liquid or solid and the solvent is a liquid.
Chemists use several different concentration units, each of which has advantages as well as limitations. Let us
examine four most common units of concentration: percent composition, mole fraction, molarity, and molality.
Types of concentration units
A. Percent composition
The percent of the solute in the solution is referred to as percent composition. In expressing the
percent concentration, the units mass or volume are used. The following are the different ways of expressing
percent composition.
1. Percent by mass (% m/m)
The percent by mass (also called percent by weight or weight percent) is the ratio of the mass of solute to the
mass of solution, multiplied by 100 percent:
mass of solute
Percent by mass of solute =  100%
mass of solution
Sometimes, percent by mass is also termed as mass fraction only that the percentage multiplier is
deleted. Mass fraction is just the fraction of the mass of the solute over the total mass of the solution. Mass
fractions of very dilute solutions are often expressed in parts per million (abbreviated as ppm). One part per
million is equivalent to one gram of solute per one million grams of solution, or one milligram of solute per
thousand grams of solution (1mg/kg). For even smaller mass fractions, parts per billion (ppb) and parts per
trillion (ppt) are often used. And as their name implies, we can express the mass fraction as parts per million
by multiplying it by 1 000 000 ppm (106ppm) or 1 000 000 000 ppb (109 ppb) and so on.
Sample Problem:

A healthy snack claims to contain “low sodium” (Na ). It contains 30 mg of Na (molecular weight is 23 g/mol)
+ +
in each 8-oz serving (8 oz = 250 mL). What is the concentration of sodium in terms of ppm? (1ppm = 1mg/L).
Explanation:
30 mg of Na + 1000 mL
 = 120 mg/L
250 mL 1L
Since 1 ppm is equivalent to 1 mg/L, then sodium content is also 120 ppm.
2. Percent by volume (% v/v)
On the other hand, the percent by volume is expressed the same as percent by mass only that mass is
changed to volume, as given by the equation:
volume of solute
Percent by volume of solute =  100%
volume of solution
Sample Problem:
If you are asked to prepare 500 mL of pineapple-orange juice whose concentration is 60% (v/v) orange
juice and 40% (v/v) pineapple juice, how are you going to mix it with the right combination?
Explanation:
Remember that 60% (v/v) orange juice is the same as 60 mL of orange juice in 100 mL solution. The same
goes for 40% (v/v) pineapple juice which is 40 mL of pineapple juice in 100 mL solution. So, in a 500 mL
pineapple-orange juice, the volume would be:
60 mL orange juice
 500 mL = 300 mL of orange juice
100 mL juice solution
40 mL pineapple juice
 500mL = 200 mL of pineapple juice
100 mL juice solution
Therefore, in order to get the right combination, you just have to mix 300 mL of orange juice to 200 mL
pineapple juice to make a pineapple-orange juice, the total volume of which is 500 mL.
3. Percent mass by volume (% m/v)
The same is true for percent by weight-volume. It is expressed the same as percent by mass but the
denominator is changed to volume instead, as given by the equation:
mass of solute
Percent by weight - volume of solute =  100%
volume of solution
Sample Problem:

You are asked to add 30 mg salt (NaCl) in 20 mL solution to a favorite adobo dish. This concentration is just
enough to give your adobo a salty taste. Express this in percent concentration. (Note: 1 mg = 0.001 g)
Explanation:
0.03 g NaCl
 100 = 0.15% NaCl solution
20 mL solution
B. Mole fraction
Another method of expressing concentration is by ratio solution. A 1:10 salt solution is 1 g of salt in
10 mL solution. The first number in the ratio indicates the number of grams of solute and the second number
gives the number of milliliters of solution. One way of expressing ratio solutions is by Mole fraction. It is the
ratio of the individual component of the solution to the total component of the solution.
moles of A
Mole fraction of component A (X A ) =
sum of moles of all components
Since it is a ratio of two similar quantities, the mole fraction has no units.
Sample Problem:
Calculate the mole fraction of solute and solvent in a 15% aqueous sugar solution (C 12H22O11). Note: An
aqueous solution is a solution where water is the solvent.
Explanation:
Always assume the mass of the solution as 100 g. Therefore, in a 15% aqueous sugar solution (C 12H22O11),
there are 15 g of sugar (solute) to be dissolved in 85 g water (solvent). And the number of moles is computed
as:
1 mol C12H22O11
15 g C12H22O11  = 0.044 mol C12H22O11
342 g C12H22O11
1 mol C12H22O11
85 g H2 O  = 4.72 mol H2O
18 g H2O
Then, the mole fraction of solute and solvent in the solution is computed as:
0.044
Mole fraction of C12H22O11 = = 0.01
0.044 + 4.72
4.72
Mole fraction of H2O = = 0.99
0.044 + 4.72
C. Molarity (M)

