Water and Body fluids
pressure is too low.
Water
Adult: 60% of weight
Function in Body fluids
❚Carries nutrients and waste products throughout the body.
❚Maintains the structure of large molecules such as proteins and
glycogen.
❚Participates in metabolic reactions.
❚Serves as the solvent for minerals, vitamins, amino acids, glucose,
and many other small molecules so that they can participate in
metabolic activities.
❚Maintains blood volume.
❚Aids in the regulation of normal body temperature, as the evaporation
of sweat from the skin removes excess heat from the body.
❚Acts as a lubricant and cushion around joints and inside the eyes,
spinal cord, and amniotic sac surrounding a fetus in the womb.
**To support these and other vital functions, the body actively
regulates its water balance.
WATER BALANCE - the balance between water intake and water
excretion that keeps the body’s water content constant.
-dehydration
-water intoxication
Excessive water ingestion (several gallons) within a few
hours dilutes the sodium concentration of the blood and
contributes to a dangerous condition known as
hyponatremia
water intoxication: the rare condition in which body water
contents are too high. The symptoms may include confusion,
convulsion, coma, and even death in extreme cases.
water intake regulation
The body can survive for only a few days without water. In healthy
people, thirst and satiety govern water intake
>hypothalamus: initiates drinking behavior
Water excretion regulation
-regulated by the brain and the kidneys.
-The cells of the brain’s hypothalamus, which monitor blood salts,
stimulate the pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
whenever the salts are too concentrated, or the blood volume or blood
Pituitary gland: the “king gland” that regulates the operation
of many other glands
-If too much water is lost from the body, blood volume and blood
pressure fall. Cells in the kidneys respond to the low blood pressure by
releasing renin
Renin: an enzyme released by the kidneys in response to
low blood pressure that helps them retain water through the
reninangiotensin mechanism.
-aldosterone, this enzyme also causes the kidneys to retain more
water.
aldosterone: a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands that
stimulates the reabsorption of sodium by the kidneys; also
regulates chloride and potassium concentrations.
**EFFECT: when more water is needed, less is excreted.
Minimum water needed
the body must excrete a minimum of about 500 milliliters (about ½
quart) each day as urine—enough to carry away the waste products
generated by a day’s metabolic activities.
*Average water loss per day: 2 ½ liters (about 2½ quarts)
Water recommendation and sources
For the person who expends about 2000 kcalories a day, this works
out to 2 to 3 liters, or about 8 to 12 cups.
This recommendation is in line with the Adequate Intake (AI) for total
water (3.7 liters for men and 2.7 liters for women)
FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
-When mineral salts dissolve in water, they separate (dissociate) into
charged particles known as ions, which can conduct electricity.
For this reason, a salt that dissociates in water is known as an
electrolyte.
-The body fluids, which contain water and partly dissociated salts, are
electrolyte solutions.
-The body’s electrolytes are vital to the life of the cells and therefore
must be closely regulated to help maintain the appropriate distribution
of body fluids
-The major minerals form salts that dissolve in the body fluids; the cells
direct where these salts go; and the movement of the salts determines
where the fluids flow because water follows salt.
Cells use this force, called osmosis, to move fluids back and forth
across their membranes.
ACID-BASE BALANCE
Like proteins, electrolyte mixtures in the body fluids protect the body
against changes in acidity by acting as buffers—substances that can
accommodate excess acids or bases.
 correlate with high rates of hypertension, heart disease, and stroke

hypertension: high blood pressure.

