Sociology notes There were very few chances of The cities provide both incentive and Planners help

There were very few chances of The cities provide both incentive and Planners help shape the overall structure of the city, but they seldom have a major impact on foundations of a house from these artifacts they are able to reconstruct some of the non-
providing employment and incentives employment to the people and thus the individual building except in very special cases. They bring all the overall concerns of material cognitive and normative components of the culture.
Important questions from last year’s question papers
to the unemployed by the society. frustrated villages find solace in the topography, economic base, social structure, levels of service, financial health and viability of a All material artifacts express some non-material cultural meaning, but the same artifact may
Q1.
cities which respects ability and judges municipality, to bear on the problem of the physical environment. Beyond that, their role is, and have contrary meaning in different societies. For example, the colored piece of cloth that we
a) differentiate between rural and urban society. (5 marks)
their worth. should be, limited. It has long been the view of this writer that only a public-private partnership know as Indian flag is honored and revered by most Indians, but in some foreign countries it has

Ans.
Rural society
Life in the society was very simple and
reflected in the way of living, dressing,
food habits, shelter and manners etc.
The people in the society had
homogeneity and thus enjoyed more
or less the same social status.
The people in the society had
homogeneity and thus enjoyed more
or less the same social status.
Here the family played a very
significant and predominant role. Its
hold was very strong.
In villages there is no fast change and
as such no necessity for social
adaptability.
In the rural society culture was very
deep-rooted. Everyone loved culture
and cultural heritage above everything
else.
In a rural society there is no division of
labour.
Rural society did not give due and
proper respect to the womenfolk.
Urban society
Life in the city is not simple but very
complex and complicated.
The people in the society had
homogeneity and thus enjoyed more
or less the same social status.
In cities there are many occupations, so
occupational mobility is as well as
frequent.
In the cities hold of families is not
strong, and many functions which the
families used to perform have been
taken away by other institutions and
associations.
In the cities there must be fast mobility
and adaptability to suit ever changing
fast life.
In the cities it is different to find pure
culture.
In an urban community there is always
division of labour and specialisation in
job allotment.
In urban communities’ women enjoys
comparatively high social status.
b) Write a short note on role of architects in modern society. (5 marks and 15 marks both)
Ans. It flows from the above that the role of the architect in societies in transition such as the
world is currently undergoing is indeed a pivotal one, both in defining the society's sense of its
own reality, as well as in refining its perceptions of its taste and its authentic cultural expression.
There is much to learn from folk architecture but under no circumstance should we delude
ourselves into trying to maintain and copy previous solutions that may have been perfectly
rational and functional for social and economic circumstances that prevailed in society at a
certain point in time. We must acknowledge the need for important changes in architectural
forms as facets of the physical expression of the changes wrought by economic and social
development.
Architects, Builders and Planners.
The architect, in my judgement, is the sole person capable of creating those unique structures
that become landmarks in an environment and help identify and shape the collective image a
society has of itself. Only the architect sets the tone for a new generation of buildings, and
successfully reshapes a society's image of itself. The breakthrough innovative buildings are not
produced without architects, they are produced as a result of the creative genius of a
collectively of individuals whose vocation is destined to become architecture. At the same time,
it is important to recognise that when architects have tried to build large numbers of houses,
addressing those sets of buildings that constitute about 70 per cent of an average modern city's
buildings, they have failed miserably. The blowing up of PruittIgoe in the early 1970's, a
celebrated symbol of urban failure, was, however, the condemnation of a social policy towards
housing, of which the specific design of this public project was but a part. Given such a context,
there is much to learn in the important warning of Fathy10 that architects should limit
themselves to working for individual clients and should try to uphold client-specific solutions in
their designs." Planners are those who design the skeleton that helps shape a city; whether it be
in terms of its transportation networks or its basic infrastructure or setting the building codes,
subdivision regulations, and zoning ordinances that make an urban environment what it is.