Molar solutions are used most frequently by chemists. A molar solution is defined as one that
contains 1 mole of solute per liter of solution.
moles of solute
Molarity =
liters of solution
Sample Problem:
For you to better understand molarity, let us use the same problem in ratio solutions but let us change the
concentration.
You need to prepare 1 L (1 L = 1000 mL) of “arnibal” (it is a brown sugar solution) for your sago-gulaman
juice, the concentration of which is 2 M. How much sugar will you need to add to water?
Explanation:
The problem calls for the preparation of 1 L of 2 M sugar solution, C 6H12O6 (molecular weight is 180 g/mol).
Recall that molarity means moles per liter. So,
1 L x 2 M C6H12O6 = 2 moles C6H12O6
Then, since 1 mol weighs 180 g,
180 g C6H12O6
2 moles C6H12O6 x = 360 g C6H12O6
1 mole C6H12O6
Therefore, we take 360 g C6H12O6, dissolve it in water, and dilute to a total of 1 L.
D. Molality (m)
Molality is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg (1000 g) of solvent: that is,
moles of solute
Molality =
mass of solvent (kg)
Sample Problem:
How will you express 30% aqueous sugar solution (C12H22O11) in molal concentration?
Explanation:
Always assume the mass of the solution as 100 g. Therefore, in a 30% aqueous sugar solution (C 12H22O11),
there are 30 g of sugar (solute) to be dissolved in 70 g water (solvent). So:
30 g C12H22O11 1mol C12H22O11 1000 g H2O

  = 1.25 m C12H22O11
70 g H2O 342 g C12H22O11 1 kg H2O
Molarity is most often used over molality because it is generally easier to measure the volume of the
solution using precisely calibrated volumetric flask than to weigh the solvent. However, when accuracy of the
experiment is at stake, molality is preferred over molarity because the volume of the solution typically increases
with increasing temperature. For example, a solution at 1.0 M at 25 oC may become 0.95 M at 45oC because
of the increase in volume.
Dilution Solutions

Sometimes, it is often necessary to prepare a weaker (dilute) solution from a stronger (concentrated)
solution. To do so, we must add water to the stronger solution. But how much water must be added? To
answer this question, we use the relationship:
Initial concentration x Initial volume = Final concentration x Final volume

C1V1 = C2V2
where the initial concentration and initial volume are the strength and amount of concentrated solution
to be used; and the final concentration and final volume are the strength and amount of diluted solution
to be used.
Sample Problem:
At dinner, the visitors found the orange juice prepared by your brother too sweet. Your brother said he just
mixed 70 g of powdered orange juice in 500 mL of water. When you read the label, the suggested preparation
was 60 g of powdered juice for 500 mL of water. The best thing to do is to dilute the orange juice prepared by
adding water. How much water will you add?
Explanation:
Using the above formula for diluting solutions, the amount of water to be added can be computed as:
60 g x (x mL of 60 g powdered orange) = 70 g x 500 mL
x = 70 g x 500 mL
60g
x = 583 mL
Therefore, in order to have the right orangy taste as prescribed by the manufacturer, you must add 83 mL of
water (583 – 500 = 83) to your brother’s prepared juice.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Practice Exercises:
1. An alcoholic drink claims 12% alcohol by volume. Calculate the volume in mL of alcohol present in a
0.8 L wine.
2. How much sugar (C12H22O11) in grams must be added to 450 mL water to make a 20% sugar solution?
3. How much bagoong (fish paste) in grams will you add to 1.5 kg mixed vegetables to be able to come
up with a delicious pinakbet with percent by mass concentration of 30%? (1 kg = 1000 g)?
4. Calculate the mole fraction of solute and solvent in a 30% aqueous sugar solution (C 12H22O11). Note:
An aqueous solution is a solution where water is the solvent.
5. A juice advertised as "low sodium" contains 12 mg Na + (molecular weight is 23 g/mol) in each 8-oz
serving (8 oz = 250 mL). What is the concentration of sodium in the beverage in terms of molarity?
6. How will you express 60% aqueous sugar solution (C12H22O11) in terms of molality?
LEARNING CONTENTS (COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS)
When a non-volatile (substances that do not readily form vapors), non-electrolytic (substances that do
not form ions and do not conduct electricity when placed in water) solute such as sugar is dissolved in a given
volume of solvent to form a sugar solution, it changes the set of properties of the pure solvent entirely. In this
regard, the set of properties such as freezing point, boiling point, vapor pressure, and osmotic pressure of a
solvent are affected by the presence of the solute particles in the solution. This set of properties will depend
only on the number of dissolved particles in the solution and not on their identity. These properties are
collectively known as colligative properties of solution.