I n Summary prehypertension: blood pressure values that predict

hypertension.
❚Water makes up about 60 percent of
thereby often reduce their blood pressure, is DASH (Dietary
the body’s weight.
Approaches to Stop Hypertension). The DASH approach
emphasizes potassium-rich fruits and vegetables and fat-free or low-fat
❚Water helps transport nutrients and milk products.
waste products throughout the body,
participates in metabolic reactions,
acts as a solvent, assists in
maintaining blood volume and body CHLORIDE
temperature, acts as a lubricant and
-major negative ion of the extracellular fluids, where it occurs primarily
cushion around joints, and serves as a
in association with sodium
shock absorber.
-maintaining fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balances in the body.
❚To maintain water balance, intake
from liquids, foods, and metabolism - in stomach- the chloride ion is part of hydrochloric acid, which
must equal losses from the kidneys, maintains the strong acidity of the gastric fluids.
skin, lungs, and feces.
Salt is a major food source of chloride, and, as with sodium, processed
foods are a major contributor of this mineral to people’s diets.
❚ Electrolytes help maintain the
appropriate distribution of body fluids
and acid–base balance.
POTASSIUM

-Inside the cells, potassium takes the role of the principal positively
charged ion.

-maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance and cell integrity.

major minerals: essential mineral
nutrients required in the adult diet in
amounts greater than 100 milligrams
per day.
trace minerals: essential mineral
nutrients required in the adult diet in
amounts less than 100 milligrams per
day
-The sudden deaths that occur with fasting, eating disorders, severe
diarrhea, or severe malnutrition in children may be due to heart failure
caused by potassium loss.
Potassium Deficiency and Toxicity
-characterized by an increase in blood pressure, kidney stones, and
bone turnover.
-symptoms include irregular heartbeats, muscle weakness, and
glucose intolerance

-abnormal conditions such as diabetic acidosis, dehydration, or

prolonged vomiting or diarrhea;
MAJOR MINERALS
-potassium deficiency can also result from the regular use of certain
SODIUM medications, including diuretics, steroids, and cathartics.
-principal electrolyte in the extracellular fluid (the fluid outside the -Toxicity can result from overconsumption of potassium salts or
cells) and the primary regulator of the extracellular fluid volume// the supplements and from certain diseases or medication
principle positively charged ion