can make for a viable attack on the problems of the urban environment and the planner's
domain, the public one, is to be limited to those aspects of the overall problems that cannot and
should not be handled by private initiative. Most of the remaining cityscape is filled in by
anonymous architecture' that - although individually not distinguished — collectively provides
the flesh over the planner's skeleton. It is the architect who provides the distinguished and
distinguishing features. It is the architect who caps this collaboration between planners and
non-architects by providing those buildings and those features that ultimately give an urban
environment its landmarks and articulates its character. It is the architect who helps mould the
major complexes in well-designed urban planning schemes and who keeps rejuvenating
cityscapes with new generations of buildings
and structures that modify and improve as well as enrich, enhance and re-enforce the cultural
identity of that environment. A Dual Function. The architect, therefore, must act on the one
hand, as an instrument of change and a forward-looking agent of the transformation of cultural
identity, on the other hand as the keeper of existing identity, a preserver and extender of a
heritage, and the molder and reinforcer of cultural authenticity. Just as architecture is
inextricably entwined with society, so is the individual architect placed in a pivotal role in the
society of which he or she is a member. Certification, Registration and Professionalisation. Given
the crucial dual function I have just mentioned, the reality of the role of the architect in today's
society, limited as it becomes in relation to that of the many anonymous and the few well
known builders, and circumscribed as it is by the work of the planners, is still sufficiently
important in the broader context I have suggested to raise serious questions about
qualifications and professionalism as they now exist. Professional associations have consistently
sought to seek broad acceptance of the "professional" status of the occupations or practices
they represent.
c) How does non material culture relate to material culture. (5 marks)
Ans. The material component of culture consisting of machines, tools, books and clothing, and
so on is called the material culture. When archeologist dig up remains of an ancient city, it is the
material culture they find, a broken pot a necklace carefully stored in a little wooden box, the
been torn up and destroyed. In a remote primitive tribe, it might be considered a pretty price of
material to be used for clothing.
Material culture is created and can be changed by humanity, but it equally useful to think of it as
a fixed part of society to which we adjust throughout our lives. People design and build cities,
but cities then have lasting effects on the lives of those who dwell in them. In this respect
material culture is the same as non-material culture human beings shape it, but it also shapes
human beings.
Material culture Non material culture
Includes things such as clothing, food, Includes cognitive components of
architecture etc. societies such as language, values,
family, norms etc.
It evolves with times and adaptive It takes time to evolve and is very
reluctant
Culture is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior and norms found in human
societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the
individuals in these groups.
Humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization,
which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.
A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior,
dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a
social group. Accepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single
species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the
change.[2] Thus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty,
honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the
continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a
social group.
d) Explain the concept of cultural lag with suitable example. (5 marks and 15 marks both)

Ans. Concept introduced by American Sociologist William Fielding Ogburn during 1922. Ogburn
studied the impact of technological change on culture and found that various parts of culture
changed differently.
According to Ogburn culture consisting of two parts:
• Material
Material culture includes manufactured goods, factories, houses, cars – in short, all material
objects, as well as inventions and technological changes.
• Non-material
Ogburn used the term adaptive culture. It includes social institutions, such as family, religion,
education, economic and political. The non-material culture also includes value systems based
on customs, modes and folkways.
E.g. Religion affects Technology
Religion may propagate material progress (Divine Will)
OR
Technology or mechanical innovation is works of evil
CULTURAL LAG - is the delay between a change in the material culture and response of the
adaptive culture.
Ogburn's basic thesis: Non-material culture tends to change slower than material culture.
Reason for the rate of slow change is based on prevailing social practices being supported by
religious groups, social values and social attitudes.
Ogburn expressed the view that a change in one part of society especially a technological
advance requires a corresponding change in other parts. Until such an adjustment is made,
the society or at least certain parts of it, will face a number of problems.
The reasons for cultural lag are habits and inertia. People would not like to adapt to new
changes quickly. Inertia to change also comes from the fact that modern societies consist of
different types of pressure groups catering to different interests which resist change.