We can clearly distinguish what properties of solution are colligative and what properties are not. Again,
for as long as the number of dissolved particles in solution is taken into consideration, then that property of
solution (e.g. boiling point, freezing point, etc.) is a colligative property. On the other hand, if the identity of the
dissolved species and solvent is being analyzed (e.g. color, taste, viscosity, solubility), then it is a non-colligative
property.
Vapor-Pressure Lowering
When a nonvolatile (does not turn to vapor easily) solute is added to a liquid to form a solution, the
vapor pressure above that solution decreases.
The extent to which a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure is proportional to its concentration.
This was discovered by French chemist Francois Raoult (1830-1907). Raoult’s law states that for
nonelectrolyte solutions, the partial vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution (P1) is equal to the vapor pressure
of the pure solvent (Po1) multiplied by the mole fraction of the solvent (X1). This law is mathematically expressed
as:
P1 = X1 Po1
For solutions of electrolytes, the vapor pressure lowering equation can be expressed as:
P1= iPo1 X1
where i is the van’t Hoff factor, named after Jacobus Henricus van’ Hoff (1852-1911), who won the very
first Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1901 for his work on colligative properties of solution. The i factor
gives the number of particles per formula unit of the solute. For example, NaCl solution dissociates to
give one Na+(aq) and one Cl-(aq), the iNaCl = 2, because there is one Na+ and one Cl- ion in solution per
formula unit of solute.
On the other hand, if both components of a solution are volatile (readily evaporates), the vapor pressure
of the solution is the sum of the individual partial pressures. The total pressure is given by Dalton’s law of
partial pressure:
PT = PA + PB
or
PT = XA PoA + XB PoB
Sample Problem:
What is the vapor pressure of the solution containing 20 g of sugar (C 12H22O11) in 1.5 kg water at 25oC. Note:
Powater at 25oC is 24 torr
Explanation:
1 mole of sugar (C12H22O11) is 342 g and 1 mole of water (H2O) is 18 g. The number of moles of each component
is computed as:
For sugar:
1mol C12H22 O11
20 g C12H22 O11  = 0.06 mol C12H22 O11
342 g C12H22 O11
For water:

1mol C12H22O11
1500 g H2O  = 83.33 mol H2O
18 g C12H22O11
And mole fraction of water (solvent) is computed as:
83.33 C12H22O11
XH2 O = = 1.00
83.33 + 0.06 C12H22O11
Therefore, the vapor pressure is:
PH2 O = XH2 O  PoH2 O