-helps maintain acid–base balance and is essential to muscle

contraction and nerve transmission Potassium Recommendations and Food Sources

*TOO MUCH- HIGH BP (hypertension) -abundant inside all living cells, both plant and animal, and because
cells remain intact until foods are processed, the richest sources of
Sodium Recommendations and Food Sources potassium are fresh foods of all kinds—especially fruits and
vegetables
-are set low enough to protect against
high blood pressure but high enough to Potassium and Hypertension
allow an adequate intake of other
nutrients. -Low potassium intakes, especially when combined with high
sodium intakes, raise blood pressure and increase the risk of death
Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for from heart disease and stroke
adults is set at 2300 milligrams per
day—equivalent to about 1 teaspoon of
salt (sodium chloride).
CALCIUM
Sodium and Blood Pressure
Calcium Roles in the Body
-is the most abundant mineral in the body.
-99% percent of the body’s calcium is stored in the bones (and teeth)
2 Important Roles
- an integral part of bone structure.
- serves as a calcium bank available to the body fluids should a drop in
blood calcium occur.
Calcium in Bone
-As bones begin to form, calcium salts form crystals on a matrix of the
protein collagen.
Calcium in Body Fluids
The 1% of the body’s calcium that circulates in the fluids as ionized
calcium is vital to life.
It plays these major roles:
❚Regulates the transport of ions across cell membranes and is
particularly important in nerve transmission.
❚Helps maintain normal blood pressure.
❚Plays an essential role in the clotting of blood.
❚Is essential for muscle contraction and therefore for the heartbeat.
❚Allows secretion of hormones, digestive enzymes, and
neurotransmitters.
❚Activates cellular enzymes that regulate many processes.
**blood calcium is tightly controlled.
Calcium Balance
-Whenever blood calcium rises too high, a system of hormones,
including vitamin D, promotes its deposit into bone.
*The regulators are hormones from the thyroid and
parathyroid glands, as well as vitamin D. One hormone,
parathormone, raises blood calcium. Another hormone,
calcitonin, lowers blood calcium by inhibiting release of
calcium from bone.
Birth-approx. 20 yrs- active growth phase
12-30 yrs- peak bone mass devt
30-40 yrs.- final phase/ bone resorption
Whenever blood calcium falls too low, the regulatory system acts in
three locations to raise it:
(1) the small intestine absorbs more calcium;
(2) the bones release more calcium into the blood; and
(3) the kidneys excrete less calcium
*Blood calcium changes only in response to abnormal regulatory
control.
Thus, a chronic deficiency of calcium due to a low dietary intake or
poor absorption does not change blood calcium, but does deplete the
calcium in the bones.
it is the bones, not the blood, that are robbed by calcium
deficiency
Calcium and Osteoporosis
When bone loss has reached such an extreme that bones fracture
under even common, everyday stresses, the condition is known as
osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is more prevalent in women than men for several
reasons.
First, women consume less dietary calcium than men do.
Second, at all ages, women’s bone mass is lower than men’s because
women generally have smaller bodies.
Finally, women often lose more bone, particularly in the 6 to 8 years
following menopause when the hormone estrogen diminishes.
Calcium and Disease Prevention
Calcium may protect against hypertension.
The blood pressure-lowering DASH diet is not particularly low in
sodium, but it is rich in calcium, as well as in potassium and
magnesium.
Calcium-rich foods may play a role in reducing body fat, protecting lean
tissue, and maintaining a healthy body weight.
Calcium Recommendations
The more calcium retained, the greater the bone density (within
genetic limits) and, potentially, the lower the risk of osteoporosis.
Calcium recommendations during adolescence are set high (1300
milligrams) to help ensure that the skeleton will be strong and dense
Calcium in Foods
most abundantly in a single food group— milk and milk products.
A cup of milk offers about 300 milligrams of calcium,
Among the vegetables, beet greens, bok choy (a Chinese cabbage),
broccoli, kale, mustard greens, rutabaga, and turnip greens provide
some available calcium.
So do collard greens, green cabbage, kohlrabi, parsley, and
watercress.
Some dark green, leafy vegetables—notably, spinach and Swiss
chard—appear to be calcium rich but actually provide very little, if any,
calcium to the body.
These foods contain binders that prevent calcium absorption
binders: chemical compounds in foods that combine with
nutrients (especially minerals) to form complexes the body
cannot absorb. Examples include phytates and oxalates.
PHOSPHORUS
- second most abundant mineral in the body.
- About 85 percent of it is found combined with calcium in the crystals
of the bones and teeth.
-as part of the body’s buffer systems (phosphoric acid), phosphorus is
also found in all body tissues.
Animal protein is the best source of phosphorus because the mineral is
so abundant in the cells of animals.
Milk and cheese are also rich sources.
MAGNESIUM
Magnesium barely qualifies as a major mineral. Only about 1 ounce of
magnesium is present in the body of a 130-pound person, more than
half of it in the bones
Magnesium is critical to the operation of hundreds of enzymes and
other cellular functions. It acts in all the cells of the soft tissues, where
it forms part of the protein-making machinery and is necessary for the
release of energy
Magnesium Deficiency
inadequate intake, vomiting, diarrhea, alcohol abuse, or malnutrition;
fed nutritionally incomplete fluids intravenously for too long after
surgery; or in people using diuretics.
symptoms include a low blood calcium level, muscle cramps, and
seizure
Low intakes of magnesium may have adverse effects on bone
metabolism and increase the risk for osteoporosis as well
Magnesium Toxicity
Magnesium toxicity is rare, but it can be fatal.
Toxicity occurs only with high intakes from nonfood sources such as
supplements or magnesium salts.
Magnesium Intakes and Food Sources
In some areas of the country, the water naturally contains both
calcium and magnesium. This so-called “hard” water can contribute
significantly to magnesium intakes.
Magnesium-rich food sources include dark green, leafy vegetables;
nuts; legumes; whole-grain breads and cereals; seafood; chocolate;
and cocoa
SULFATE
Sulfate is the oxidized form of sulfur as it exists in foods and water
Sulfur-containing amino acids play an important role in helping to
shape strands of protein.*
*The sulfur-containing amino acids are methionine and
cysteine. Cysteine in one part of a protein chain can bind to
cysteine in another part of the chain by way of a sulfur-sulfur
bridge, thus helping to stabilize the protein structure.
no recommended intake for sulfur, and no deficiencies are known.
Only a person who lacks protein to the point of severe deficiency will
lack the sulfur-containing amino acids.
I n Summary
❚All of the major minerals influence the body’s fluid balance, but
sodium, chloride, and potassium are most noted for this role.
❚Excess sodium in the diet contributes to high blood pressure.
❚Most of the body’s calcium is in the bones, where it provides a rigid
structure and a reservoir of calcium for the blood.
❚Magnesium is critical to the operation of hundreds of enzymes and
other cellular functions.
TRACE MINERALS
Iron
-plant and animal
-Most of the iron in the body is a component of the proteins
hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells.
-both helps them carry and hold oxygen and then release it.
Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues
throughout the body.
Myoglobin holds oxygen for the muscles to use when they contract
- iron is vital to the processes by which cells generate energy. Iron is
also needed to make new cells, amino acids, hormones, and
neurotransmitters.
-another protein transfers the iron to transferrin, an iron carrier in the
blood. Transferrin carries the iron to tissues throughout the body.
The hormone hepcidin, produced by the liver, is central to the
regulation of iron balance
Iron Deficiency
-most common
-iron deficiency anemia-d/t inadequate intake
Assessment of Iron Def.
lab test
3 stages:
-first stage of iron deficiency both iron stores and ferritin levels
diminish. Measures of serum ferritin (in the blood) reflect iron stores
and are most valuable in assessing iron status at this earliest stage.
-The second stage of iron deficiency is characterized by a decrease in
transport iron: levels of serum iron fall, and levels of the iron-carrying
protein transferrin increase (an adaptation that enhances iron
absorption).
-The third stage of iron deficiency occurs when the lack of iron limits
hemoglobin production. Now the hemoglobin precursor, erythrocyte
protoporphyrin, begins to accumulate as hemoglobin and hematocrit
values decline.
Iron Deficiency and Anemia
Iron deficiency and iron-deficiency anemia are not the same: people
may be iron deficient without being anemic
Iron Deficiency and Pica
pica—the craving for and consumption of ice, chalk, starch, and other
nonfood substances
Caution on Self-Diagnosis
Low hemoglobin may reflect an inadequate iron intake, and, if it does,
the physician may prescribe iron supplements
Iron Overload
Once considered rare, iron overload has emerged as an important
disorder of iron metabolism and regulation.
Iron overload, known as hemochromatosis, is usually caused by a
genetic failure to prevent unneeded iron in the diet from being
absorbed.
Iron Poisoning