LIMITATIONS
Cannot assume that material changes always precede non material changes.
technological progress can be occurred due to change in social attitudes
For e.g. Renaissance: change in attitude towards god resulted in scientific thinking
Changes in material culture affects adjustment in non- material culture e.g. automobile and
dating
Q2. How does sociology relate to architecture? Explain the modern sociology of architecture.
Ans. Architecture and urban space play an important role among the sociological and
psychological factors that influence humans and their wellbeing.
Sociology and psychology analyse the role of architecture in the conscious shaping of space.
Sociology of settlement, the city and the housing, deals, with building (or architectural) activity
of man, and his perception and needs.
One may ask, what is the relationship between the individual and his or her environment or
social setting? What is the relationship between people and their culture?
Architectural sociology approaches these questions in examining how architectural forms both
influence and react to sociocultural phenomena.
A large proportion of our human experience and social interaction occurs in the buildings in
which we live and work. Therefore, architectural sociologists use sociological perspective to
enhance building design.
Architectural sociology is defined as the application of social theory and methods to the
architectural design process. It provides quantitative and qualitative research tools to
anticipate how designs impact people on a variety of levels. This thing is, sociologists need
not necessarily be architects, but architects have to necessarily be sociologists to
understand how people think and react to element in the built environment. The following
are reasons why architects must be sociologists:
The beliefs of the people affect the plan form. In indigenous Ghanaian Societies, the Circle is
said to be a sacred shape it symbolises God's perfection . Therefore, the people have their
architecture portraying rounded plan forms. E.g. the people any northern Ghana live in small
clusters of rounded huts. This is influenced by the in belief that that rounded shapes
presents God’s perfection
The geographical location of the people affects their architecture. This mainly affects the
materials used. In the temperate regions like the America’s and the United Kingdom, more
glass is in their buildings. This help to trap heat indoors. They have a kind of "glassy architecture. Types of families
Also, the kind walls used in their building is affected. They use insulated walls which trap heat
Large Joint Family: Generations living together; found in non-urban and non-industrialized
between the walls.
settings.
In the tropical world, where its relatively hot all year round less glass is used to prevent the
Nuclear Family: Two people (generally adults) living together with their unmarried children
build-up of heat in the buildings.
Extended family: When close relatives other than a married couple and children live in a close
In America, especially North America, due to the abundance of wood, the main building material
and continuous relationship with one another, we speak of an extended family.
is wood. Which is not so in the tropical world (Ghana).
Role of family
The kind of architecture done in the temperate regions cannot fit in the tropical world and vice
Regulating Sexual Behavior: No society permits random sexual behavior. All societies have an
versa. This is because the sociology of the people (skin Colour and type) is not the same .
incest taboo, which forbids intercourse among closely related individuals, although who is
Hence the difference in architecture .
considered to be closely related varies widely.
When people force foreign architecture into a place it becomes isolated and odd. An example of
Patterning Reproduction: Every society must replace its members. By regulating where and with
misplaced architecture is The Supreme court building in Accra, Ghana.
whom individuals may enter into sexual relationships, society also patterns sexual reproduction.
Religion is also another factor that Influences sociology. The kind of religious building people
Organizing Production and Consumption: In preindustrial societies, the economic system often
put up vary from religion to religion. Religion as a whole, gave rise to various architectural
depended on each family producing much of what it consumed. In almost all societies, the
forms. The ionic, Corinth, and Doric techniques came about due to religion. The Greeks used
family consumes food and other necessities as a social unit. Therefore, a society’s economic
these styles to decorate their temples.
system and family structures often are closely correlated.
Q3 lay down salient features of family as a social institution. Explain how is concept relevant to
Socializing Children: Not only must a society reproduce itself biologically by producing children,
architecture.
it also must ensure that its children are encouraged to accept the lifestyle it favors, to master the
Ans. An institution is any structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation governing the
skills it values, and to perform the work it requires.
behavior of a set of individuals within a given community.