= 1.00  24 torr
PH2 O = 24.0 torr
Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is of prime importance to living organisms because it influences the distribution of nutrients
and the release of metabolic waste products. Living cells of both plants and animals are enclosed by a
semipermeable membrane called the cell membrane, which regulates the flow of liquids and of dissolved
solids and gases into and out of the cell.
The osmotic pressure ( ) of a solution is the pressure required to stop osmosis. The osmotic
pressure of the solution is given by:
 = MRT
where M is the molarity of solution, R the gas constant (0.0821 L . atm / K . mol), and T the absolute
temperature (in Kelvins).
The osmotic pressure is expressed in atm. And since osmotic pressure measurements are carried
out under constant temperature, molarity is preferred over molality as concentration. Again, for solutions of
electrolytes, the osmotic pressure equation can be expressed as:
 = iMRT
where i is the van’t Hoff factor, the number of particles per formula unit of the solute.
Sample Problem:
What is the osmotic pressure of the solution containing 0.2 M sugar (C 12H22O11) solution at 25oC?
Explanation:
 = MRT
0.2 mol C12H22O11 L  atm
 =  0.0821  298 K = 4.89
1L solution K  mol
 = 4.89 atm
Boiling Point Elevation

Remember that boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure. In the presence of a non-volatile, non-electrolytic solute such as sugar, the pressure that will be
exerted by the vapor of the solvent is lesser in comparison with that of the pure solvent at equal volumes. And
as a consequence, the solution will boil at a higher temperature than that of the pure solvent.
Since we have already established that the boiling point of the solution is greater than that of the pure
solvent, the boiling point elevation (Tb) is mathematically expressed as follows:
Tb = Kbm
where (Kb) is boiling point elevation constant, equivalent to 0.52 oC/m for aqueous solutions. This
means that, for example, 1 mole of sugar (nonelectrolyte) in 1 kilogram of water will increase the boiling
point from 100oC to 100.52oC. And (m) is the molal concentration of solute. It is also important to note
that Tb is a positive quantity and should be added to the boiling point of pure solvent (water), which is
100oC.
Remember that molality is used here over molarity because we are dealing with a solution whose
temperature is not constant and concentration cannot be expressed in molarity because it changes with
temperature.
Again, for solutions of electrolytes, the boiling point elevation equation can be expressed as:
Tb = iKbm
Sample Problem:
At what temperature will the sugar solution boil if 20 g sucrose (C 12H22O11) is added to 1.5 kg of water?
Explanation:
Remember that sugar is a nonelectrolyte so there will be no need for the van’t Hoff factor. A mole of sugar
(C12H22O11) is 342 g. Thus, molality of sugar can be computed as:
20 g C12H22O11 1mol C12H22O11 0.04 mol C12H22O11

 = = 0.04 m
1.5 kg H2O 342 g C12H22O11 kg H2O
The boiling point elevation is calculated as:
Tb = Kbm
= 0.52 oC x 0.04 m
m
Tb = 0.02oC
Thus, the boiling point of the solution is:
100oC + 0.02oC = 100.02oC

Freezing Point Depression
Water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC. Salt water will not freeze until the temperature is below 0oC.
The more salt, the lower the freezing point of the solution. In the above experiment, energy is lost from the water
in the form of heat. This heat is used to melt the ice. Since heat is lost from the water the temperature of the
water goes down. Since there is now salt dissolved in the water it cannot freeze again, hence we observe a
lower temperature.
The freezing point depression (Tf) is mathematically expressed as:
Tf = Kf m
where Kf is the freezing point depression constant. equivalent to -1.86 oC/m for aqueous solutions.
Again, for example, 1 mole of sugar (nonelectrolyte) in 1 kilogram of water will decrease the freezing
point from 0oC to -1.86oC. (m) is the molal concentration of solute. And since we have already
established that the freezing point of the solution is less than that of the pure solvent, then Tf is a
negative quantity and should be subtracted from the freezing point of pure solvent (water), which is 0 oC.
Again, for solutions of electrolytes, the freezing point lowering equation can be expressed as:
Tf = iKfm
Sample Problem:
At what temperature will the sugar solution freeze if 20 g sucrose (C 12H22O11) is added to 1.5 kg of water?
Explanation:
Since sugar is a nonelectrolyte, there will be no need for the van’t Hoff factor. A mole of sugar (C 12H22O11) is
342 g. Molality (m) of sugar can be computed as:
20 g C12H22O11 1mol C12H22O11 0.04 mol C12H22O11