The rapid ingestion of massive amounts of iron can cause sudden Zinc Recommendations and Food Sources
death
foods high in protein, such as shellfish (especially oysters), meats,
Iron Recommendations poultry, and milk products

6 to 7 milligrams of iron for every 1000 kcalories. Legumes and whole-grain products are good sources of zinc if eaten in
large quantities.
Men need 8 milligrams of iron each day; most men easily take in more
than 2000 kcalories breastmilk

efficiently absorbed from human milk than from cow’s milk

Iron in Foods SELENIUM

2 forms in food: heme and nonheme antioxidant nutrient, working primarily as a part of proteins—most
notably, the enzyme glutathione peroxidase
Heme iron,
Glutathione peroxidase prevents free-radical formation, thus blocking
-up to 10 times more absorbable the damaging chain reaction before it begins; if free radicals do form,
-is bound into the iron carrying proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin in and a chain reaction starts, vitamin E halts it.
meat, poultry, and fish.
-contributes a small portion of the iron consumed by most people, but it Selenium-containing enzymes are necessary for the proper functioning
is absorbed at a fairly constant rate of about 23 percent. of the iodine containing thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism

Nonheme iron Selenium and Cancer

-is found in both meats and plant foods. prostate cancer

-absorb at a lower rate (2 to 20 percent)
-its absorption depends on several dietary factors and iron stores. Adequate blood selenium seems protective against cancers of the
- from vegetables, grains, eggs, meat, fish, and poultry. prostate, colon, and other sites

**two substances that enhance iron absorption: MFP factor and Selenium Deficiency
vitamin C
Keshan disease—a heart disease observed in children and young
**Some substances impair iron absorption; they include the tannins of women living in regions of China where the soil and foods lack
tea and coffee, the calcium in milk, and the phytates that accompany selenium.
fiber in legumes and whole-grain cereals.
Selenium Toxicity

causes vomiting, diarrhea, loss of hair and nails, and lesions of the
ZINC skin and nervous system.