Providing Care and Protection: Every human being needs food and shelter. In addition, we all
Different kinds of social institutions include the family, religion, education, legal system and so
need to be among people who care for us emotionally, who help us with the problems that arise
on.
in daily life, and who back us up when we come into conflict with others
A family is a group of persons directly linked by kin connections, the adult members of whom
Providing Social Status: Simply by being born into a family, each individual receives both
assume responsibility for caring for children.
material goods and a socially recognized position defined by ascribed statuses.
Kinship ties are connections between individuals established either through marriage or
Q4. Elaborate upon the social aspects of space and built environment. How does sociology help
through the lines of descent that connect blood relatives (mothers, fathers, siblings, offspring,
in understanding these aspects?
etc.).
Ans.
A household consists of single individuals or group of people who share a common housing
Q.5 Man is biologically endowed to build culture. Explain how does culture provide the adaptive
unit,
screen between man and environment?
common living rooms and the essentials for living, such as food.
Ans.
Q.6 What are cultural universals? Does the concept of cultural universal holds useful in
architecture?
Ans. People in all societies must confront and resolve certain common, basic problems. Cultural
universals are certain models or patterns that have developed in all cultures to resolve those
problems. Among them are the division of labour, the incest taboo,
marriage, family organization, rites of passage, & ideology though the forms are universal, the
content is unique to each culture. By dividing the responsibility for completing necessary tasks
among their members, societies create a division of labour. Every culture has established rites of
passage, or standardized rituals marking major life transitions. Ideologies or strongly held
beliefs & values, are the cement of social structure in that they help a group maintain its identity
as a social unit. Due to a lack of instinctual or biological programming, humans have a great deal
of flexibility and choice in their activities. Individual freedom of action is limited, however, by
the existing culture. Moreover, social pressures to act, think, and feel in socially approved ways
inevitably generates individual dissatisfaction. There is thus a tension between the individual
and society.
Regionalism in architecture is about the context and customs of making buildings in a particular
region. These buildings, mainly houses, rely on specific knowledge of the climate, geology,
geography and topography of the region. Regionalism is also a fascinating topic for those
interested in sustainable architecture.
Different societies used what they had available and invented ingenious ways to build their
accommodations. What they built had to keep them warm in the cold, cool in the heat, and dry
in the rain. This may not seem like a challenge, but the techniques employed did so passively,
meaning without electricity.
Regionalism in architecture often has a cultural aspect built in, and you can see political
structures, family dynamics and societal organization reflected in some buildings. For example,
in Malaysia, houses grow somewhat organically as the family members are added, whereas in
tribal parts of Africa new structures are built in the community as the family dynamic changes.
Q.7 Explain how discovery, invention and cultural diffusion acts as factors of social change. How
can these concepts be useful in understanding architecture?
Ans. Discovery is defined as "the process by which something is learned or reinterpreted".
Discovery influences change by causing people to learn new things which may change their
viewpoints, or change their routine to better themselves based off of the new information found
through discovery. For example, when early explorers began to explore the ocean, they
discovered that the Earth wasn't flat, but rather was round. This led to new maps being printed,
as well as new waterways and trade-routes developing due to new exploration under the idea
that there was no "end of the Earth" to fall off of.
Invention is "the creation of something new from previously existing items or processes".
Invention changes society by providing it with new items and ideas which continue to evolve
into easier, more efficient processes. For example, when the airplane was invented, it led to
faster transportation, and space exploration. Inventions serve as indicators as to how fast a
society will change due to the fact that the ore inventions existing, then the more inventions can
be developed from THOSE inventions, and so forth.
Diffusion is defined as “the process by which one culture or society borrows from another
culture or society”. Diffusion is widely influenced by the contact that one society has with
another; the more interaction societies have, the easier their cultures will begin to bleed
together. Of course, an element from one culture has to blend well with the life and activities of
another before it is adopted. Diffusion has occurred within America several times, such as when
the English settlers developed new planting and harvesting methods from the Native
Americans; the Native American’s culture provided the settlers with a means of survival, and
therefore the settlers easily adopted their culture.