 = = 0.04 m
1.5 kg H2O 342 g C12H22O11 kg H2O
The freezing point depression is calculated as:
Tf = Kf m
= -1.86 oC x 0.04 m
m
Tf = -0.07oC
Thus, the freezing point of the solution is:
0oC - 0.07oC = -0.07oC
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Practice Exercises:
1. Calculate the vapor pressure of salt solution containing 20 g salt (NaCl) in 1.5 kg of water at 25oC?
Note: Powater at 25oC is 24 torr and molecular weight of NaCl is 58 g/mol. Note: Remember that NaCl
is a strong electrolyte and dissociates to Na+ and Cl- ion respectively.
2. Calculate the osmotic pressure of 0.2 M salt solution (NaCl) at 25 oC?
3. At what temperature will salt solution boil if 20 g salt (NaCl) is added to 1.5 kg of water? (Molecular
weight of NaCl is 58 g/mol) Note: Remember that NaCl is a strong electrolyte and dissociates to Na+
and Cl- ion, respectively.
4. At what temperature will salt solution freeze if 20 g salt (NaCl) is added to 1.5 kg of water? (Molecular
weight of NaCl is 58 g/mol) Note: Remember that NaCl is a strong electrolyte and dissociates to Na +
and Cl- ion, respectively.
LEARNING CONTENTS (COLLOIDS)
What do milk, paints, cooked starch, ceramics, glue, ink, rubber, jelly, butter and cheese have in
common? All of them are basic examples of colloids. A colloid is another type of mixture. It is distinguished
from solutions and suspensions in that its particle size is bigger than those of solutions but smaller than those
of suspensions. Colloids may appear homogenous to the naked eye but are actually heterogenous when
carefully viewed in a microscope. This means that more than one distinct phase can be distinguished.
A colloid is a dispersion of particles of one substance (the dispersed phase) throughout a dispersing
medium made of another substance. Thus colloids are classified based on the phases of both the dispersed
material and the dispersing medium. For example, when you beat an egg, you introduce air into the egg. Here,
the egg is the dispersing medium and the air is the dispersed material.
Table 1.1 below shows the different types of colloid and examples of each type:
Dispersed Material Dispersing Medium Name Example

Liquid Gas Liquid aerosol Fog
Solid Gas Solid aerosol Smoke
Gas Liquid Liquid foam Meringue
Gas Solid Solid foam Styrofoam
Solid Liquid Liquid sol Paint, glue
Solid Solid Solid sol Certain alloys such
as steel
Liquid Solid Gel Gelatin
Liquid Liquid Liquid emulsion Mayonnaise
Liquid Solid Solid emulsion Cheese
Colloids are a special type of mixture because they exhibit unique properties. That is why many kinds
of food products and raw materials are in the form of colloids. These unique properties of colloids include the
Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, adsorption and electrical charge effect.
Tyndall Effect
When a beam of light is made to pass through a colloid, it is scattered by the colloidal particles which
appear as tiny specks of light. This light scattering is called the Tyndall effect. No such scattering is observed
with ordinary solutions because the solute molecules are too small to interact with visible light. Colloidal
particles can scatter light because they are large enough to catch light and reflect it back. This is the reason
why oil and water mixture has the ability to scatter light because it is a colloid. The ability of a mixture to scatter
light is one way of distinguishing colloids from solutions. Manifestations of Tyndall effect are observed everyday