Zinc is a versatile trace mineral necessary for the activation of more Selenium Recommendations and Intakes
than 50 different enzymes
Selenium is widely distributed in foods such as meats and shellfish
Zinc works with the enzymes that make genetic material;manufacture and in vegetables and grains grown on selenium-rich soil
heme; digest food; metabolize carbohydrate, protein, and fat; liberate
vitamin A from storage in the liver; and dispose of damaging free
radicals.
IODINE
Zinc also interacts with platelets in blood clotting, affects thyroid Traces of the iodine ion (called iodide) are indispensable to life.
hormone function, assists in immune function, and affects behavior
and learning performance. In the GI tract, iodine from foods becomes iodide.
Zinc is needed to produce the active form of vitamin A in visual iodine=nutrient in foods,
pigments and is essential to wound healing, taste perception, the
making of sperm, and fetal development. iodide= it in the body.

Zinc’s main transport vehicle in the blood is the protein albumin. Iodide is an integral part of the thyroid hormones, which regulate body
temperature, metabolic rate, reproduction, growth, the making of blood
Zinc Deficiency cells, nerve and muscle function, and more.
dwarfism, or severe growth retardation, and arrested sexual
maturation—symptoms that were responsive to zinc supplementation Iodine Deficiency and Toxicity
Zinc Toxicity . If the gland enlarges until it is visible, the swelling is called a goiter
A high zinc intake is known to produce copper-deficiency anemia by they overconsume foods of the cabbage family and others that contain
inducing the intestinal cells to synthesize large amounts of a protein an antithyroid substance (goitrogen) whose effect is not counteracted
(metallothionein) by dietary iodine.