Q. 8 define
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is making value judgments about another culture from perspectives of one's own
cultural system. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own
particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and
religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique
cultural identity. Closely related to the concept of cultural relativity is the concept of
ethnocentrism. The world ethno comes from Greek and refers to a people, nation, or cultural
grouping, while centric comes from Latin and refers, of course to the center. The term
ethnocentrism then refers to the tendency for each society to place its own culture patterns at
the center of things. Ethnocentrism is the practice of comparing other cultural practices with
those of one's own and automatically finding those other cultural practices to be inferior. It is
the habit of each group taking for granted the superiority of its culture. It makes our culture into
a yardstick with which to measure all other cultures as good or bad, high or low, right or queer
in proportion as they resemble ours. Ethnocentrism is a universal human reaction found in all
known societies, in all groups and in practically all individuals. Everyone learns ethnocentrism
while growing up. The possessiveness of the small child quickly translates "into my toys are
better than your toys" Parents; unless they are quite crude, outwardly discourage their children
from verbalizing such beliefs. But in private, they may reassure their off springs that their
possessions are indeed very nice. Much of the learning of ethnocentrism is indirect and
unintended, but some of it is deliberate. History for example, is often taught to glorify the
achievements of one's own nation, and religious, civic and other groups disparage their
competitors openly. Among adults, ethnocentrism is simply a fact of life. Once one becomes
conscious of ethnocentrism, the temptation is strong to evaluate it in moral terms; to label it
with epithets such as bigoted chauvinistic, and so on, and to imply that one who has not
discovered and compensated for his or her ethnocentric biases is not worthy. This incidentally, is
another form of ethnocentrism. The important point, however, is that ethnocentrism is one of
the features of culture and, like the rest of culture, it needs to be evaluated in terms of its
contribution to the maintenance of social order and the promotion of social change.
Cultural Relativism
This is a method whereby different societies or cultures are analyzed objectively without using
the values of one culture to judge the worth of another. We cannot possibly understand the
actions of other groups if we analyze them in terms of our motives and values. We must
interpret their behavior in the light of their motives, habits and values if we are to understand
them. Cultural relativism means that the function and meaning of a trait are relative to its
cultural setting. A trait is neither good nor bad in itself. It is good or bad only with reference to
the culture in which it is to function. Fur clothing is good in the Arctic but not in the tropics. In
some hunting societies which occasionally face long periods of hunger to be fat is good; it has
real survival value and fat people are admired. In our society to be fat is not only unnecessary
but is known to be unhealthful and fat people are not admired. The concept of cultural
relativism does not mean that all customs are equally valuable, nor does it imply that no
customs are harmful. Some patterns of behavior may be injurious everywhere, but even such
patterns serve some purpose in the culture and the society will suffer unless a substitute is
provided. The central point in cultural relativism is that in a particular cultural setting certain
trait are right because they work well in that setting while other traits are wrong because they
would clash painfully with parts of that culture.
Strafication
The study of social inequalities is central to sociology. Some of the important questions being
asked are: Why do economic inequalities exist in contemporary societies? What social factors
will influence your economic position in society? Are your life-chances any different if you are a
woman or belong to a lower caste or a non-white racial group?
Sociologists use the concept of social stratification to describe inequalities that exist between
individuals and groups within human societies. Often, we think of stratification in terms of
assets or property, but it can also occur because of other attributes, such as gender, age,
religious affiliation or military rank.
Individuals and groups enjoy differential (unequal) access to rewards based on their position
within the stratification scheme. It is useful to think of stratification as rather like the geological
layering of rock in the earth’s surface. Societies can be seen as consisting of ‘strata' in a
hierarchy, with the more favored at the top and the less privileged nearer the bottom.
Cultural (and ethnic) identity is a subset of the communication theory of identity that
establishes four "frames of identity" that allow us to view how we build identity. These frames
include the personal frame, enactment of communication frame, relationship frame, and
communal frame. The communal frame refers to the cultural constraints or the sense of "right"
that people live by (which varies by cultural group). Therefore, cultural (and ethnic) identity
become central to a person's identity, how they see themselves, and how they relate to the
world.