in nature. For instance, when we wake up on a sunny morning, our senses are awakened by sunlight scattered
by dust or smoke in the air.
Light scattering is often used in determining particle size. The different colors that we see are not due
to pigments but rather to the scattering of light by colloidal substances in the iris. Green, brown, and black are
due to a combination of light scattering and the presence of yellowish-brown pigment in front of the iris, causing
selective absorption of light.
Brownian Movement
Observe the movement of dust particles floating in air one sunny day. Could you describe their
movement? Do they settle on standing?
The motion of particles floating in air is random and almost in a zigzag fashion. This interesting property
of colloids, called Brownian motion, is due to the constant and continuous collision of colloidal particles against
each other. This is also the reason why colloidal particles do not settle on standing. The rate of settling of
particles is dependent on the following:
a) size of the colloidal particles;
b) gravitational force acting on the colloidal particles;
c) viscosity of the medium (ability to resist flow).
The above factors are also useful in identifying viruses, proteins, plastics and other macromolecules.
Adsorption
How is adsorption different from absorption? If you place a few drops of water onto a cotton ball, the
water droplets are immediately soaked up by the cotton. This is absorption.
On the other hand, adsorption is when you use the cotton ball against the chalkboard. Observe closely
what happens to the cotton. Chalk particles and dust adhered to the surface. This phenomenon is called
adsorption. Physical and/or chemical forces may be involved in adsorption. One property of colloidal particles
is that they exhibit adsorption. This is due to the large surface areas of colloidal particles. This interesting
property makes colloids very useful in everyday life. For example, charcoal is used to remove the bad odor
produced by vapors of food in the refrigerator. The network of pores in the charcoal provides extensive surface
area that adsorbs the vapors.
The adsorptive ability of colloids is used in dyeing fabrics, in the use of aluminum hydroxide in purifying
water, in the use of activated carbon in refining sugar and electroplating solutions, and in the use of bone black
in gas masks to remove toxic gases in the air.
Electrical Charge Effect
A colloid may allow ions to be adsorbed on its surface, thereby acquiring an electrical charge. The
electrical charge may either be positive or negative. This electrical charge will prevent the particles from
clumping together or coagulating.
What causes the colloidal particles to carry a charge? Colloidal particles have high adsorptive capacity.
Thus, particles are adsorbed on their surface ions from water or from solutions of electrolytes. Such molecules
are called surfactants, because they tend to adsorb at the surface of a substance that is in contact with the
solution that contains them. Classic examples of surfactants are soap and detergents. They have both
hydrophobic (“water fearing” which refers to nonpolar part of molecule not attracted to water) and hydrophilic
(“water loving” which refers to polar part of molecule attracted to water) groups in their molecular structure.
The nonpolar part of the soap molecule dissolves grease, while the polar ends dissolve in water. The
net result is that the grease/soap complex is water soluble and gets washed away. This process is called
emulsification. You can see it working if you add soap to some oil-and-vinegar salad dressing. The vinegar
layer of the dressing gets cloudy because the soap has surrounded little droplets of oil and prevents them from
rejoining the oil layer.
There are actually two ways of making a given substance disperse to colloidal size – by means of

dispersion or condensation. Dispersion is the breaking of large pieces into colloidal particle size. On the other
hand, condensation involves tiny particles (molecules, ions, or atoms) clumping together to form clusters.
Several processes make use of the principle of dispersion in making colloids. For example, grinding
using a colloid mill is used in the preparation of paint pigments or face powder. Also, the process of beating,
stirring and whipping in preparing mayonnaise or creams is a form of dispersion. You may also use chemicals
to break down big particles. For example, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used to break up clay, glue, starch and
gelatin peptized in water. The process is known as peptization.
On the other hand, condensation is involved in the preparation of carbon black by burning methane in
limited air and collecting the soot or carbon atoms on cool surfaces. Carbon black is used as filler for rubber
tires and in dispersions such as printer’s ink and Indian ink. Condensation is also involved in formation of
clouds, fog and mist.
The oil and the vinegar (water) mixed much better when the egg yolk was added. The lecithin, which
is a protein in the egg yolk, acts as an emulsifying agent. Emulsifying agents have regions that associate with
the oil and regions that associate with the vinegar (water). Thus the emulsifier (the egg yolk) acts as a bridge
between the oil and water. The mayonnaise created is an emulsion of oil droplets in water.
If colloids are made, they can also be broken for certain purposes. There are several ways of breaking
colloids. These include applying heat, adding a reactant or chemical, or passing an electric current through it.
1. Applying heat
Have you tried cooking egg for breakfast? An egg white is a colloidal protein. The particles of an egg
clump together because of the heat applied while the egg is being cooked. This is one way of breaking
colloids. Another application of heat in breaking colloids is by digestion. This involves slow application
of heat causing the colloidal particles to get bigger which is used to prepare precipitates for filtration in
the laboratory.
2. Adding a reactant or chemical
Have you heard of “cloud seeding”? Rain is made by seeding the clouds with solid carbon dioxide
(dry ice) or with silver iodide crystals. These “seeds” provide nuclei on which water vapor condenses.
For a clearer visibility of the runways during rainy season, airport fog is removed by using salt or dry
ice.
3. Passing through an electric current
Smoke and other types of harmful aerosols are destroyed by Cottrell method of electric coagulation.
This precipitator removes smoke particles by attracting them to the charged plates. In this way, the
charge on the smoke particles are neutralized, causing them to coagulate and settle down.
SUMMARY
A. Summary of Key Equations