Iodine deficiency is the most common cause of preventable mental

retardation and brain damage in the world
The UL for zinc for adults is 40 milligrams per day.
extreme and irreversible mental and physical retardation known as
cretinism. (IQ-20)
a UL of 1100 micrograms per day for adults
Iodine Sources and Intakes
ocean is the world’s major source of iodine.
coastal areas, seafood, water, and even iodine-containing sea mist
are important iodine sources
COPPER
body contains about 100 milligrams of copper
About one-fourth is in the muscles; one-fourth is in the liver, brain, and
blood; and the rest is in the bones, kidneys, and other tissues.
*primary function of copper in the body is to serve as a constituent of
enzymes
METABOLIC ROLES: they catalyze the formation of hemoglobin, help
manufacture the protein collagen, inactivate histamine, degrade
serotonin, assist in the healing of wounds, and help maintain the
sheaths around nerve fibers. One of copper’s most vital roles is to help
cells use iron.
The copper-dependent enzyme superoxide dismutase helps to control
damage from free-radical activity in the tissues.
Copper Deficiency
Copper deficiency is rare but not unknown. It has been seen in
premature infants and malnourished infants. High intakes of zinc
interfere with copper absorption and can lead to deficiency.
Copper Toxicity
Some genetic disorders create a copper toxicity. Copper toxicity from
foods, however, is unlikely.
The UL for copper is set at 10,000 micrograms per day.
Copper Recommendations and Food Sources
The RDA for copper is 900 micrograms per day
The best food sources of copper are organ meats, legumes, whole
grains, seafood, nuts, and seeds.
MANGANESE
contains a tiny 20 milligrams of manganese
mostly in the bones and metabolically active organs such as the liver,
kidneys, and pancreas.
Manganese is a cofactor for many enzymes, helping to facilitate
dozens of different metabolic processes.
toxicity may be severe
symptoms of brain disease
The UL for manganese is 11 milligrams per day
Manganese requirements are low, and plant foods such as nuts, whole
grains, and leafy green vegetables contain significant amounts of this
trace mineral
FLUORIDE
prevention of dental caries
When bones and teeth become mineralized, first a crystal called
hydroxyapatite forms from calcium and phosphorus. Then fluoride
replaces the hydroxy portion of hydroxyapatite, forming fluorapatite.
Fluoride Deficiency
Fluoride Sources
All normal diets include some fluoride, but drinking water; processed
soft drinks and fruit juice made with fluoridated water; and fluoride
toothpastes, gels, and oral rinses
natural fluoride concentration in water is high, and too much fluoride
can damage teeth, causing fluorosis.
a UL (10 mg per day for adults)
CHROMIUM
essential mineral that participates in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism
enhances the activity of the hormone insulin.* When chromium is
lacking, a diabetes-like condition with elevated blood glucose and
impaired glucose tolerance, insulin response, and glucagon response
may develop
Chromium deficiency is unlikely, given the small amount of chromium
required and its presence in a variety of foods. The more refined foods
people eat, however, the less chromium they obtain from their diets.
Unrefined foods such as liver, brewer’s yeast, whole grains, nuts, and
cheeses are the best sources.
OTHER TRACE MINERALS
Molybdenum
functions as a working part of several metal-containing enzymes,
some of which are giant proteins. Deficiencies or toxicities of
molybdenum are unknown.
Nickel
is recognized as important for the health of many body tissues. Nickel
deficiencies harm the liver and other organs.
Silicon
is involved in the formation of bones and collagen. Cobalt is found in
the large vitamin B12 molecule.
Boron
influences the activity of many enzymes and may play a key role in
bone health, brain activities, and immune response.
arsenic
—famous as the deadly poison in many murder mysteries and known
to be a carcinogen—may turn out to be an essential nutrient in tiny
quantities.
n Summary
❚The body requires trace minerals in tiny amounts, and they function in
similar ways—assisting enzymes all over the body.
❚Eating a diet that consists of a variety of foods is the best way to 6. The two best ways to prevent age-related bone loss and fracture are
to:
ensure an adequate intake of these important nutrients.
a. take calcium supplements and estrogen.
❚Many dietary factors, including the trace minerals themselves, affect
b. participate in aerobic activity and drink eight glasses of milk daily.
the absorption and availability of these nutrients.
c. eat a diet low in fat and salt and refrain from smoking.

d. maintain a lifelong adequate calcium intake and engage in weight-

bearing physical activity

7. Three good food sources of calcium are:

a. milk, sardines, and broccoli.

b. spinach, yogurt, and sardines.

1. Which of the following body structures helps to regulate thirst? c. cottage cheese, spinach, and tofu.

a. Brainstem c. Optic nerve b. Cerebellum d. Hypothalamus d. Swiss chard, mustard greens, and broccoli.

8. Foods high in iron that help prevent or treat anemia include:

2. Which of the following is not a function of water in the body? a. green peas and cheese.

a. Lubricant b. dairy foods and fresh fruits.

b. Source of energy c. homemade breads and most fresh vegetables.

c. Maintains protein structure d. meat and dark green, leafy vegetables.

d. Participant in chemical reactions

9. Two groups of people who are especially at risk for zinc deficiency
are:
3. Two situations in which a person may experience fluid and
electrolyte imbalances are: a. Asians and children.

a. vomiting and burns. b. infants and teenagers.

b. diarrhea and cuts. c. smokers and athletes.

c. broken bones and fever. d. pregnant adolescents and vegetarians.

d. heavy sweating and excessive carbohydrate intake.

10. A deficiency of ___ is one of the world’s most common preventable

causes of mental retardation.
4. Three-fourths of the sodium in people’s diets comes from:
a. zinc
a. fresh meats.
b. iodine
b. home-cooked foods.
c. selenium
c. frozen vegetables and meats.
d. magnesium
d. salt added to food by manufacturers.

5. Which mineral is critical to keeping the heartbeat steady and plays a

major role in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance?

a. Sodium

c. Potassium

b. Calcium

d. Magnesium