Cultural diversity is the quality of diverse or different cultures, as opposed to monoculture, the
global monoculture, or a homogenization of cultures, akin to cultural decay. The phrase cultural
diversity can also refer to having different cultures respect each other's differences. The phrase
"cultural diversity" is also sometimes used to mean the variety of human societies or cultures in
a specific region, or in the world as a whole. Globalization is often said to have a negative effect
on the world's cultural diversity.
Cultural identity is the identity of belonging to a group. It is part of a person's self-conception
and self-perception and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, generation,
locality or any kind of social group that has its own distinct culture. In this way, cultural identity
is both characteristic of the individual but also of the culturally identical group of members
sharing the same cultural identity or upbringing.
Macrosociology is a large-scale approach to sociology, emphasizing the analysis of social
systems and populations at the structural level, often at a necessarily high level of theoretical

abstraction.[1] Though macrosociology does concern itself with individuals, families, and other 2. Gender and the body Complex shared knowledge
constituent aspects of a society, it does so in relation to larger social system of which such
3. Embodiment and Identities Small Talk
elements are a part. The approach is also able to analyze generalized collectivities (e.g. "the
A major aspect of Non-verbal communication is through facial expression Fundamental to the very fabric of social life.
city", "the church").[2]

of emotion. Ethnomethodology is an important approach to the study of everyday life and social interaction.
Microsociology is one of the main levels of analysis (or focuses) of sociology, concerning the
nature of everyday human social interactions and agency on a small scale: face to face.[1]:5 Paul Ekman – Facial Action Coding System
Microsociology is based on interpretative analysis rather than statistical or empirical
Darwin - Basic modes of emotional expression are same among all humans
observation,[2]:18–21 and shares close association with the philosophy of phenomenology.
Methods include symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology; ethnomethodology in Ekman’s Research: Isolated community in New Guinea and studied 6

particular has led to many academic sub-divisions and studies such as micro-linguistical emotions: Happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear and surprise.
research and other related aspects of human social behaviour. Macrosociology, by contrast,
The above was all innate in human beings.
concerns the social structure and broader systems.
Though innate aspects but individual and cultural factors result in variation. E.g. A ‘Nod’ (In
Social interactions
some societies it means NO as compared to usual yes)
It is something that human beings accord to each other more or less unconsciously, many times
Convey meanings when nothing is said. E.g. Blushing
in a day.
Expressions usually evaporate after 4-5 seconds. If the duration increases it may mean deceit.
Eg: When a passer-by quickly look at each other and then look away again.
Facial expression, gestures and body postures may be used to joke, irony and skepticism.
Metro/ Bus/ Gym
Verbal / Non-verbal communication perceived differently by Men and women
Its not merely ignoring another person, but recognition of one other presence. However,
avoiding any gesture that may be taken as too Understanding of gender and gender roles greatly influenced by social factors and broadly
related to issues of power and status in society
intrusive.
Certain activities are not biologically determined, rather product of discourses and practices,
It does not apply with lover, family member and or close friends. It is an important characteristic
such as - ‘throwing like a girl’ or ‘eye contact’ or sit like a lady’ – individually these seem
of cities and important for its function.
inconsequential’ but help reinforce patterns of gender inequality at macro-level
1. Daily life involves constant Face to Face interaction
Ethnomethodology - Coined by Harold Garfinkel
2. Reveal how humans can act creatively to shape reality – Social Behavior
Study of one’s ethno-methods, i.e. folk or lay methods used by people to make sense of what
3. Sheds light on larger social systems and institutions others do or say.

4. Can learn a great deal about ourselves as social beings and about social life aspects. Only possible with knowledge of social context – not present in words.

Social Interaction involves numerous forms of non-verbal communication. E.g. Conversations.

Communication mainly through facial expressions and bodily gestures. Shared understandings/ Background expectancies

1. Human Face, Gestures and Emotions