mass of solute
Percent by mass of solute (%m/m) =  100%
mass of solution
volume of solute
Percent by volume of solute (%v/v) =  100%
volume of solution
mass of solute
Percent by weight - volume of solute (%m/v) =  100%
volume of solution
moles of A
Mole fraction of component A (XA ) =
sum of moles of all components
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
liters of solution
moles of solute
Molality (m) =
mass of solvent (kg)
Dilution Solutions: C1V1 = C2V2
For nonelectrolytes:
Raoult’s Law: P1 = Po1 X1

Dalton’s Law of Partial Presssure: PT = PA + PB
Osmotic Pressure:  = MRT
Boiling Point Elevation: Tb = Kbm
Freezing Point Depression: Tf = Kf m
For electrolytes:
Raoult’s Law: P1 = iPo1 X1

Dalton’s Law of Partial Presssure: PT = iPA + iPB
Osmotic Pressure:  = iMRT
Boiling Point Elevation: Tb = iKbm
Freezing Point Depression: Tf = iKf m
B. Summary of Facts and Concepts
1. Solutions are homogenous mixtures of two or more substances, which may either be solids, liquids or
gases. They are clear, have a variable composition, do not settle, can be separated by physical means
and can be separated by filtration.
2. Solutions can also be classified as diluted or concentrated according to relative amount of components
present.
3. Suspension is defined as fine particles of solid in a liquid and because it is transparent, it does not settle
out and cannot be separated by filtration.
4. Solutions are composed of solutes, the substance dissolved and the solvent, the liquid material in which
the solute has dissolved.
5. The dissolving process involves physical changes (phase changes) and both absorption and evolution
of energy. If more energy was absorbed than evolved, the process is endothermic. If more energy was
evolved than absorbed, the dissolution process is exothermic.
6. Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a solvent at a specific temperature. The
solubility of a solute is affected by temperature, pressure, and nature of the solvent. The rate of
dissolution is affected by surface area, rate of stirring and temperature.

7. Increasing temperature usually increases the solubility of solid and liquid substances, and decreases
the solubility of gases in water.
8. The greater the pressure, the greater the solubility of a gas in liquid.
9. A saturated solution is when there is no more solute that will dissolve in the solvent. An unsaturated
solution contains less solute than it has the capacity to dissolve. A supersaturated solution contains
more solute than is present in a saturated solution.
10. The concentration of a solution may be expressed in terms of percentage (by weight, by volume, or by
weight-volume), ratio (mole fraction), molarity and molality. The choice of units depends on the purpose
of the measurement.
11. Numerical values of pH indicate whether a solution is acidic or basic.
12. Colligative properties (or collective properties) are properties that depend only on the number of solute
particles in solution and not on the nature of the solute particles.
13. The four colligative properties of a solution are vapor pressure, osmotic pressure, boiling point and
freezing point.
14. The change in vapor pressure where the solute is less volatile than the solvent is regulated by Raoult’s
law, which states that the vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution is equal to the mole fraction of the
solvent times the vapor pressure of pure solvent.
15. The osmotic pressure of a solution is the pressure required to stop osmosis.
16. The freezing point of the solution is always less than the freezing point of the pure solvent.
17. The boiling point of the solution is always greater than the boiling point of the pure solvent.
18. In electrolyte solutions, the interaction between ions leads to the formation of ion pairs. The van’t Hoff
factor (i) provides a measure of the extent of dissociation of electrolytes in solution.
19. Solutions can be classified as hypertonic, hypotonic or isotonic depending on the concentration of solute
inside and outside the cell.
20. A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of particle than the cell causing the cell to shrink.
21. A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of particles than the cell causing the cell to swell.
22. An isotonic solution has the same osmotic strength on both sides of the semipermeable membrane.
23. A colloid is a dispersion of particles of one substance, the dispersed phase, throughout a dispersing
medium made of another substance.
24. Colloids are classified according to the phases of the dispersed material and dispersing medium. The
types of colloids are sol, gel, emulsion, foam and aerosol.
25. A colloid is distinguished from a regular solution by the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering of visible
light by colloidal particles.
26. Colloids exhibit special properties like Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, adsorption and electrical charge
effect.
27. Brownian motion is the movement of colloidal particles in a random and zigzag fashion.
28. Since colloids have a large surface area, they exhibit high adsorbing capacity.
29. The ions adsorbed on the surface of a colloid produce an electrical charge. This, along with Brownian
motion, prevents colloids from coagulating.
30. Dispersion and condensation are two ways of making a given substance disperse to colloidal size. When
larger pieces are broken into colloidal size, the process is dispersion. But when tiny particles clump
together to form clusters the process is condensation.
REFERENCES
1. Richard, P., & Sharon, B. (2014, April 29). Chemistry - Second Edition (CA DTI3). Retrieved
September 08, 2020, from https://www.ck12.org/book/chemistry---second-edition-(ca-dti3)/r2/
2. Flowers, P., & Theopold, K. (n.d.). OPENSTAX Resources: Chemistry. Retrieved September 08,
2020, from https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/10-1-intermolecular-forces/
3. Flowers, P., & Theopold, K. (n.d.). OPENSTAX Resources: Chemistry. Retrieved September 08,
2020, from https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/11-3-solubility/
4. Araneta, F.L., Catris, L.V. & Deauna, M.C. (2002). The world of chemistry: Exploring the natural
world series. Philippines: SIBS Publishing Inc.
5. Chang, R.N. (2004). Chemistry. (8th ed.) USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
6. Green, J. & Damji, S. (2001). Chemistry. (2nd ed.) Australia: IBID Press, Victoria
7. Magno, M.C., Tan, M.C. & Punzalan A.E. (2000). Chemistry. (3rd ed.) Manila: DIWA Scholastic
Press Inc.

8. Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L. & Wood J.L. (1998). The chemical world: Concepts and applications.
(2nd ed.) USA: Harcourt Brace & Company
9. Petrucci, R.H. & Harwood, W.S. (1998). General chemistry: Principles and modern applications.
(7th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International
10. Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L. & Wood J.L. (1998). The chemical world: Concepts and applications.
(2nd ed.) USA: Harcourt Brace & Company
11. Regalado, E.C. (2000). Chemistry. Philippines: St. Augustine Publications, Inc.
12. Araneta, F.L. & Catris, L.V. (2002). The world of chemistry: Exploring the natural world series).
Manila: SIBS Publishing House Inc.
13. Sackheim, G.I. & Lehman, D.D. (1990). Chemistry for the health sciences. (6th ed.) New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company.

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FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LEARNING CONTENTS (THE SOLUTION PROCESS)

Compound Structure and Solution Formation

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

Ionic Compounds in Solution

Na + ionization energy → Na+ + e-

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Covalent Compounds in Solution

Image source: https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-

Image source: https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 3

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

C12H22O11 (s) → C12H22O11 (aq)

Which compounds will dissolve in solution to separate into ions?

LiF will separate into ions when dissolved in solution:

LiF (aq) → Li+ (aq) + F- (aq)

Electrolytes and Non-Electrolytes

NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 4

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

Calcium fluoride: CaF2(s) →Ca2 + (aq) + 2 F-(aq)

C6H12O6 (s) → C6H12O6 (aq)

THE EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN THE FORMATION OF SOLUTION

Forces between Molecules

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_IntravInter.jpg

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 5

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_DispForces.jpg

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 6

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

Dipole – Dipole Interactions

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_DipDip.jpg

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 7

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_HBonding.jpg

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_HydrideBP1.jpg

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 8

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_10_01_HydrideBP2.jpg

2. Write the reactions for dissolving the following.

II. THE EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN THE FORMATION OF SOLUTION

Check Your Learning

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 9

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

LEARNING CONTENTS (SATURATION AND SOLUBILITY)

NaCl(s) ⇋ Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Solutions of Gases in Liquids

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 10

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

Image source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_11_03_gasdissolv.jpg

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 11

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2

Now we can use k to find the solubility at the lower pressure.

Solutions of Liquids in Liquids

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 12

Study Guide in SCIENCE 111: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Module No. 2